Crack Grade B 1

Communication

Communication: The word ‘communication’ is derived from Latin word ‘communis’,

which means common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and a means
that individuals or organizations share the meaning and understanding with one another.

Definitions:

Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession.

It modifies the disposition of both parties who partakes it- John Dewey.

Communication is sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality- Edgar Dale.

Communication is a means of persuasion to influence other so that desired effect is

achieved- Aristotle

Communication Process: Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non-

verbal messages. It is a continuous process. It is a process of exchanging Information,
Ideas, Thoughts, Feelings, Emotions, through Speech Signals, Writing, and Behavior.

Figure: Communication

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The main components of communication process are as follows:

Context - Communication is affected by the context or situation in which it takes place.

This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication
proceeds with context.

Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender
makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce
the required response.

Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It must be
ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.

Encoding (Communication symbol) – The process of conversion of subject matter into

symbols is called encoding. The message or subject matter of any communication is always
abstract and intangible. Transmission of message requires use of certain symbols.

Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message For instance -
Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people,
while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient
as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is

intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message
is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness
to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.

Decoding- It is the process of translation of an encoded message into ordinary

understandable language. Receiver converts the symbols, words or signs received from the
sender to get the meaning of the message.

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Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the
sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-
verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos,
reports, etc.

Types of communication based on the communication channels:

Types of People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the
message and its context in which it is being sent. Types of communication based on the
communication channels used are:
1. Verbal Communication
2. Nonverbal Communication
3. Symbolic Communication
4. Meta Communication

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication is an exchange of information using words including both the

spoken and the written word.

Verbal Communication is divided into: Oral Communication and Written Communication

Oral Communication: In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-
to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over
internet. Communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages – It brings quick feedback. In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial
expression and body language one can guess whether he/she should trust what’s being
said or not.
Disadvantages – In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what
he is delivering, so this can be counted as a fault.

Written Communication: In written communication, written signs or symbols are used

to communicate. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter,
report, memo etc. Written Communication is most common form of communication being
used in business.
Advantages – Messages can be edited and revised Written communication provide record
and backup. A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send
appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages – Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback. It takes more
time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth and number of people
struggles for writing ability.

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NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:

Information is exchanged through non-verbal communication in various ways. It is

sometimes referred as body language. Duribleby and Brutan (1992) suggest that body
language has several elements like gesture, facial expression, posture, gait, body space
and proximity, touch, personal appearance, eye contact, sounds, silence etc

Non-verbal communication: Through signs & symbols.

Types of Non-verbal communication:

 Kinesics (Body Language)
 Oculesics (Ocalics)
 Haptics (Touch Language)
 Proxemics (Space Language)
 Objectics (Artifactics)
 Environmental Factors
 Chronemics (Time Language)
 Paralanguage\Vocalic
 Olfactics
 Gustorics

KINESICS (BODY LANGUAGE): Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion

communication such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to
movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole.
 Facial Expression
 Head
 Eye Gaze
 Gestures
 Postures
 Shape Of Body
 Personal Appearance Adornment

Oculesics (ocalics) – use of eyes: Oculesics, a subcategory of kinesics, is the study of eye
movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication.

Haptics (Touch Language): Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal

communication that refers to the ways in which people and animals communicate, and
interact via the sense of touch.

Proxemics (Space language): Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the
effects that population density has on behaviour, communication, and social interaction.
 To communicate while keeping a distance is called proxemics.
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 The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging
to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational
factors, personality characteristics and level of familiarity.

Objectics (artifactics) – use of objects/artifacts: Communication through the use of

artifacts i.e., appearance, style. It communicates marital status, economic status, social
status/membership, personality etc

Environment: Environment refers to how the objects we adorn ourselves and our
surroundings with, referred to as artifacts, provide nonverbal cues that others make
meaning from and how our physical environment—for example, the layout of a room and
seating positions and arrangements—influences communication.

Chronemics (Time Language): Chronemics is the study of the role of time in

communication. It is one of several subcategories of the study of nonverbal
communication.
 A call at 2 a.m. indicates some kind of emergency.
 You reached in a party on time shows you are punctual.

Paralanguage\Vocalic: Attributes of speaking which include the pitch, the tone, the
volume, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality and even the accent of the
speaker collectively known as paralanguage, we can understand mood and the situation
by paralanguage expressions.

