ArchE 1 - Statics of Rigid Bodies

MODULE IN
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
ArchE 1
Architecture Department
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
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ARCHE 1
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COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

ArchE1: Statics of Rigid Bodies is a basic
engineering science course of solid
mechanics dealing with bodies that are or
remain at rest. It is designed to provide
fundamental concepts about forces,
moments and couples and their systems.
The concept of resultants and equilibrium
of forces and moments is utilized to enable
solution of statically determinate problems.
At the end of the module, you should be

able to:
1. demonstrate knowledge on the basic

concepts of force;
2. apply the principles of static

equilibrium from the knowledge of
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES resultants of forces and moments;
3. relate the course to other engineering

situations that involves the concepts of
forces and moments of forces;
4. determine the centroid of an area and

the first and second moments of area
of plane shapes.
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 1
Table of Contents
Course Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................... 1
Course Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 4
Course Guide ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Course Study Guides ............................................................................................................................... 6
Study Schedule ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Assignment Guide .................................................................................................................................. 14
Course References ................................................................................................................................. 16
Module 1
Unit 1: Introductory Concepts.............................................................................................................. 18
Engage ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Explore .................................................................................................................................................. 20
Explain ................................................................................................................................................... 28
Elaborate .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Evaluate................................................................................................................................................ 29
Unit 2: Vector Algebra ........................................................................................................................... 30
Engage ................................................................................................................................................. 30
Explore .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Explain ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Elaborate .............................................................................................................................................. 49
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................... 50
Module 2
Unit 1: Resultant of Any Force System ................................................................................................ 51
Engage ................................................................................................................................................. 51
Explore .................................................................................................................................................. 52
Explain ................................................................................................................................................... 69
Elaborate .............................................................................................................................................. 69
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................... 70
Module 3
Unit 1: Equilibrium of Force Systems .................................................................................................... 72
Engage ................................................................................................................................................. 72
Explore .................................................................................................................................................. 73
Explain ................................................................................................................................................... 86
Elaborate .............................................................................................................................................. 87
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................... 88
Module 4
Unit 1: Analysis of Structures ................................................................................................................. 89
Engage ................................................................................................................................................. 89
Explore .................................................................................................................................................. 91
Explain ................................................................................................................................................. 110
Elaborate ............................................................................................................................................ 116
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................. 119
Module 5
Unit 1: Centroids and Centers of Gravity......................................................................................... 121
Engage ............................................................................................................................................... 121

Explore ................................................................................................................................................ 122
Explain ................................................................................................................................................. 124
Elaborate ............................................................................................................................................ 129
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................. 130
Module 6
Unit 1: Moments of Inertia ................................................................................................................... 131
Engage ............................................................................................................................................... 131

Explore ................................................................................................................................................ 132
Explain ................................................................................................................................................. 134
Elaborate ............................................................................................................................................ 142
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................. 143
“The [engineer] should be equipped with knowledge of
many branches of study and varied kinds of learning, for it is
by his judgment that all work done by the other arts is put to
test. This knowledge is the child of practice and theory.”
-- Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De architectura
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Statics is one of the critical foundations for understanding civil engineering. Statics
deals with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies at rest.
In this course, you will learn about the fundamental concepts of forces, moments and
couples and their systems. This course will enable you to utilize the concept of resultants and
equilibrium of forces and moments to solve statically determinate problems. You will learn
principles and concepts related to rigid bodies, and apply these principles to analyze
structures under various loads.
As a result of your educational experiences in the course Mech 311S, you should be
able to demonstrate knowledge on the basic concepts of force, apply the principles of
static equilibrium from the knowledge of resultants of forces and moments, relate the course
to other engineering situations that involves the concepts of forces and moments of forces,
and determine the centroid of an area and the first and second moments of area of plane
shapes.
COURSE GUIDE
I. Module and Unit Topics
Your academic experience a Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this course. To ensure
that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at the end of the
semester, this course designed to be delivered in 54 contact hours was structured into 7
modules. As shown below, each module is directed toward:
MODULE 1: Fundamental Concepts – This aims to give you an overview of the course, recall
the concepts has been discussed in physics and math. The fundamental principles and
quantities of mechanics such as vector addition and subtraction, forces and their
characteristics, resultants and components of a force, moments of a force, and vector
analysis using the dot product and cross product will be discussed.
MODULE 2: Resultant of Force System – This aims to introduce to you the effect of forces to
rigid bodies. You will learn how to replace a given system of forces in two and three
dimensions to simpler equivalent system. The concept of a coupe, i.e., a pair of parallel
forces of the same magnitude but opposite directions, will also be introduced.
MODULE 3: Equilibrium – This module aims to help you extend your problem solving skills in
analyzing static equilibrium of rigid bodies in two and three dimensions. Drawing the free
body diagram (FBD), an essential tool for the equilibrium analysis of rigid bodies, and the use
of the three fundamental equations of static equilibrium will be discussed.
MODULE 4: Analysis of Structures– This module will now consider the equilibrium of structures
made of several connected parts. This module aims to introduce the types of elementary
structures, nature of supports and their reactions, structural stability/instability, static
indeterminacy of structures both external and internal, and computation of support
reactions for beams, frames, and trusses. Analysis of plane trusses by the method of joints
and method of sections, as well as Maxwell’s diagram, analysis of pin jointed frames by the
method of members, and analysis of flexible cables both parabolic and catenary will be
discussed in detail.
MODULE 5: Centroids and Centers of Gravity – This module aims to give an overview of the
centroids of lines and areas. Centroid of composite lines and areas by summation methods
(Varignon’s Theorem) and by integration will be discussed.
MODULE 6: Moment of Inertial and Product of Inertia – This module aims to give an overview
about moments of inertia and product of inertia. It will enable you to solve problems on
moments of inertia, product of inertia, maximum and minimum moment of inertia, and radius
of gyration.
II. Course Study Guide
Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs,
and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and
feedback for this course, will instil in you important qualities you will need in the future as
an engineer practicing your profession.
The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice decorum
consistent with standards expected within a formal academic environment. These
guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and clear
communication among learners and instructors throughout the conduct of this course:
1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual
cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically,
online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities that take
up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning.
Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they could
help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a dedicated space in your
residence conducive for learning.
2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the
distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-
face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been
answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided.
Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this
course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums,
and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid
text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal expressions in your
posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.
3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making
use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would
be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the
applications you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and
your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note are
Google Classroom, Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available
alternatives to Microsoft Office tools you might want to explore. Certain
requirements will require you to take a video on your smart phone, save it, and
submit it electronically. Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the
most convenient means for express mail correspondence and inform me as
early as possible so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.
4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning

outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you
are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing
beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of
thought and care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very
tangible measure of how much of the competencies you have developed and
fully obtained throughout this course.
5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from
me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and
updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document
and will be made available and widely disseminated to enrolees of this course.
6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital
footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly
for referenced statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute
statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he
said/she said, and the like.
7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your
disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be
your independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this
course. The only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to
learn as much from it as an individual. Make it count.
8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow in the
conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally accepted norms
of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time. Unless
of utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication between
8:30 PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole day on Sundays and official
holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This will allow
us all to dedicate personal time and space to other aspects of our life and
maintain a healthy work-life/study-life balance.
9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on
the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate).
The following icons will help you find some of the most critical areas in the units
of the learning modules:
Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build
up your curiosity to learn more.
Part of the module unit that presents the
main lesson through materials that will give
you a general picture of the topics to be
discussed, introducing you to new concepts
and ideas.
Part of the module unit that contains
detailed discussions of topics and provide
you the definition of the smaller pieces of
the general picture you encountered in the
previous stage.
Part of the module unit that expounds on
the ideas of the previous stage and allows
you to extrapolate into a broader field or
delve deeper into the finer details of the
topics.
Part of the module unit that gives us the
opportunity to gauge your attainment of
the learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.
Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:
• If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)

mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at
given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to me, on or
before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the feedback on your
submissions at the soonest possible time through any of the available means
of communication.
• While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
• If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means.
III. Study Schedule
STUDY SCHEDULE
WEEK TOPIC UNIT LECTURE ACTIVITIES
LEARNING
OUTCOME
MODULE 1
1 Demonstrate Unit 1 Engage: Pre-assessment (Recall
knowledge on the basic concepts and
the basic characteristics of force)
concepts of Explore: Resolving vectors into
force. components.
Explain: How to determine the
vector’s magnitude and
direction.
Elaborate: The characteristics of a
force.
Evaluate: Solving problems
associated with a number of
coplanar and spatial force
systems.
1 Apply vector Unit 2 Engage: Pre-assessment (Recall
algebra to unit vectors)
solve Explore: The dot product, the
problems cross product, and the moment
involving of a force.
forces. Explain: Review vector notations
and vector algebra.
Elaborate: Exercise problems on
the application of vector algebra.
Evaluate: Application of vector
algebra to 2D and 3D forces.
MODULE 2
2 Solve Unit 1
Engage: Pre-assessment (Recall
problems on resultants of vectors).
resultants of Explore: Resultants of coplanar
force systems. and spatial force systems. The
couple and its characteristics.
Explain: Read further discussions
about resultants of forces systems
and couples.
Elaborate: Define resultant,
illustrate principle of superposition,
and characteristics of a couple.
Evaluate: Reducing a system of
forces into a force-couple system.
January 28, 2021 : Summative Assessment: MIDTERM QUIZ 1
MODULE 3
3 Solve Unit 1 Engage: Pre-assessment (Free-
problems on body diagrams and force
equilibrium. diagrams)
Explore: Equations of equilibrium
for coplanar concurrent force
systems.
Explain: Conditions required for
the equilibrium of a body under
the action of number of forces.
Elaborate: Draw free-body
diagrams
Evaluate: Solving rigid-body
equilibrium problems using the
equations of equilibrium.
MODULE 4
4 Solve UNIT 1
Engage: Pre-assessment (What
problems on are the different types of
structures. structures?)
Explore: The method of joints,
method of sections, method of
members, and cables.
Explain: Structural
stability/instability.
Elaborate: Analysis of beams,
frames, trusses, and cables.
Evaluate: Determining the forces
in the members of a truss and
analysing the forces acting on
frames and cables.
February 8, 2021: Summative Assessment: MIDTERM QUIZ 2
February 10, 2021: Summative Assessment: MIDTERM EXAMINATION
MODULE 5
5 Solve UNIT 1 Engage: Pre-assessment (Define
problems on center of gravity).
centroids or Explore: Center of gravity of a
centers of two-dimensional body.
gravity. Explain: The concept of the
center of gravity, center of mass,
and centroid.
Elaborate: Determination of
centroids by summation methods
and by integrations.
Evaluate: Centroids of composite
bodies using Varignon’s Theorem.
MODULE 6
6 Solve UNIT 1
Engage: Pre-assessment (Define
problems on “first moment of area” and
moments of “second moment of area”?)
inertia, Explore: Moment of inertia by
product of integration.
inertia, Explain: Transfer formula for
maximum and moment of inertia and product of
minimum inertia.
moments of Elaborate: Application of the
inertia, and moment of inertia.
radius of Evaluate: Compute the moment
gyration. of inertia and product of
composite sections.
February 19, 2021 : Summative Assessment: FINAL QUIZ 1
February 25, 2021 : Summative Assessment: FINAL EXAMINATION
IV. Evaluation
The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the
progress of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you
must:
1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit all assignments and graded quizzes.
3. Take the Midterm Examination.
4. Take the Final Examination
❖ If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.
Formative Assessment Activities
Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used
to monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your
learning approach as well as my instructional approach.
• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be included in the
computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment quizzes and self-
assessment activities are designed as a review management tool to prepare you for
the graded quizzes and examinations.
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements will serve as
prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move forward
to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and will still be part of your
course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and
reflection questions must be answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the help of your
family and friends.
• The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions are
required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled days assigned for each
unit.
Summative Assessment Activities
The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your

acquisition of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at
certain milestones in this course.
Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments
Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine whether

your performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need to be
achieved in this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded activities will
contribute to your final grade, the weights of which are presented in the grading
system described in the succeeding sections of this text. Direct scoring can be used
on straightforward requirements like short answers and multiple choice responses,
while scoring rubrics will be provided for answers that are typically lengthy and
involve a more complex level of thinking on your part.
V. Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a
laptop with the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and
Publication for requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with
video recording and editing features will also be used for activities that will require you
to record videos for saving and submission.
• If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be
provided through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google
Classroom will be sent to you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional
email account, so make sure to activate your institutional email account. It is
equally important that you check your SLU Student Portal account at least twice
a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in your mobile phone and
computer.
• If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be
primarily through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved
digital content on a USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be
facilitated through text messaging and voice calls; hence, you need to have
regular access to a cell phone. If you need to call, or you want to talk to me,
send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my CP number
to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not
registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.
ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
I. Output
For units of the module, in which you are given a problem to be solved, detailed
calculations and solutions are to be submitted.
II. Rationale
These assignments aim to evaluate your ability to demonstrate knowledge on the
basic concepts of force, apply the principles of static equilibrium from the knowledge
of resultants of forces and moments, and to relate the course to other engineering
situations that involves the concepts of forces and moments of forces.
III. Materials
The assignments are given at the end of each unit of the modules. You may consult
all your reference materials and notes while solving the problem set.
IV. Specific Guidelines
• You are required to show your detailed diagrams, calculations, solutions and
answers to the given problem.
• All solutions and answers are to be done by your own handwriting.
• Show all solutions in an organized manner.
• All numerical answers should be rounded off to the nearest 3 rd decimal and with
the correct simplified unit.
• For the online submission of your problem set, scan or take a photo of your solutions
and organize it in chronological order in a single file pdf document saved under
the file name
classcode_lastname_firstname (i.e. 2304_DELA CRUZ_JUAN).
• You will then upload your solution to the google classroom classwork assignment
for that week.
• Use short bond paper with the following format:
Margins: 1 cm margin on all sides, use black ink for the margins. (see next page
for the format)
CLASS CODE: SCHEDULE:
ID NUMBER:
NAME: LASTNAME, FIRST NAME
Copy the problem.
Identify what is given and required.
Solution:
Answer.
(Please note that you have to answer only what is being asked in the
question/problem. Unnecessary equations/formula/answers/statements will mean
deductions in your scores.)
(BOX/HIGHLIGHT FINAL ANSWERS FOR PROBLEMS)
I, pledge on my honor, that I have not given or received any assistance on this
assignment.
Student’s Signature
V. Evaluation Tool
The final answers require numerical data to a specific degree of accuracy. Your
assignment will be graded on the accuracy of your answers compared to the correct
numerical values expected. Quantities with wrong units will not be considered.
COURSE REFERENCES:
Main references for this course:
a. Singer, F. M. (1975). Engineering mechanics: statics and dynamics. New York, NY:
Harper and Row Publishing
Other references:
b. Beer, F. P., et. al. (2010). Vector mechanics for engineers, ninth edition. United
States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies
c. Kraige, L. G. & Meriam, J. L. (2004). Engineering mechanics: statics, seventh

edition. United States of America: John Wiley and Sons.
The main reference can be purchased and is available in bookstores nationwide.
Contact Information of the Facilitator:
Engr. Yuriko Lynn A. Suba

E-mail: ylasuba@slu.edu.ph
Cellphone/Viber Nos.: 09052163580
ArchE 1:
Statics of Rigid Bodies
LEARNING MODULES
LEAR
MODULE 1
Fundamental Concepts of Forces
This module covers the fundamental concepts of forces. The force is an important factor in
mechanics, and its effects on particles and rigid bodies will be discussed in this module. In
particular, you will learn how to resolve forces into components, as well as to reduce a
system of forces into a simpler equivalent system. You will also learn how to apply vector
algebra to solve problems involving forces.
This module is divided into 2 units, and each unit is divided into 5 parts, namely, engage,
explore, explain, elaborate, evaluate.
UNIT 1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

At the end of this unit you should be able to demonstrate knowledge on the basic
concepts of force.
Before studying this unit, take the test to determine how much you already know about
forces.
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
1. A force is a physical quantity having
A. Both magnitude and direction

B. Magnitude only
C. Direction only
D. None of the above
2. On Earth, which one of the following statements about weight is TRUE?
A. An object’s weight always has a magnitude of m·g

B. Weight always points perpendicular to the surface of contact.
C. Weight is a scalar quantity
D. An object’s weight depends on the velocity of the object.
3. Which one of the following is equal to a newton?
A. kg/s2 B. kg·m/s2 C. kg·m/s D. kg2·m2/s2
4. Which of the following statements expresses Newton’s First Law?
A. When an object experiences a net force, the net force (i.e., the vector sum of
all the forces acting on it) is equal to the object’s mass times its acceleration.
B. The net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
C. If object 1 exerts a force on object 2, then object 2 exerts a force on object 1,
and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
D. An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion continues in motion
with constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.
5. A car pulls on a rope tied to a tree with a force of 1000 N. Which of the following is not
true?
A. The tree pulls on the rope with a force of 1000 N

B. The tension in the rope is 1000 N.
C. The tension in the rope is 2000 N.
D. The rope pulls on the tree with a force of 1000 N.
6. The pulling force exerted by a stretched rope or cord on an object to which it’s
attached is called
A. Friction force
B. Gravitational force
C. Normal force
D. Tension force
7. Refer to Fig. E1.7. A man is dragging a trunk up the loading ramp of a mover’s truck.
The ramp has a slope angle of 20o and the man pulls upward with a force F whose
direction makes an angle of 30o with the ramp. How large a force F is necessary for
the component Fx parallel to the ramp to be 60.0 N?
A. 30.00 N ↗
F
B. 38.57 N ↗
C. 45.96 N ↗
D. 69.28 N ↗ Fig. E1.7
8. Referring to Problem 7, how large will the component Fy perpendicular to the ramp
then be?
A. 30.00 N ↖
B. 34.64 N ↖
C. 45.96 N↖
D. 69.28 N ↖
9. Refer to Fig. E1.9. The component Fx of the 1.5 kN force is +y
F = 1.50 kN
A. + 0.92 kN
B. – 0.92 kN 45o
C. + 1.06 kN
D. – 1.06 kN
+x
10. Refer to Fig. E9. The component Fz of the 1.5 kN force is 60o
A. – 0. 53 kN
+z Fig. E1.9
B. + 0.53 kN
C. – 0. 75 kN
D. + 0.75 kN
Refer to the Answer Key and check your answers. What is your score? ______/10
Answer
Key: B 10. A 9. B 8. D 7. D 6. C 5. D 4. B 3. A 2. A 1.
Read and understand the prepared lessons and find out how much you have learned by
answering the activities under the Elaborate and Evaluation sections.
INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is a branch of physical science which describes and predicts the conditions of
rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. Thus, engineering mechanics is the
branch of engineering that applies the principles of mechanics to mechanical design (i.e.,
any design that must take into account the effect of forces).
Engineering Mechanics
Statics Dynamics
- deals with the study of - deals with study of bodies in
bodies at rest. motion.
Kinematics Kinetics
Figure 1.1. Classification of Engineering Mechanics
1.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND AXIOMS

Particle
- A body with mass but with dimensions that can be neglected.
Rigid body
- Defined as a definite amount of matter the parts of which are fixed in position
relative to one another.
Mass
- Invariant property of a body which measures its resistance to a change of motion.
Force
- The action exerted by one body upon another.