Olfactics – use of smell. A smell can trigger the oldest of memories We can remember
what we smell longer than what we see & hear. Can even be used as a warning system

Gustorics – use of taste. Can communicate pleasure, displeasure or warning. We can

savor flavors we enjoy. What one person perceives as mildly spicy may be hot and
displeasureable to another.

Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the study of meaning-making, the study
of sign process (semiosis) and meaningful communication. For instance, when we see the
different colours of a traffic light, we automatically know how to react to them. We know
this without even thinking about it. But this is a sign which has been established by
cultural convention over a long period of time and which we learn as children, and requires
a deal of unconscious cultural knowledge to understand its meaning.

Symbolic Communication:

It involves the verbal and nonverbal symbolism to convey meaning. An example of

symbolic communication in humans is the wearing of uniforms. A man in a white coat
with a stethoscope will often be perceived as a doctor on the basis of his appearance alone.
Military uniforms have badges and insignias which indicate rank and honors as well as
their branch of operation. Art and music are also forms of symbolic communication.

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Meta Communication:

Meta communication is all the nonverbal cues (tone of voice, body language, gestures,
facial expression, etc.) that carry meaning that either enhance or disallow what we say in
words. It is ‘communication about communication’ so that the deeper ‘message within a
message’ can be uncovered and understood. When a patient tells the nurse that he is cool
to undergo surgery with his body rigid and sharp voice, a nurse can interpret that he is
anxious as evidenced by the body language.

Media of communication:

It would be possible to classify the communication media into three main groups:
Audial, Visual and Audio-Visual.
Audial communication media is adopted through conferences, the interviews, the
inspection trips, public meetings, broadcasts, telephone calls, etc.
Visual communication media includes written communication viz., circulars, manuals,
reports, bulletins and hand books and pictorial forms namely pictures, photographs,
posters, cartoons, slides, flags, insignia, etc.
Audio-visual media comprises sound motion pictures, television and personal
demonstrations.
Each of these media has its advantages and disadvantages bun it is up to the management
to decide what media will be used for which purpose.

Communication Channels:

The channel, or medium, used to communicate a message affects how accurately the
message will be received. Channels vary in their “information-richness.” Information-rich
channels convey more nonverbal information. Research shows that effective managers
tend to use more information-rich communication channels than less effective managers.
The figure below illustrates the information richness of different channels.

Information
Information Channel Richness

Face-to-face
High
conversation

Videoconferencing High

Telephone conversation High

E-mails Medium

Handheld devices Medium

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Blogs Medium

Written letters and

Medium
memos

Formal written
Low
documents

Spreadsheets Low

Seven Cs in Communication

Effective communication can happen if we follow the basic principles of professional

communication skills. These can be abbreviated as 7 Cs, i.e., Clear, Concise, Concrete,
Correct, Coherent, Complete and Courteous.

Types of Communication based on the direction of communication flow: There are

following types of communication based on the direction of communication flow:

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. External

Downward Communication: Downward communication refers to the instructions and

other official messages originating with the top personnel of an organisation. These
are transmitted from top to down through hierarchical set up and reach the lowest ranking
official in the chain.

The top level for downward communication makes use of devices, such as, directives,
written or verbal orders or instructions, manuals, staff conferences, budget sanctions,
other authorisations to inform the lower rungs about its attitude and ideas as well as to
direct, guide and advise. '

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In large organisations, downward communication is difficult enough to begin with,
because orders must descend through numerous intermediate levels before the point of
execution is reached. Misunderstandings can easily occur when instructions pass through
so many people.

If little upward communication exists, the difficulties are multiplied, because the orders
themselves are apt to be unrealistic and are likely to meet with worker's resistance.

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all
examples of downward communication.

Upward communication: In upward communication, messages are passed by the lower

levels in the hierarchy up to those heading the organisation. This includes whatever
information is passed up through methods, such as written and verbal reports pertaining
to performance and progress, statistical and accounting reports related to work, written
and verbal requests for seeking guidance suggestion and discussions.

The upward reporting system is often of very limited use or value in finding fault. in the
agency's operation because sometimes the head of the agency may appear to be
unbelievably blind as to what is really going on in his agency; yet based on the reports he
gets everything is fine: these reports simply do not present him with all the facts.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc
all help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication
are -performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level
management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager
discussions etc.

Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels

of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication
between peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent
organizational member. We may call it across communication. The methods viz., written
or verbal information and reports, formal and informal as well as personal contacts, staff
meetings and coordination committees, are used in this type of communication. The
advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:

• It is time saving.
• It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
• It facilitates co-operation among team members.
• It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
• It helps in solving various organizational problems.
• It is a means of information sharing
• It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other
department or conflicts within a department.