- It is represented by a vector.
P
30o
Figure 1.2. Graphical representation of a force.
External effect of a force
- Manifested by a change in, or a tendency to change, the state of motion of the

body upon which it acts.
Internal effect of a force
- Produce stress and deformation in the body.
Characteristics of a Force
1. Magnitude
2. Position of its line of action
3. Direction (or sense) in which the force acts along its line of action.
A change in any of these characteristics will result in a corresponding change in the

external and internal effects of the force.
Unit of force:
SI system: newton (N)
U.S. customary units: pound (lb) or kip (k) = 1000 lb
Principle of Transmissibility
- States that the external effect of a force on a rigid body is the same for all points of
application along its line of action.
- The principle of transmissibility applies only to the external effect of a force on the
same rigid body.
Figure 1.3. The effect of an external force on a rigid body remains unchanged if that force
is moved along its line of action.
1.2 AXIOMS OF MECHANICS
1. The parallelogram law: The resultant of two forces is the diagonal formed on the
vectors of these force.
A
R
Figure 1.4. Parallelogram law

2. Two forces are in equilibrium only when equal in magnitude, opposite in direction,
and collinear in action.
3. A set of forces in equilibrium may be added to any system of forces without
changing the effect of the original system.
4. Action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely directed.
Force of A on B Force of B on A
A B
F F
Figure 1.5. Action – reaction
Guide to solving problems:
The solutions must be based on the axioms of mechanics.
1. Problem Statement: Includes given data, specification of what is to be determined,

and a figure showing all quantities involved.
2. Free-Body Diagrams: Create separate diagrams for each of the bodies involved
with a clear indication of all forces acting on each body.
3. Fundamental Principles: Apply the relevant principles in equation form. Make sure
that the equations used in the computations are dimensionally homogeneous. The
rules of algebra are applied to solve the equations for the unknown quantities.
4. Solution Check: Evaluate your answer by verifying that the units of the computed
results are correct. Apply experience and physical intuition to assess whether results
seem “reasonable”.
1.3 SYSTEM OF FORCES
When several forces of various magnitude and direction act upon a body they are
said to form system of forces.
1. Coplanar forces - the forces whose lines of action lie on the same plane.
2. Collinear forces - the forces whose lines of action lie on the same line
3. Concurrent forces - the forces whose lines of action intersect at one point.
4. Coplanar concurrent forces - the forces which meet at one point and their lines of
action
also lie on the same plane.
5. Coplanar non-concurrent forces - the forces which do not meet at one point, but
their
lines of action lie on the same plane.
6. Non-coplanar concurrent forces - the forces which meet at one point, but their lines
of
action do not lie on the same plane.
7. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces - the forces which do not meet at one point
and their
lines of action do not lie on the same plane
Coplanar Concurrent
(in plane) Parallel
2-dimensional Nonconcurrent
System of General
forces
Noncoplanar Concurrent
(in space) Parallel
3-dimensional Nonconcurrent
General
Figure 1.6. Classification of force systems.
1.4 FORCE AND COMPONENTS

A single force F acting on a particle may be replaced by two or more forces that,
together, have the same effect on the particle. These forces are called components of the
original force F. Each force can be resolved into an infinite number of possible sets of
components.
Resolution of a Force
- a given force is replaced by two components which are equivalent to the given
force. The most common two-dimensional resolution of a force vector is into rectangular
components.
y
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥
Fx
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑥
Fy Θy F Or
Fy
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦
θx
x
Fx
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑦
Figure 1.7. Rectangular components
Or using the slope:
The rectangular components Fx and Fy are considered positive if they are in the positive
directions of the x- and y-axes and negative if directed oppositely.
Note: the orientation of the x- and y-axes is arbitrary.
When the rectangular components of a force are known, they completely specify the
magnitude, inclination and direction of a force.
F = √𝑭𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑭𝒚 𝟐
|𝑭𝒚 |
𝛉𝒙 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏
|𝑭𝒙 |
The direction of F is determined by the sign of its components and its inclination by the
acute angle it makes with the axis.
Examples:
1. Compute the x and y component of each of the four forces shown.

y
Given: T= 722 lb
P = 200 lb
2
60o
x
35o
1
2
Q = 400 lb
F = 448 lb
Required: Tx, Ty, Px, Py, Fx, Fy, Qx, and Qy
Solution:
+y
T= 722 lb Tx
Px P = 200 lb
Ty √13
3
Py
2
60o
+x
35o √5
Qy 1 Fy
2
Q = 400 lb Qx Fx F = 448 lb
2
𝑇𝑥 = − ( ) (722) = −400.49 𝑙𝑏 2
𝐹𝑥 = ( ) (448) = 400.70 𝑙𝑏
√13
√5
3
𝑇𝑦 = ( ) (722) = 600.74 𝑙𝑏 1
𝐹𝑦 = − ( ) (448) = −200.35 𝑙𝑏
√13
√5
𝑃𝑥 = 200𝑐𝑜𝑠60𝑜 = 100 𝑙𝑏 𝑄𝑥 = −40𝑐𝑜𝑠35𝑜 = −327.66 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑦 = 200𝑠𝑖𝑛60𝑜 = 173.21 𝑙𝑏 𝑄𝑦 = −400𝑠𝑖𝑛35𝑜 = −229.43 𝑙𝑏
2. Referring to the figure below, determine the components of force P along the x-y
axes which are parallel and perpendicular to the incline.
Given:
Required: Px and Py
Solution: 𝜃 = 𝛼+𝛽
2
𝛼 = tan−1 (3) = 33.69𝑜
3
P = 361 lb 𝛽 = tan−1 ( ) = 36.87𝑜
4
𝜃 = 33.69𝑜 + 36.87𝑜 = 70.56𝑜

For Px and Py:
α Py 𝑃𝑥 = 361cos (70.56𝑜 )
θ
β 𝑃𝑥 = 120.15 𝑙𝑏 ↖
Px
𝑃𝑥 = 361sin (70.56𝑜 )
β 𝑃𝑦 = 340.42 𝑙𝑏 ↙
3. The body on the 30o incline is acted upon by a

force P inclined at 20o with the horizontal. If P
resolved into components parallel and
perpendicular to the incline and the value of the
parallel component is 300 lb, compute the value
of the perpendicular component and of P.
Given: component of P parallel to the incline = 300 lb.
Required: The value of the perpendicular component, Pn and of P.
Solution:
Perpendicular component, Pn:
𝑃𝑛
tan 50𝑜 =
300
𝑃𝑛 = 357.53 𝑙𝑏 ↘
Pn
30 Magnitude of P:
o
300
cos 50𝑜 =
𝑃
𝑃 = 466.72 𝑙𝑏
For more examples, read pages 19-31 of your textbook.
Watch the video: Components of forces.
After going through the prepared lessons, answer the following questions/statements.
1. State the “principle of transmissibility.”
2. Differentiate the external effect from internal effect of a force.
3. Give three characteristics of a force.
4. If a given force is to be resolved into components, how many sets of components

can be obtained? Elaborate your answer.
It is not enough that you have learned the fundamental concepts of the force. You should
also be able to demonstrate knowledge on determining the components of a force.
Instructions. Solve the following problems, refer to your Assignment Guide on the specific
guidelines on formats and how to submit your solution.
1. Determine the components of each force along the x and y axes shown in Fig. P1.1
2. A man pulls with a force of 300 N on a rope attached to a building as shown in

Figure 1.2. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted by
the rope at point A?
3. Four forces on point A are shown in Figure 1.3. Determine the resultant of these
forces.
F =150 N
30o
P = 200 N
35o
20o
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3
UNIT 2: VECTOR ALGEBRA
At the end of this unit you should be able to apply vector algebra to solve problems
involving forces.
Before studying this unit, take the test to determine how much you already know about
vector algebra.
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
1. Determine the scalar product of A = 6.0i + 4.0j - 2.0k and B = 5.0i - 6.0j - 3.0k.
A. 30i + 24j + 6k
B. 30i - 24j + 6k
C. 12
D. 60
2. Determine the angle between the directions of vector A = 3.00i + 1.00j and vector
B = -3.00i + 3.00j.
A. 26.6°
B. 30.0°
C. 88.1°
D. 117°
3. What is the vector product of A = 2.00i + 3.00j + 1.00k and B = 1.00i - 3.00j - 2.00k?
A. -3.00i + 5.00j - 9.00k

B. -5.00i + 2.00j - 6.00k
C. -9.00i - 3.00j - 3.00k
D. -4.00i + 3.00j - 1.00k
4. What is the magnitude of the cross product of a vector of magnitude 2.00 m

pointing east and a vector of magnitude 4.00 m pointing 30.0° west of north?
A. 4.00
B. -4.00
C. 6.93
D. -6.93
5. If C = -4i - 2j - 3k, its magnitude is
A. 5
B. 5.39
C. 9
D. 9.23
True or False. On the space provided before each number, write True if the statement is
true, write False if the statement is false.
6. If all the components of a vector are equal to 1, then that vector is a unit
vector.
7. If the dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero, the vectors must be
perpendicular to each other.
8. If two nonzero vectors point in the same direction, their dot product must be
zero.
9. If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, their cross product must be
zero.
10. If two vectors point in opposite directions, their cross product must be zero.
Refer to the Answer Key and check your answers. What is your score? ______/10
Answer Key:
10. True 9. False 8. False 7. True 6. False B 5. C 4. A 3. D 2. C 1.
Read and understand the prepared lessons and find out how much you have learned
about vector algebra by answering the activities under the Elaborate and Evaluation
sections.
1.5 VECTOR NOTATION

The distinction between magnitude and direction is achieved by a notation which
expresses a vector as the product of its magnitude and a unit vector which defines its
direction.
Vectors – mathematical quantities possessing magnitude and direction.
A vector may be:
• Fixed or bound vector - vector used to represent a force acting on a given particle
has a well-defined point of application.
• Sliding vector - forces acting on a rigid body are represented by vectors that can be
moved along their lines of action.
• Free vector - one which is independent of the point of application of the vector.
Vector are denoted by printing it in boldface (F), or drawing a short arrow above the letter
used to represent it (𝐹⃗ )or by underlining the letter (F).
The magnitude of the vector |F| may be denoted by or F.
1.6 UNIT VECTORS

A unit vector is defined as a vector of unit magnitude in a specified direction. Multiplying a
unit vector by a scalar denotes a vector having the direction of the unit vector and a
magnitude equal to that of the scalar.
y
Let: î = unit vector directed along the x-axis +
Ĵ = unit vector directed along the y-axis
k̂ = unit vector directed along the z-axis d A

ĵ
n̂ = a unit vector in an arbitrary direction n̂
such as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 in Figure 1.10. O î x + x
k̂ y
Thus, force F having the rectangular coordinates z
Fx, Fy, and Fz may be written in the standard
+
Cartesian form of representing a vector: z
Figure 1.10. Unit vectors
̂
𝐅 = 𝐹𝑥 𝐢̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝐣̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝐤
The unit vector n̂ which characterizes the direction of the force F can be obtained by
dividing the vector d by the magnitude d of the distance of the two points along its line of
action.
̂
𝐝 𝑥𝐢̂ + 𝑦𝐣̂ + 𝑧𝐤
n̂ = =
𝑑 𝑑
Where: 𝑑 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
The force F may be expressed in the following forms:

𝐹
𝐅 = 𝐹n̂ = (𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧k̂) = 𝐹𝑚 (𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧k̂)
𝑑
1.7 VECTOR ALGEBRA
A. Dot Product P
The dot product is also known as the scalar product and a dot between
two vectors is used to denote their multiplication. The dot product of
two vectors P and Q, Figure 1.11, is defined as the product of their
magnitudes times the cosine of the angle θ between them. θ
It is written as
Q
𝐏 ∙ 𝐐 = 𝑃𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Figure 1.11. Two vectors P and Q
Using components:
Note that: î ∙ î = Ĵ ∙ Ĵ = k̂ ∙ k̂ = 1
î ∙ Ĵ = Ĵ ∙ k̂ = k̂ ∙ î = 0
and 𝐏 ∙ 𝐐 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧
The dot product is a scalar quantity, it may be positive, negative, or zero. If two nonzero
vectors are perpendicular their dot product is zero.
Properties of the dot product:
Commutative: P∙Q=Q∙P
Associative: mP ∙ nQ = mnP ∙ Q
Distributive F ∙ (P + Q) = F ∙ P + F ∙ Q
Applications of the dot product:

1. Angle formed by two given vectors.
If 𝐏 = 𝑃𝑥 î + 𝑃𝑦 ĵ + 𝑃𝑧 k̂
and 𝐐 = 𝑄𝑥 î + 𝑄𝑦 ĵ + 𝑄𝑧 k̂
then 𝑃𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧
P
𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑃𝑄
2. Projection of a vector on a given axis

Rule: The component of a vector in any direction is θ
L
the dot product of the vector with a unit vector in Q
the desired direction. O
𝐏∙𝐐
𝑃 cos 𝜃 = = n̂𝑄 ∙ 𝐏
𝑄
Figure 1.12. The projection P
and a vector Q along OL
Examples:
1. In the system shown, it is found that the force y

multiplier of force F acting from B to D is
Fm = 150 lb/ft and that of force P acting from
A to E is Pm = 100 lb/ft. Find the component
of each force along AC. What angle does
each force make with AC? z
Given:
x
F acting from B to D, Fm = 150 lb/ft
P acting from A to E, Pm = 100 lb/ft
Required: FAC, PAC, θF, and θP
Solution:
y
a) For the components of F and P along AC.
𝐅∙𝐀𝐂 𝐏∙𝐀𝐂
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
= n̂𝐴𝐶 ∙ 𝐅 and 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
= n̂𝐴𝐶 ∙ 𝐏
P
For F:
F = 𝐹𝑚 (𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧k̂) z

F
x = 0 – 8 = - 8 ft x
Force Facts from B to D,
y = 0 – (- 3) = 3 ft i.e, x = xD - xB, y = yD - yB, and
z = 6 – 0 = 6 ft z = z D - zB
F = 150(−8î + 3ĵ + 6k̂)

For P:
P = 𝑃𝑚 (𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧k̂)
x = 0 – 12 = - 12 ft
Force Pacts from A to E,
y = 4 – 0 = 4 ft i.e, x = xE – xA, y = yE – yA, and
z = - 6 – 0 = - 6 ft z = z E – zA
P = 100(−12î + 4ĵ − 6k̂)

For n̂𝐴𝐶 :
1
n̂𝐴𝐶 = (𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧k̂)
𝐴𝐶
x = 0 – 12 = - 12 ft
For the direction of AC,
y = - 9 – 0 = - 9 ft i.e, x = xC – xA, y = yC – yA, and
z = 0 – 0 = 0 ft z = z C – zA
𝐴𝐶 = √(−12)2 + (−9)2 + (0)2 = 15 𝑓𝑡
1
̂𝐴𝐶 =
𝐧 (−12î − 9ĵ + 0k̂)
15
For 𝐹𝐴𝐶 :
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = n̂𝐴𝐶 ∙ 𝐅
1
= 15 (−12î − 9ĵ + 0k̂) ∙ 150(−8î + 3ĵ + 6k̂)
150
= [(−12)(−8) + (−9)(3) + (0)(6)]
15
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 690 𝑙𝑏
For PAC:
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = n̂𝐴𝐶 ∙ 𝐏
1
= (−12î − 9ĵ + 0k̂) ∙ 100(−12î + 4ĵ − 6k̂)
15
100
= [(−12)(−12) + (−9)(4) + (0)(−6)]
15
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 720 𝑙𝑏
b) For the angle each force make with
AC: 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃 cos 𝜃𝑃
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝐹 𝑃𝐴𝐶
𝜃𝑃 = cos −1
𝑃
𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝜃𝐹 = cos−1 𝐹
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2
= 100√(−12)2 + (4)2 + (−6)2
= 150√(−8)2 + (3)2 + (6)2
𝐹 = 1400 𝑙𝑏
𝐹 = 150√109 𝑙𝑏 720
𝜃𝑃 = cos −1 1400
690
𝜃𝐹 = cos−1 150√109
𝜃𝑃 = 59.05𝑜
𝜃𝐹 = 63.86𝑜
B. Cross Product
The cross product is also known as the vector product and the symbol “⨯” between two
vectors is used to denote their multiplication. The cross product of two vectors P and Q,
Figure 1.13, is defined as the product of their magnitudes times the sine of the angle θ
between them. It is written as
P⨯Q
𝐏 ⨯ 𝐐 = 𝑃𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Q
There are always two directions perpendicular

to a given plane, one on each side of the plane. θ
The direction of 𝐏 ⨯ 𝐐 is perpendicular to the
plane of the two vectors being multiplied,
as given by the right-hand rule. P
Figure 1.13. P⨯Q is perpendicular to
The right-hand rule: plane of P and Q
Point fingers of right hand along the direction

P and curl fingers toward Q. The thumb points
in direction of P⨯Q.
Note that the vector product of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is always zero. In
particular, the
vector product of any vector with itself is zero.
𝐢̂⨯ 𝐢̂= 0 𝐢̂ ⨯ 𝐣̂= 𝐤

̂ ̂ ⨯ 𝐣̂= -𝐢̂
𝐤
𝐣̂⨯ 𝐣̂ = 0 𝐣̂ ⨯ 𝐢̂ = - 𝐤
̂ ̂ = -𝐣̂
𝐢̂ ⨯ 𝐤
̂ =0
̂ ⨯𝐤
𝐤 ̂ = 𝐢̂
𝐣̂ ⨯ 𝐤 ̂ ⨯ 𝐢̂ = 𝐣̂
𝐤
Using components:
𝐏 ⨯ 𝐐 = (Pxî+ Pyĵ+ Pzk̂) ⨯ (Qxî+ Qyĵ+ Qzk̂)
𝐏 ⨯ 𝐐 = (𝑷𝒚 𝑸𝒛 − 𝑷𝒛 𝑸𝒚) 𝐢̂ + (𝑷𝒛 𝑸𝒙 − 𝑷𝒙 𝑸𝒛) 𝐣̂ + (𝑷𝒙 𝑸𝒚 − 𝑷𝒚 𝑸𝒛 ) 𝐤

̂
The vector product can also be expressed in determinant form:

𝐢̂ 𝐣̂ ̂
𝐤
𝐏 ⨯ 𝐐 = | 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧 |
𝑄𝑥 𝑄𝑦 𝑄𝑧
Properties of the cross product:
Not commutative: P⨯Q≠Q⨯P
But: P⨯Q=−Q⨯P
Associative when multiplied by a scalar:

m(P ⨯ Q) = mP ⨯ Q = P ⨯ mQ
Not associative when multiplied by a vector:

(F ⨯ P) ⨯ Q ≠ (F ⨯ P) ⨯ Q
Distributive F ⨯ (P + Q) = F ⨯ P + F ⨯ Q
Applications of the cross product:

1. Shortest distance between a point to a line.
2. Length of the common perpendicular between two nonintersecting vectors.
3. Moment of a force about a point.
Examples:
1. Given the vectors a = 2i – 3j – 4k, b = 4i + 2j + k, and c = 3i – j – 2k, evaluate

a) a ⨯ b
b) c ⨯ a
c) (a ⨯ b) ⨯ (a ⨯ c)
Solution:
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑦
a) 𝐚 ⨯ 𝐛 = |𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧 | 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦
The products of terms lying on a diagonal
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝐢 𝐣
downward to the right (↘) are positive (+),
2 −3 −4 2 −3 whereas the products of terms on a diagonal
= |4 2 1| 4 2 lying upward to the right (↗) are negative (−).
= [(−3)(1) − (2)(−4)]𝐢 + [(−4)(4) − (1)(2)]𝐣 + [(2)(2) − (4)(−3)]𝐤

𝐚 ⨯ 𝐛 = 5𝐢 − 18𝐣 + 16𝐤
𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑧 𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑦
𝑎
b) 𝐜 ⨯ 𝐚 = | 𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 | 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑦
3 −1 −2 3 −1
= |2 −3 −4| 2 −3
= [(−1)(−4) − (−3)(−2)]𝐢 + [(−2)(2) − (−4)(3)]𝐣 + [(3)(−3) − (2)(−1)]𝐤
𝐜 ⨯ 𝐚 = −2𝐢 + 8𝐣 − 7𝐤
c) (𝐚 ⨯ 𝐛) ⨯ (𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜)
For 𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜:
𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜 = −𝐜 ⨯ 𝐚
= −(−2 + 8𝐣 − 7𝐤)
𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜 = 2𝐢 − 8𝐣 + 7𝐤
5 −18 16 5 −18
(𝐚 ⨯ 𝐛) ⨯ (𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜) = |2 −8 7| 2 −8
= [(−18)(7) − (−8)(16)]𝐢 + [(16)(2) − (7)(5)]𝐣 + [(5)(−8) − (2)(−18)]𝐤
(𝐚 ⨯ 𝐛) ⨯ (𝐚 ⨯ 𝐜) = 2𝐢 − 3𝐣 − 4𝐤
2. Refer to the cantilever framework shown in the figure and find the shortest distance
from point B to line AC and to line AD.
Given: 2’ D
8’
4’
C 8’
A
6’
W
4’
3’
B
Required: shortest distance from point B to the line AC and to the line AD
(0,4,-2)
Solution:
The shortest distance between a point
and a line is the perpendicular distance.
(0,4,8) Let: dAC = shortest distance from

point B to the line AC.
α
(8,0,0) dAD = shortest distance from
dAD θ
point B to the line AD.
dAC
(3,-6,4)
For dAC:
From the right Δ formed by lines AB, AC