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Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and
employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not
appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training
manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform
their task.

External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and

external groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance
- To raise capital the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

Internal Communication: When people within the organisation communicate with one
another, it is said to be an internal communication. Employees of an organization do so
to work as a team and realise their common goals. Internal communication could be
official or unofficial. It could be individual to individual, individual to group, group to
individuals, department to department.

Networks of Communication:

Communication Networks are the modes for transmission of messages. Networks can be
dyadic, group, or organizational level networks. Also, employees can be members of
multiple networks simultaneously. Networks can be of following types:

1. Formal Networks, and

2. Informal Networks

Formal Network of Communication:

Formal network is a network that is established systematically to transmit the

messages along pre-defined paths of authority and responsibility in an organization.
It follows organizational hierarchy as specified in the organizational structure and depicted
through the organizational charts. It takes place within the official channels approved by
senior management for example, Chief Finance Officer (C.F.O) communicating with
Finance manager who in turn may talk to the Accounts officer.

Figure: Formal Communication method

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Formal networks are split into two parts Centralized Networks and Decentralized
Networks:

Centralized Networks –This network is so-called as in this network information passes

through a central position. The merit of this network is its simplicity. However, there
may sometimes be a problem of the central position being overloaded with messages to
be passed on.

Centralized Networks can be put into three categories:

 Chain Network – Serial transmission (in a line). The chain here refers to an
arrangement of persons starting from the central authority in a tree like
structure. The person at the top of the chain, being empowered with central
authority, passes the message to the other person who is linked to him directly, who
passes it further in the same manner.
Such an approach to communication is a formal approach suited for formal
communication and is generally found in any hierarchical organization like Civil
services. At the top of the hierarchy, the initiator of the message has full control
over its transmission and is able to oversee its flow downward through the levels of
management. Such a serial or hierarchical flow of information may however make
people at the lower levels feel a bit isolated and distant from the top management
and may become indifferent to it.
 Y Network – Shaped like a Y. This type of network also facilitates flow of
information through a hierarchical structure in an organization. The difference
being in the fact that here there is more than one source through which information
may be originated. An example of this may be Police force and Army people who
receive information from various sources above them.
 Wheel Network – Central message unit and separate transmission/reception
units in all directions. This network resembles the structure of a wheel wherein
there is one central unit handling transmission and receipt of communication
message through separate transmission/reception units in all directions. It has the
advantages of quick and simultaneous transmission of message to all as message is
passed directly and not in a serial order. It gives a greater sense of belongingness to
the employees as they feel directly connected to the central authority. Because of
this, such a network is particularly suitable for solving organizational problems

Figure : (a)The Serial, (b) Y, (c) Wheel, (d) Circle and (e)All Channel Networks.

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Decentralized Networks – Decentralized Networks overcome the limitation of centralized

network becoming redundant in the event of destruction of the central repository or node.
In a decentralized network information flows more freely and widely throughout the
organization. The presence of a turbulent and complex business environment; growing
flatness in hierarchical structure in organizations; and greater autonomy and flexibility of
relationships in the organizations have led to the popularity of decentralized networks.

Decentralized Networks can be put into two categories:

 Circle Network - Serial transmission of messages but decentralized. It

resembles a circle wherein each individual is linked to two other persons. This
makes it possible for a person to communicate with any of the two persons. An
example for this may be communication between middle managers from different
departments at the same level of organization. The main problem with this type of
network is lack of co-operation and co-ordination between members.
 The “All Channel” Network – This network is suited for small groups. In such
environments because of the involvement of every member it provides the best
solution. It may be used when a department decides to brainstorm over any issue.
Decision-making may be slow, as many people need to be consulted.

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Centralized and decentralized communication networks

Informal Network of Communication:

Informal network does not have a permanent structure. Employees join/leave it

because of a particular issue or situation. Informal networks get formed between two
participants because of proximity of participants, perception of one member about the
other member as reliable or knowledgeable, friendship/trust between one another. It may
also be by reason of their knowing each other in the outside of the workplace or because
they see each other at time that informal network communication is needed. Hence it is
an unofficial channel of communication that arises out of socio-psychological needs of
individuals to interact with each other. Informal communication is also termed as
‘Grapevine’.

Informal Communication

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Grapevine is of immense importance as without grapevine employees will not be able to
fill in gaps left from official word or may not feel ownership of information. Grapevine
communication allows employees to feel a sense of belonging and allows them to discuss
concerns off the record. In turn the management can learn what employees are thinking
in non-formal ways that they could not learn through formal networks.

 Single-strand – In this pattern information passes from one person to the other in
a sequential order, like: A à B à C and so on.
 Gossip chain – In this pattern one person passes information to everyone else in
the organization, like spreads information to everybody.
 Probability chain – In this pattern information is passed randomly by one person
to those who come in contact with him. They further pass it randomly, like ‘A’
provides information randomly to ‘M’, ‘Q’, ‘R’ and ‘Z’ who do so in turn following
probability rules.
 Cluster transmission (most common) – In this pattern one person passes
information to a selected few confidentially; stating, ‘It is strictly between you and
me’. A few of them transmit it further while others keep it to themselves. For
example, ‘A’ communicates information to four other employees whom he trusts,
two of them duplicate it further.

Figure: Grapevine transmission patterns

(a) Single strand, (b) Gossip chain, (c) Probability chain, (d) Cluster chain

Grapevine communication is very useful to the managers as it spreads very fast like
wild fire throughout the organization. It supplements the formal channel of
communication by transmitting information about the company’s history and traditions
as well as such information that cannot be communicated through formal channel. It is
also helpful to the managers in seeking feedback about policies, directions and
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instructions. It helps in developing healthy relations amongst people in the organization
as it cuts across the official channel of communication.

However, it is not free from pitfalls. Unsubstantiated rumors can create dysfunction
as a result of grapevine communication. Information (intended lay-offs, for example) can
leak before ready. Information filtration and distortion usually takes place. Information
transmitted through this channel may be wrong and distorted, it is not authentic and may
also be incomplete. Origin of information cannot be ascertained and therefore fixing
responsibility is difficult. It spreads through word of mouth and is not supported by
evidence. This makes it non-dependable.

Despite its limitations grapevine communication can be effectively used by the

managers by being sensitive to employee anxiety; by providing important information to
employees openly, honestly, and quickly; by using key communicators amongst employee
ranks to disseminate information and by making decision-making as much participative
as possible. Grapevine is inevitable and managers can’t eliminate it. Hence they must
make effective use of it to attain organizational goals.

External and Internal Communication: Communication may be between the

organization and the outside world (External) or it may be within the organization
(Internal). The External and Internal communication may be done through various ways:

Barriers to Communication:

Communication barriers are those factors that hinder the effectiveness of communication
at some stage in the process of communication. Such communication barriers often occur
despite a good the communication system in an organization. A host of factors may either
individually or collectively affect the effectiveness of communication. Some of these may
be physical barriers while some may be system design faults and yet some may be termed
as attitudinal barriers etc.

Semantic barriers: Semantics is the branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of
words and sentences. Semantic barriers are concerned with problems and obstructions in
the process of encoding and decoding of message into words or impressions.

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Examples: Badly expressed message, Symbols with different meanings, Faulty
translations, Unclarified assumptions, Technical jargon, Body language and gesture
decoding.

Organizational barriers: These barriers arise when duties and line of authority are not
clearly defined. The factors related to organisation structure, authority relationships, rules
and regulations may, sometimes, act as barriers to effective communication. Various types
of organizational barriers are: Policy, Rules and regulations, Facilities, Complex
organization, Status and position.

Psychological factors: Emotional or psychological factors acts as barriers to

communicators. For example, a worried person cannot communicate properly and an
angry receiver cannot understand the real meaning of message. The state of mind of both
sender and receiver of communication reflects in the effective communication. For
example, Poor pronunciation, Confused thinking, Communication overload, Attitude, Fear
and anxiety, Suspicious, jealousy, anger, Resentment, antagonism and prejudices, Lack
of interest and lack of listening.

Physical barriers –Staff located in different buildings, on different floors of the same
building or on different sites may find it difficult to interact face to face on a frequent basis.
Although other modes of communication are available, but if coming together physically
is important to discuss some vital issues, such a placement of people causes a physical
barrier. Physical barrier does not restrict to the physical location of the communicators
alone, but also includes poor or outdated equipment and the failure of management to
replace them with new technology. Inadequate staff availability, distractions in the form
of background noise or poor lighting or extreme weather conditions can indirectly affect
communication by affecting people's morale and concentration. Example, Physical health,
Poor hearing, Distances etc

Mechanical/system barriers: These are the barriers to communication due to certain

flaw in the machinery or instruments used to convey the message. For example, Non
availability of proper machines, Presence of defective machines, Interruption, Power failure
etc

Perceptional barriers: Barriers to communication due to internal biases that influence

how we perceive other people, ideas or events, For eg. Personal experiences, beliefs,
preferences etc.