and dAC: −8 4 8 −8 4
𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = | −5 −6 4 | −5 −6
𝑑𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝐢 𝐣
𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = (𝐴𝐶 )(𝐴𝐵) sin 𝜃 = [(4)(4) − (−6)(8)]𝐢
+[(8)(−5) − (4)(−8)]𝐣
|𝐀𝐂⨯𝐀𝐁|
𝑑𝐴𝐶
𝑑𝐴𝐶 = +[(−8)(−6) − (−5)(4)]𝐤
𝐴𝐶
𝐀𝐂 = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 + 𝑧𝐤 𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = 64𝐢 − 8𝐣 + 68𝐤
𝐀𝐂 = −8𝐢 + 4𝐣 + 8𝐤 |𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁| = √(64)2 + (8)2 + (68)2
𝐴𝐶 = √(8)2 + (4)2 + (8)2 |𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁| = √8784

|𝐀𝐂⨯𝐀𝐁| √8784
𝐴𝐶 = 12 𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝐴𝐶 = =
𝐴𝐶 12
𝐀𝐁 = −5𝐢 − 6𝐣 + 4𝐤 𝑑𝐴𝐶 = 7.81 𝑓𝑡
For dAD:
From the right Δ formed by lines AB, AD

and dAD: −8 4 −2 −8 4
𝐀𝐃 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = |−5 −6 4 | −5 −6
𝑑𝐴𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝐢 𝐣
𝐀𝐃 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = (𝐴𝐷)(𝐴𝐵) sin 𝛼 = [(16) − (12)]𝐢 + [(10) − (−32)]𝐣
+ [(48) − (−20)]𝐤
𝑑𝐴𝐷
|𝐀𝐃⨯𝐀𝐁| 𝐀𝐃 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁 = 4𝐢 + 42𝐣 + 68𝐤
𝑑𝐴𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷
|𝐀𝐃 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁| = √(4)2 + (42)2 + (68)2
𝐀𝐃 = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 + 𝑧𝐤
|𝐀𝐃 ⨯ 𝐀𝐁| = √6404
𝐀𝐃 = −8𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤
|𝐀𝐃⨯𝐀𝐁| √6404
𝐴𝐷 = √(8)2 + (4)2 + (2)2 𝑑𝐴𝐷 = =
𝐴𝐷 √84
𝐴𝐶 = √84 𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝐴𝐷 = 8.73 𝑓𝑡
𝐀𝐁 = −5𝐢 − 6𝐣 + 4𝐤
3. In the figure, if the force multiplier of a force P acting from A to D is Pm = 20 lb/ft,
determine the component of P that is perpendicular to the plane defined by points
E, A, and C.
Given: P acting from A to D
Pm = 20 lb/ft
Required: component of P that is perpendicular to the plane defined by points E, A,

and C, P⫠EAC
Solution:
(0,3,6) (0,0,-3)
P
(8,0,0)
(4,-5,0)
(0,-10,0)
A direction perpendicular to
P = 𝑃𝑚 (𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 + 𝑧𝐤) the plane defined by points E,
P = 20(−8𝐢 + 0𝐣 − 3𝐤) A, and C can be determined by
getting the direction of the
Let: n = unit vector perpendicular to plane EAC. cross product of any two sides
Then: 𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 𝐏 ∙ 𝐧 of the plane.
For n: e.g. EA ⨯ EC
𝐝 𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂 CA ⨯ CE
𝐧 = 𝑑 = |𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂|
AE ⨯ AC
AE = −8𝐢 + 3𝐣 − 6𝐤
AC = −8𝐢 − 10𝐣 + 0𝐤
−8 3 6 −8 3
𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂 = |−8 −10 0| −8 −10
= [(0) − (−60)]𝐢 + [(−48) − (0)]𝐣 + [(80) − (−24)]𝐤
𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂 = 60𝐢 − 48𝐣 + 104𝐤
|𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂| = √(60)2 + (48)2 + (104)2
|𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂| = √16720 𝑓𝑡 2

𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂
Therefore: 𝐧 = |𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂|
60𝐢−48𝐣+104𝐤
𝐧=
√16720
𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 𝐏 ∙ 𝐧
60𝐢−48𝐣+104𝐤
𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 20(−8𝐢 + 0𝐣 − 3𝐤) ∙
√16720
20
= [(−8)(60) + (0)(−48) + (−3)(104)]
√16720
𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = −122.5 𝑙𝑏
Note: the negative sign indicates that the direction of the component is in the opposite
direction of the cross product of 𝐀𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐂. Hence, the component 𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 is in the direction
of the cross product of 𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐄.
𝑃⫠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 122.5 𝑙𝑏 in the direction of the cross product of 𝐀𝐂 ⨯ 𝐀𝐄.
4. Refer to the system shown and find the
length of the common perpendicular
between lines BE and AD.
Given:
Required: length of the common

perpendicular between lines BE and AD.
Solution:
Let: N = BE ⨯ AD -------> represents the direction of the common perpendicular

between lines BE and AD
The projection on N of any vector joining BE and AD will

be the length of the common perpendicular.
Vectors joining BE and AD are AB and DE.
n = the unit vector in the direction of N.

𝐍 𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃
𝐧= = |BE
𝑁 ⨯ AD|
d = length of the common perpendicular

𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃
𝑑 = 𝐀𝐁 ∙ 𝐧 = 𝐀𝐁 ∙ |BE ⨯ AD|
BE = −4𝐢 + 8𝐣 + 6𝐤
AD = −8𝐢 + 0𝐣 − 3𝐤
AB = −4𝐢 − 5𝐣 + 0𝐤
−4 8 6 −4 8
𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃 = |−8 −0 −3| −8 0
= [(−24) − (0)]𝐢 + [(−48) − (12)]𝐣 + [(0) − (−64)]𝐤
𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃 = −24𝐢 − 60𝐣 + 64𝐤
|𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃| = √(24)2 + (60)2 + (64)2
|𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃| = √8272 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐁𝐄 ⨯ 𝐀𝐃
𝑑 = 𝐀𝐁 ∙ |BE ⨯ AD|
−24𝐢−60𝐣+64𝐤
= (−4𝐢 − 5𝐣 + 0𝐤) ∙
√8272
1
= [(−4)(−24) + (−5)(−60) + (0)(64)]
√8272
𝑑 = 4.35 𝑓𝑡
1.8 MOMENT OF A FORCE

The moment of a force about a point – the product of the
magnitude of the force by the perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force.
Moment arm – the perpendicular distance from the point to

the line of action of the force.
Figure 1.14. Example of the
concept of moment.
The magnitude of the moment of a force F

O about a center O is expressed by
𝑀𝑂 = 𝐹𝑑
The magnitude of the moment, MO, measures

Figure 1.15. Magnitude of the
the tendency of the force F to make the rigid
moment of a force.
body rotate about a fixed axis directed along
MO.
In some two-dimensional and many of the

three-dimensional problems, it is convenient to
use a vector approach for moment
O calculations. The moment of F about point O
may be represented by the cross-product
expression
𝐌𝑂 = 𝐫 ⨯ 𝐅
Where:
r = any position vector extending from
the moment center to any point on the action
line of the force.
Figure 1.16. The direction of MO is

indicated by the right-hand rule.
1.9 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS (VARIGNON’S THEOREM)
The principle of moment states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the
sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point.
Consider force F in Figure 1.17, with components

F1 and F2. And since F = F1 + F2, the moment of
force F about point O is
𝐌𝑂 = 𝐫 ⨯ 𝐅 = 𝐫 ⨯ (𝐅𝟏 + 𝐅𝟐 )
𝐌𝑂 = 𝐫 ⨯ 𝐅𝟏 + 𝐫 ⨯ 𝐅𝟐
A general symbolic statement of the theorem is
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = ∑ 𝐫 ⨯ 𝐅 (vector method)
Figure 1.17. Force F with

For coplanar forces, the principle of moments can
components F1 and F2 be used by resolving the force into its rectangular
components and then determine the moment
using a scalar analysis. Thus,
+↻ 𝑀𝑂 = 𝑦𝐹𝑥 − 𝑥𝐹𝑦 (scalar method)
In computing moments in coplanar force systems,

the scalar method is preferred.
Sign Convention
When dealing with moments it is important to

Figure 1.18. Coplanar force F apply a CONSISTENT sign convention with the
direction of the moment.
with components Fx and Fy
It doesn’t matter in which Look at which way the moment is turning. Is it

direction you apply the sign turning CLOCKWISE or COUNTERCLOCKWISE?
convention as long as you remain
Units of moment of a force
CONSISTENT. For instance:
If a moment is rotating In the SI system of units, where a force is

CLOCKWISE (↻) it is considered a expressed in newtons (N) and a distance in
POSITIVE moment. meters (m), the moment of a force is expressed in
newton-meters (N-m).
If a moment is rotating
COUNTERCLOCKWISE it is In the U.S. customary system of units, where a
considered a NEGATIVE (↺) force is expressed in pounds and a distance in
moment. feet or inches, the moment of a force is expressed
in lb-ft or lb-in.
Coplanar Applications
Examples:
1. In the figure given, assuming clockwise moments as

positive, compute the moment of force F = 450 lb
and of force P = 361 lb about points A, B,C and D.
Given: F = 450 lb and P = 361 lb, clockwise

moments are positive
Required: 𝑀𝐴𝐹 , 𝑀𝐵𝐹 , 𝑀𝐶𝐹 , 𝑀𝐷𝐹 and 𝑀𝐴𝑃 , 𝑀𝐵𝑃 , 𝑀𝐶𝑃 , 𝑀𝐷𝑃
Fx
Solution:
The slope of the line of action of the forces can be
determined based on the squares.
Fy
Resolve the force into their components:
4
𝐹𝑥 = (5) (450) = 360 𝑙𝑏
Py 3
𝐹𝑦 = (5) (450) = 270 𝑙𝑏
2
Px 𝑃𝑥 = ( ) (361) = 200.25 𝑙𝑏
√13
3
𝑃𝑦 = ( ) (361) = 300.37 𝑙𝑏
√13
𝐹 𝐹
𝑀𝐴𝐹 = 𝑀𝐴𝑥 + 𝑀𝐴𝑦
𝑀𝐴𝑃 = 0 (notice the line of action of force P
= 0 + (−270)(5) passes through point A)
𝑀𝐴𝐹 = −1350 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑃
𝑀𝐵𝑃 = 𝑀𝐵𝑥 + 𝑀𝐵𝑦
𝑃
𝑀𝐴𝐹 = 1350 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 counterclockwise = (0) + (−300.37)(1)

𝐹 𝐹𝑦
𝑀𝐵𝐹 = 𝑀𝐵𝑥 + 𝑀𝐵 𝑀𝐵𝑃 = −300.37 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
= (360)(6) + (0) 𝑀𝐵𝑃 = 300.37 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡counterclockwise
𝑀𝐵𝐹 = 2160 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 clockwise 𝑃

𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝑀𝐶𝑥 + 𝑀𝐶𝑦
𝑃
𝐹 𝐹𝑦
𝑀𝐶𝐹 = 𝑀𝐶𝑥 + 𝑀𝐶 = (−200.25)(3) + (−300.37)(2)
= (360)(3) + (270)(1) 𝑀𝐶𝑃 = −1201.49 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
𝑀𝐶𝐹 = 1350 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡clockwise 𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 1201.49 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 counterclockwise

𝐹 𝐹 𝑃 𝑃
𝑀𝐷𝐹 = 𝑀𝐷𝑥 + 𝑀𝐷𝑦 𝑀𝐷𝑃 = 𝑀𝐷𝑥 + 𝑀𝐷𝑦
= (360)(6) + (−270)(5) = (0) + (300.37)(4)

𝑀𝐷𝐹 = 810 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡clockwise 𝑀𝐷𝑃 = 1201.49 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 clockwise
2. If the moment of F about C is 750 lb-ft, find its moment about D.
Given: 𝑀𝐶𝐹 = 750 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
Required: 𝑀𝐷𝐹 Fy
Solution:
Fx
𝐹 𝐹
𝑀𝐶𝐹 = 𝑀𝐶𝑥 + 𝑀𝐶𝑦
750 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 = 0 + 𝐹𝑦 (5)
750
𝐹𝑦 = = 150 𝑙𝑏
5
3
𝐹𝑦 = 5 (𝐹)
𝐹 𝐹
𝑀𝐷𝐹 = 𝑀𝐷𝑥 + 𝑀𝐷𝑦
3
150 = 5 (𝐹)
= (200)(3) + (−150)(1)
𝐹 = 250 𝑙𝑏
𝑀𝐷𝐹 = 450 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
4 4
𝐹𝑥 = 5 (𝐹 ) = 5 (250)
𝐹𝑥 = 200 𝑙𝑏
3. In the figure, find the y coordinate of point A so that the 361 lb force will have a
clockwise moment of 400 lb-ft about O. Also determine the y-intercept of the action
line of the force.
Given: let F = 361 lb
Required: yA so that 𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 400 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 clockwise
y-intercept of the action line of force F, iy
Solution:
For yA: For iy:
Fy
√13 √13
Fx
Fy
Fx
iy
𝐹 𝐹𝑦
𝐹 𝐹 +↻𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 𝑀𝑂𝑥 + 𝑀𝑂
+↻𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 𝑀𝑂𝑥 + 𝑀𝑂𝑦
3
3 2 400 = ( ) (361)(𝑖𝑦 ) − 0
400 = ( ) (361)(𝑦𝐴 ) − ( ) (361)(2) √13
√13 √13
𝑖𝑦 = 1.33 𝑓𝑡 above point O
𝑦𝐴 = 2.67 𝑓𝑡
4. In the rocket arm shown, the moment of F

about O balances that of P about O. Find F.
Given: 𝑀𝑂𝐹 + 𝑀𝑂𝑃 = 0
Required: F
Solution: 1
𝐹𝑦 = ( )𝐹 O
√5
2 √5
𝐹𝑥 = ( )𝐹
√5
𝑃𝑥′ = 250 cos 73.74𝑜
α
2α=73.74o 3
α 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 36.87𝑜
4
O 𝑃𝑦′ = 250 sin 73.74𝑜
+↻ 𝑀𝑂𝐹 + 𝑀𝑂𝑃 = 0
𝐹 𝐹 𝑦 𝑃 ′ 𝑃 ′
(𝑀𝑂𝑥 + 𝑀𝑂𝑦 ) + (𝑀𝑂 𝑥 + 𝑀𝑂 ) = 0
2
[− ( ) 𝐹 (6) + 0] + [0 + (250 sin 73.74𝑜 )(5)] = 0
√5
𝐹 = 223.61 𝑙𝑏
5. The cable AB carries a tension of 400 N. Determine the moment about O of this
tension as applied to point A of the slender bar.
Given: Tension in cable AB, F = 400 N
Required: 𝑀𝑂𝐹
Solution: Solve for the length of AB using cosine law:
𝐴𝐵 = √(650)2 + (500)2 − 2(650)(500) cos 60𝑜

Fy
𝐴𝐵 = 589.49 𝑚𝑚
Solve for θ using sine law:
θ
sin 𝜃 sin 60𝑜
=
650 589.49
60o
Fx 𝜃 = 72.73𝑜
Solve for 𝑀𝑂𝐹 :

𝐹 𝐹
+↻ 𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 𝑀𝑂𝑥 + 𝑀𝑂𝑦
𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 0 − (400 sin 72.73𝑜 )(0.500)
= −190.98 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝑀𝑂𝐹 = 190.98 𝑁 − 𝑚 counterclockwise
For additional examples and explanations, read Chapter 2, pages 33-62 of your textbook.
After going through the prepared lessons, solve the following problems.
1. Find the moment of the 1.2 kN force about point A and about point B.
2. Given a Force at point A in the Figure below, determine the moment of the force
through O.
3. Given 2 vectors X and Y:

X = 4i – 2j
Y = -3i + 2j – 6k
Find: X × Y and Y∙X
The following problems are given to assess your ability to apply vector algebra and solve
moments of forces.
1. A 20-lb force is applied to the control rod AB as shown in Figure 2.1. Knowing that
the length of the rod is 9 in. and that a 5 258, determine the moment of the force
about point B by resolving the force into horizontal and vertical components.
2. A crate of mass 80 kg is held in the position shown in Figure 2.2. Determine:

(a) the moment produced by the weight W of the crate about E,
(b) the smallest force applied at A that creates a moment of equal magnitude and
opposite sense about E
(c) the magnitude, sense, and point of application on the bottom of the crate of
the smallest vertical force that creates a moment of equal magnitude and opposite
sense about E.
Fig. 2.1 Fig 2.2
MODULE 2
Resultant of Any Force System
This module covers the determination of the resultant of any force systems. The resultant of
a force system is defined as the simplest force system that produces the same external
effect on a body as the given force system. The concept of resultant is fundamental in the
study of both statics and dynamics.
This module comprises of 1 unit, and the unit is divided into 5 parts, namely, engage,
UNIT 1. RESULTANT OF ANY FORCE SYSTEM

At the end of this unit you should be able to demonstrate knowledge on the basic
concepts of force.
Before studying this unit, take the test to recall what you have discussed in physics about
resultants.
Directions. Solve the following problems using any applicable method of vector addition as
discussed in your subject Physics for Engineers.
1. Three forces are exerted on an object placed on a tilted floor. The three forces are
directed as shown in Figure E2.1 . If the forces have magnitudes F1 = 1.0 N, F2 = 8.0 N
and F3 = 7.0 N, what is the component of the net force Fnet = F 1 + F2 + F3 parallel to
the floor?
2. As shown in Figure E2.2, three force vectors act on an object. The magnitudes of the
forces as shown in the figure are F1 = 80.0 N, F2 = 60.0 N, and F3 = 40.0 N. Determine
the resultant force acting on the object.
Figure E2.1 Figure E2.2
2. 35.5 N at an angle 34.3° up to the right. 1. 2.5 N
Answer Key:
about resultant of force systems by answering the activities under the Elaborate and
Evaluation sections.
The resultant of a force system is defined as the simplest force system that produces the
same external effect on a body as the given force system.
The resultant of any force system can be found by applying the following laws or principles:
A. Parallelogram law
B. Principle of transmissibility
C. Principle of superposition
D. Varignon’s theorem
2.1 RESULTANT OF COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES

If a number of forces are acting simultaneously on a particle then it is possible to find out a
single force which could replace them, i.e, which would produce the same effect as
produced by the given forces. This single force is called the resultant force.
A principle associated with force systems that are in equilibrium which will be useful later is
the following principle of superposition:
A force system that is in equilibrium can be added to, or removed from, another
force system without changing the external effect of the latter.
Methods of adding three or more vectors:
1. Graphically
2. Analytically
Analytically
The vectors can be resolved into components that coincide with arbitrarily chosen axes.
The components of each vector with respect to these axes can be added algebraically,
and the resulting additions will be the components of the overall resultant vector.
Figure 2.1. Rectangular components of resultant
𝑅𝑥 = 𝛴𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑅𝑦 = 𝛴𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Magnitude of the resultant, R:
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
Inclination:
|𝑅𝑦 |
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ( )
|𝑅𝑥 |
The direction or sense of R is determined by the signs of its rectangular components.
The components of forces along coordinate axes may either be directed towards, or away
from, the positive side of the axis. It is necessary to adopt a sign convention for the
components of the forces.
Examples:
1. Determine the resultant of the four forces acting on the body shown in the figure
below.
Given:
224 lb 300 lb
√5
13
200 lb 390 lb
Required: resultant, R
Solution:
• Resolve the forces into their x and y components.
• Sign convention: +↑ and +→
Force magnitude x-component, lb y-component, lb
2 1
224 lb − ( ) (224) = −200.35 ( ) (224) = 100.18
√5 √5
300 lb 300 cos 30𝑜 = 259.81 300 sin 30𝑜 = 150
5 12
390 lb ( ) (390) = 150 −( ) (390) = −360
13 13
200 lb −200 cos 60𝑜 = −100 −200 sin 60𝑜 = −173.21
𝑅𝑥 = 𝛴𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 Magnitude of R:
𝑅𝑥 = −200.35 + 259.81 + 150 − 100 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅𝑥 = 109.46 𝑙𝑏
𝑅 = √(109.46)2 + (283.03)2
𝑅 = 303.36 lb
𝑅𝑦 = 100.18 + 150 − 360 − 173.21 |𝑅𝑦 | 283.03
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 (|𝑅 |) = tan−1 (109.46 )
𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = −283.03 𝑙𝑏
𝜃𝑥 = 68.86𝑜
R = 303.36 lb down to the right at 68.86o
2. The force system shown has a resultant of 200 lb pointing up along the y axis.
Compute the values of F and θ required to give this resultant. y
Given: Resultant, R = 200 lb ↑
Required: F and θ F
Solution:
+
→ 𝑅𝑥 = 𝛴𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
500 lb θ
0 = −500 + 𝐹𝑥 + 240 cos 30𝑜 x
30o
𝐹𝑥 = 292.15 𝑙𝑏
+↑ 𝑅𝑦 = 𝛴𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
240 lb
200 = 0 + 𝐹𝑦 − 240 sin 30𝑜
𝐹𝑦 = 320 𝑙𝑏
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(292.15)2 + (320)2
𝐹 = 433.30 𝑙𝑏
|𝐹𝑦 | 320
𝜃 = tan−1 (|𝐹 |) = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 292.15
𝜃 = 47.60𝑜
3. The block shown is acted on by its weight W = 400 lb,

horizontal force F = 600 lb, and the pressure P
exerted by the inclined plane. The resultant R of
these forces is parallel to the incline. Determine P
and R. Does the block move up or down the incline.
Given: Resultant, R is parallel to the incline.
Required: values of P and R, and the direction of motion of

the block.
y
Solution:
Let the x and y axes be parallel and perpendicular to x

30
the incline. o
Since R is parallel to the incline:
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅 and 𝑅𝑦 = 0
30
+↖ 𝑅𝑦 = 𝛴𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 o
0 = −600 sin 30𝑜 − 400 cos 30𝑜 + 𝑃 cos 15𝑜 15