Attitudinal barriers come about in an organization as a result of problems or disputes

among the staff members. As a result of poor management or lack of consultation with
employees or some personality conflicts people in the organization may delay or refuse to
communicate. Lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work may prevent the employees to
carry out particular tasks, or resist a change.

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Few guidelines can be followed to overcome the barriers to communication:

 The sender must make the purpose of communication clear. He must use simple
and easy language and explain the technical terms to avoid misunderstanding.
 He must plan the message thoughtfully before communicating.
 He must supplement verbal communication with appropriate facial expressions,
gesture, body movement voice and tone.
 He must take the feedback from the receiver to ensure that the massage has been
understood with right perception.
 The sender may also use projectors, slides and charts if necessary to strengthen his
communication.
 He must overcome distrust and maintain good relations with the receiver before
sending message.
 Development of listening skills on the part of receiver also improves
communication process. As far as possible noise must be avoided in
communication, but if it could not be avoided then the place must be changed.
 To overcome emotional encounters in some unpleasant situations, written
communication must be preferred to oral communication.
 In case of linguistic problems, language translators should be appointed.
 The communicators must be open-minded and receptive to ideas, suggestions and
improvements.
 It is equally important to choose the right channel of communication, for
example, official information should be sent through official channel and feedback
should be obtained through informal channel.

Revision

Communication
Components of  Context
Communication  Sender/Encoder
Process  Message
 Encoding
 Medium
 Recipient/Decoder
 Decoding
 Feedback

Types of  Verbal Communication

Communication  Non-Verbal Communication
Channels  Symbolic Communication
 Meta Communication

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Verbal  Oral Communication
Communication  Written Communication

Non-Verbal  Kinesics
Communication  Oculesics
 Haptics
 Proxemics
 Objectics
 Environmental Factors
 Chronemics
 Paralanguage/Vocalic
 Olfactics
 Gustorics

Media of  Audial
Communication  Visual
 Audio-Visual

Communication  Face to Face communication channel has the highest

Channels Information Richness

Seven Cs in  Clear
Communication  Concise
 Concrete
 Correct
 Coherent
 Complete
 Courteous

Types of  Downward
Communication  Upward
based on  Lateral/Horizontal
communication  Diagonal
Channels  External
 Internal

Networks of  Formal Network

Communication  Informal Networks

Formal Network  Centralized Networks

of o Chain Network
Communication o Y Network
o Wheel Network
 Decentralised Network

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o Circle Network
o All Channel Network

Informal  Grapevine
Network of o Single-Strand
Communication o Gossip Chain
o Probability Chain
o Cluster Transmission

External and
Internal
Communication
Barriers to  Semantic barriers
Communication  Organizational Barriers
 Psychological Barriers
 Physical Barriers
 Mechanical/System Barriers
 Perceptional Barriers
 Attitudinal Barriers

Guidelines to  Make Purpose of communication clear

Overcome  Use simple and easy language
Barriers  Explain technical terms
 Supplement verbal with non-verbal communication
 Take feedback
 Overcome Distrust and maintain good relation
 Develop Listening Skills
 Could appoint language translators
 May prefer one mode of communication over another in different
situations
 Be open minded and receptive to ideas
 Choose the right channel of communication

Practice Questions (Objective Questions)

Q1. What is the purpose of communication?

A. Inform (tell someone about something)

B. Influence (get someone to do something you want)
C. Share thoughts, ideas, feelings
D. Exchange of opinions
E. All of the above

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Q2. Which of the following communication is a branch of non-verbal communication that
refers to ways in which communication or interaction is doen via the sense of touch?

A. Kinesics
B. Haptics
C. Chronemics
D. Vocalic
E. Semiotics

Q3. Which of the following communication refers to communication that takes place
between a manager and employees of other workgroups?

A. Downward
B. Upward
C. Lateral
D. Diagonal
E. External

Q4. Which of the following are barriers to communication?

A. Semantic
B. Organisational
C. Psychological
D. Perceptional
E. All of the above

Practice Questions (Descriptive Questions)

Q1. What the different Barriers to communication? How to overcome the same?

Q2. What is communication? What should be done to make communication more

effective?

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