30
o
o
𝑷 = 𝟔𝟔𝟗. 𝟐𝟏 𝒍𝒃
+↗ 𝑅𝑥 = 𝛴𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑅 = 600 cos 30𝑜 − 400 sin 30𝑜 − 𝑃 sin 15𝑜

𝑅 = 600 cos 30𝑜 − 400 sin 30𝑜 − 669.21 sin 15𝑜
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟏 𝒍𝒃
Since the resultant R is positive (indicating a direction upward the incline), the block will
move up the incline.
2.2 RESULTANT OF A SYSTEM OF CONCURRENT FORCES IN SPACE

The resultant of a system of concurrent forces in space in a manner similar to that used for
coplanar concurrent forces.
𝑅𝑥 = 𝛴𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑅𝑧 = 𝛴𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Magnitude of the resultant, R:
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2
Examples:
1. Determine the resultant of the system of concurrent forces having the following
magnitude and passing through the origin and the indicated points:
P = 140 lb (+3, -6, +2), T = 260 lb (-12, +4, -3), and F = 90 lb (+3, +6, -6). Also find the
direction angles of the resultant.
Given: P = 140 lb (+3, -6, +2); T = 260 lb (-12, +4, -3); and F = 90 lb (+3, +6, -6). All forces pass
through the origin.
Required: resultant, R and θx, θy, and θz

+
Solution: sign convention +↑, → , and +↙
Components of Force
Force Distance, Force components (lb)
distance multiplier,
(lb) d
x y z Fm x-comp y-comp z-comp
P = 140 +3 -6 +2 7 20 +60 -120 +40
T = 260 -12 +4 -3 13 20 -240 +80 -60
F = 90 +3 +6 -6 9 10 +30 +60 -60
Σ Rx = -150 Ry = +20 Rz= -80
(the solution for the values on the table are shown on the next page)
To get distance, d:
use 𝑑 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2
𝐹
For force multiplier of each force: 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑑
140 𝑙𝑏 260 𝑙𝑏 90 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑚 = = 20 𝑇𝑚 = = 20 𝐹𝑚 = = 10
7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 9 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 𝐹
For the components of each force: = = = = 𝐹𝑚
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑥𝑃𝑚 = (+3)(20) = +60 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑥𝑇𝑚 = (−12)(20) = −240 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑥𝐹𝑚 = (+3)(10) = +30

𝑃𝑦 = 𝑦𝑃𝑚 = (−6)(20) = −120 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑦𝑇𝑚 = (+4)(20) = +80 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑦𝐹𝑚 = (∓6)(10) = +60
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑧𝑃𝑚 = (+2)(20) = +40 𝑇𝑧 = 𝑧𝑇𝑚 = (−3)(20) = −60 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑧𝐹𝑚 = (−6)(10) = −60
For the resultant R: 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2
𝑅 = √(150)2 + (20)2 + (80)2
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 𝒍𝒃 pointing backward, up, and to the left.

For the direction cosines:
𝑅 150
𝜃𝑥 = cos −1 𝑅𝑥 = cos−1 171.17 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟎𝒐
𝑅𝑥 20
𝜃𝑦 = cos−1 𝑅
= cos −1 171.17 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟐𝟗𝒐
𝑅𝑥 80
𝜃𝑧 = cos −1 𝑅
= cos −1 171.17 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝒐
2.3 COUPLES
A couple is defined as a pair of equal, parallel, oppositely directed forces.
F a
Figure 2.2. Moment of a couple is independent of moment center
The moment of a couple about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple is defined
as the algebraic sum of the moments of the two forces constituting the couple about that
axis. Thus, the moment C of the couple in Figure 2.2 about B is
𝑪 = 𝐹(𝑑 + 𝑎) − 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑑
A unique property of a couple is that the moment sum of its forces is constant and
independent of any moment center.
Therefore, the moment of a couple C is equal to the product of one of the forces
composing the couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance between their action lines.
𝑪 = 𝐹𝑑
A couple lying on a given plane is specified by giving the magnitude of the moment of the
couple and its sense, which may be clockwise or counterclockwise.
Transformation of a Couple
There are changes that can be made on the magnitude and direction of the forces
constituting a couple as well as on the arm of the couple without producing a change in
the external effect of the couple.
A. The magnitude of the forces constituting a couple may be changed without

producing a change in external effect provided the arm of the couple is also
changed so that the moment of the couple remains the same.
B. A couple may be rotated in its plane without producing a change in external effect.
When a couple acts on a body, the external effect produced depends on
a) The magnitude of the couple.

b) The sense of the couple.
c) The orientation or aspect of the plane of the couple.
These three are referred to as the characteristics or specifications of a couple.
Examples:
1. Replace the system of forces acting on the frame by a resultant force R through A
and a couple acting horizontally through B and C.
Given:
Required: resultant R through A and a couple acting horizontally through B and C.
Solution: R
+↑ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
= −20 + 30 − 60
𝑅 = −50 𝑙𝑏 F
𝑅 = 50 𝑙𝑏 downward
=d
+↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐂 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
𝐹𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴 F
𝐹 (2) = −(20)(1) + (60)(4)

𝐹 = 110 𝑙𝑏
@ B: 𝐹 = 110 𝑙𝑏 to the right The rotation of the couple at B

and C is clockwise.
@ C: 𝐹 = 110 𝑙𝑏 to the left
2. A vertical force Pat A and another vertical
force F at B which act on the bar shown
produce a resultant force of 150 lb down at D
and a counterclockwise couple C = 300 lb-ft.
Find the magnitude and direction of forces P
and F.
Given: R = 150 lb and C = 300 lb-ft ↺ at D
Required: magnitude of force P acting at A and F acting at B.
Solution: P F The direction of forces P and

F are assumed.
Assume the direction of forces P and F.
+↑ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
−150 = 𝑃 − 𝐹 ------- equation ①
+↻ 𝑀𝐵𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐵
−150 − 300 = 𝑃(3)
𝑃 = −450 𝑙𝑏 ---------substitute in equation ① The negative sign indicate a

−150 = −450 − 𝐹 wrong assumed direction.
𝐹 = −300 𝑙𝑏
Therefore:
𝑃 = 450 𝑙𝑏 downward
𝐹 = 300 𝑙𝑏 upward
2.4 RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEMS
For a system of parallel forces not all in the same plane, the magnitude of the parallel
resultant force R is simply the magnitude of the algebraic sum of the given forces. The
position of its line of action is obtained from the principle of moments.
Examples:
1. Determine the amount and position of the resultant of the loads acting on the Fink
truss shown.
Given:
Required: magnitude and position of the

resultant, R
Solution:
7.5’
2.5’ R
x
+↑ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝑅 = −200 − 300 − 400 − 300 − 200
𝑅 = −3500 𝑙𝑏 (negative sign indicates that R is downward based on the sigh convention)
𝑅 = 3500 𝑙𝑏 ↓
+↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
3500 (𝑥) = (300)(7.5) + (2100)(10) + (400)(15) + (300)(22.5) + (200)(30)
𝑥 = 12 𝑓𝑡 to the right of point A
2. Find the values of P and F so that the four forces shown in the figure produce an
upward resultant of 300 lb acting at 4 ft from the left end of the bar.
Given: R = 300 lb ↑ at 4 ft from the left end
Required: magnitude of P and F
Solution:
R=300 lb
A
4 ft
4 ft
+↑ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
300 = −100 + 𝑃 − 𝐹 + 200
𝑃 − 𝐹 = 200 --------------------- equation ①
+↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
−300(4) = −(𝑃 )(2) + (𝐹 )(5) − (200)(7)
−2𝑃 + 5𝐹 = 200 --------------------- equation ②
Solve equations ① and ② simultaneously:
𝑃 = 400 𝑙𝑏
𝐹 = 200 𝑙𝑏
Distributed loadings
Sometimes, a body may be subjected to a loading that is distributed over its surface. For
example, the pressure of the wind on the face of a sign, the pressure of water within a
tank, or the weight of sand on the floor of a storage container, are all distributed loadings.
The pressure exerted at each point on the surface indicates the intensity (w) of the loading.
Uniformly distributed load:
For uniformly distributed load, the location

of the force resultant is always the center
point (centroid) of the distributed load.
For a triangular line load, it can be shown

that the force resultant is one half of the
peak value of the distributed load
multiplied by the distance over which it
acts. The location of the force resultant is
Triangular loading: two-thirds of the distance from the vertex
to the peak value of the load.
This resultant force is equivalent to the

area under the loading diagram, and has
a line of action that passes through the
centroid
or geometric center of this area.
Example:
1. The beam AB in the figure supports a load which varies uniformly from an intensity of
60 lb/ft to 180 lb/ft. Calculate the magnitude and position of the resultant load.
Given:
Required: magnitude and position of the resultant,
Solution:
Replace the loading by two triangular loadings:

R2 L/3 = 4’
L/3 = 4’ R1 R
A2
A1
𝑅1 = 𝐴1
1 60𝑙𝑏
𝑅1 = (12𝑓𝑡) ( ) = 360 𝑙𝑏
2 𝑓𝑡
𝑅2 = 𝐴2
1 180𝑙𝑏
𝑅2 = (12𝑓𝑡 ) ( ) = 1080 𝑙𝑏
2 𝑓𝑡
+↑ 𝑅 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝑅 = −𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= −360 − 1080
𝑅 = −1440 𝑙𝑏
𝑅 = 1440 𝑙𝑏 downward
+↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
1440 (𝑥) = (360)(4) + (1080)(8)
x = 7 ft to the left of A
2.5 RESULTANT OF NON-CONCURRENT AND NON-PARALLEL FORCE
SYSTEMS
Examples:
1. Compute the resultant of the three forces acting on the plate shown. Locate its
intersection with AB and AC.
Given:
Required: Resultant R and points of

+→ 𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
intersection with AB and AC
1 4 2
Solution: 𝑅𝑥 = (632) + (1000) − (722)
√10 5 √13
𝑅𝑥 = +599.36 𝑙𝑏
+↑ 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
3 3 3
𝑅𝑦 = (632) − (1000) − (722)
√10 5 √13
2 𝑅𝑦 = −601.17 𝑙𝑏
3 √13 5
3
4 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅 = √(599.36)2 + (601.17)2
√10 𝑅 = 848.90 lb
3
1 |𝑅𝑦 |
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 (|𝑅 |) = tan−1 (
601.17
)
𝑥 599.36
𝜃𝑥 = 45.09𝑜
For the points of intersection of the resultant with AB and AC:
To obtain the position of the line of action of the

resultant, assume that the resultant force
v 2
intersects the lines AB and BC in the position
3 √13 5 shown in the figure. When the resultant force is
3
4 resolved at its point of intersection along line AB
into horizontal and vertical components, only the
horizontal component has a moment at A and at
√10 B. Hence:
3
+↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
1
3 2
−599.36(𝑣) = − (632)(4) − (722)(3)
√10 √13
R v = 2” below A
h
+↻ 𝑀𝐵𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐵
3 4
601.17(ℎ ) = − (632)(2) + (1000)(6) −
5
√10
2
(722)(3)
√13
h = 4” to the right of B
2. Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on the dam shown and locate its
intersection with the base AB. For good design, this intersection should occur within
the middle third of the base. Does it?
Given:
Required: Resultant R and its point of intersection with base AB
Solution:
+→ 𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝑅𝑥 = 10000 − 6000 cos 30𝑜
𝑅𝑥 = 4803.85 𝑙𝑏
+↑ 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝑅𝑦 = −24000 − 6000 sin 30𝑜

Fy
𝑅𝑦 = −27000 𝑙𝑏
30o
Fx 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅 = √(4803.85)2 + (27000)2
𝑅 = 27424.02 𝑙𝑏
R
|𝑅𝑦 | 27000
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 (|𝑅 |) = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 4803.85
𝜃𝑥 = 79.91𝑜
After solving for the magnitude and direction of

the resultant R, assume the resultant intersects AB
at a distance x to the left of B. Since the
perpendicular distance of force F to point B is
given, let point B be the moment center. When
the resultant force is resolved at its point of
intersection along line AB into horizontal and
vertical components, only the vertical
component has a moment at B. Hence:
+↻ 𝑀𝐵𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐵
−27000(𝑥) = (10000)(6) − (24000)(11) − 6000(4)
x = 8.44 ft to the left of B
Yes, the resultant intersects the middle third of the

base of the dam.
3. The Howe roof truss shown carries the given loads. The wind loads are perpendicular
to the inclined members. Determine the resultant and its intersection with AB.
Given:
Required: Resultant R and its point of intersection with AB
Solution:
1
2
√5
+→ 𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
R
1 )
𝑅𝑥 = (1120 + 2240 + 1120)
√5
x
𝑅𝑥 = 2003.52 𝑙𝑏
+↑ 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
2
𝑅𝑦 = − (1120 + 2240 + 1120) − 3000 − 2000 − 1000
√5
𝑅𝑦 = −10007.03 𝑙𝑏
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
𝑅 = √(2003.52)2 + (10007.03)2
𝑅 = 10205.62 𝑙𝑏 +↻ 𝑀𝐴𝐑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴
|𝑅𝑦 |
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 (|𝑅 |) = tan−1 (
10007.03
) 10007.03(𝑥) = (3000)(10) + (2000)(20)
2003.52
𝑥 + (1000)(30) + (2240)(11.18)
𝜃𝑥 = 78.68𝑜 + (1120)(22.36)
R = 10205.62 lb down to the right at 78.68o x = 15 ft to the right of A
For additional examples and explanations, read Chapter 2, pages 62-71 of your textbook.
Practice solving other problems given from your textbook.
After going through the prepared lessons, answer the following questions/statements.
1. Define resultant force.
2. Illustrate by means of a diagram the principle of superposition.
3. Give three characteristics of a couple.
The following problems are given to assess your ability to solve problems on resultant forces.
1. R is the resultant of the four forces A, B, C, and D. Find the magnitude of the angle θ
and the magnitude of C.
A= 2200 N R= 1800 N
4
3 θ
B = 450 N 5
12 D=580 N
C
2. Particle A lies on the xy plane and is acted on by the three forces shown. Find the
resultant of the three forces. Also find the direction cosines of the resultant.
3. Where must the force R be applied so
that its external effect on the bar ABC
will be the same as the combined
effects of F1 and F2? What is the
magnitude of R?
4. Determine the resultant of the force system. Indicate where the line of action of the
resultant intersects the line AB.
900 N
B C
75mm
125mm
1730 N
75mm
D
A
200mm 100mm 100mm
450 N
MODULE 3
Equilibrium of Force Systems
Statics deals primarily with the description of the force conditions necessary and sufficient
to maintain the equilibrium of engineering structures. This module constitutes the
most important part of statics, and the procedures developed here form the basis for
solving problems in both statics and dynamics. The concepts involving forces, moments,
couples, and resultants will be used on the application of the principles of
equilibrium.
This module comprises of 1 unit, and the unit is divided into 5 parts, namely, engage,
UNIT 1. EQUILLIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS

At the end of this unit you should be able to solve problems involving equilibrium of force
systems.
Before studying this unit, use the graphical method to solve the given problem below to
recall what you have discussed in physics about the head-to-tail rule of constructing
vector/force diagrams and about Newton’s 1st Law of motion.
An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC. The
string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as shown,
determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.
What scale did you use?

Were you able to get the values of the forces in strings AC (TAC) and BC (TBC) close to 1.0 N
and 7.8 N respectively?
about resultant of force systems by answering the activities under the Elaborate and
Evaluation sections.
3.1 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium – the term used to designate the condition where the resultant of a force
system is zero.
A body is to be in equilibrium when it is at rest or is moving along a straight line path with
constant velocity.
Equilibrant – a force which is equal in magnitude and opposite to the direction of the
resultant.
3.2 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the
resultant force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium
equations
∑ 𝐅 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐌 = 0
Which are equivalent to the following six scalar equations:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
And
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
If all the force summations are zero, the resultant cannot be a single force but may be a
couple. The possibility of the resultant being a couple is eliminated if all the moment
summations are also zero.
3.3 FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS (FBD)
In solving a problem concerning a rigid body in equilibrium, it is essential to consider all of
the forces acting on the body. It is equally important to exclude any force that is not
directly applied to the body. Omitting a force
or adding an extraneous one would destroy the conditions of equilibrium. Therefore, the
first step in solving the problem is to draw a free-body diagram of the rigid body under
consideration.
Free-body diagram – a sketch of an isolated body (or group of bodies) showing all the
forces that other bodies exert on the isolated body.
Steps in constructing the free-body diagram:
1. A sketch of the body is drawn assuming that all supports (surfaces of contact,
supporting cables, etc.) have been removed.
2. All applied forces are drawn and labeled on the sketch. The weight of the body is
considered to be an applied force acting at the center of gravity.
3. The support reactions are drawn and labeled on the sketch. If the sense of a
reaction is unknown, it should be assumed. The solution will determine the correct
sense: A positive result indicates that the assumed sense is correct, whereas a
negative result means that the correct sense is opposite to the assumed sense.
4. All relevant angles and dimensions are shown on the sketch.
You should keep the following points in mind when you are drawing free-body
diagrams.
1. Be neat. Because the equilibrium equations will be derived directly from the free-
body diagram, it is essential that the diagram be readable.
2. Clearly label all forces, angles, and distances with values (if known) or symbols (if the
values are not known).
3. The support reactions must be consistent with the information presented in Table 3.1.
4. Show only forces that are external to the body (this includes support reactions and
the weight). Internal forces occur in equal and opposite pairs and thus will not
appear on free-body diagrams.
The free-body diagram is the most

important single step in the solution of
problems in mechanics.
Table 3.1 Action of Forces
Examples of FBDs:
3.4 EQUILIBRIUM OF PLANAR SYSTEMS
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∑𝑀 = 0
The three steps in the equilibrium analysis of a body are:

1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the body that shows all of the forces and
couples that act on the body.
2. Write the equilibrium equations in terms of the forces and couples that appear on
the free-body diagram.
3. Solve the equilibrium equations for the unknowns.
Examples:
1. A 300-lb box is held at rest on a smooth incline by a force P making an angle θ with
the incline as shown. If θ = 45o, determine the value of P.
Given: θ = 45o
Required: Value of P +↗ ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 0

Solution:
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 − 300𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 = 0
FBD:
𝑃 = 212.13 𝑙𝑏
y
W=300 lb Alternate method: (Force triangle or Lami’s
30o x theorem)
Sine Law:
P
𝑃 300
45o = 𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜
𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜
105o
𝑃 = 212.13 𝑙𝑏
45o N 30o W=300 lb
2. In the figure, if P is known to be 160 lb, determine the values of α and θ that
maintain equilibrium.
Given: P = 160 lb
Required: α and θ
Solution:
FBD:
T=200 lb
Force triangle:
For θ:
Cosine Law:
P = 160 lb θ (200)2 = (160)2 + (300)2 − (2)(160)(300)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
θ = 38.05o
W=300 lb For α
(160)2 = (200)2 + (300)2 − (2)(200)(300)𝑐𝑜𝑠α

T=200 lb
α α = 29.54o
3. Cords are looped around a small spacer separating two cylinders each weighing
400 lb and pass as shown in the figure, over frictionless pulleys to weights of 200 lb
and 600 lb. Determine the angle θ and the normal reaction N between the cylinders
and the smooth surface inclined up the right at 15 o with the horizontal.
Given:
Required: angle θ and the normal reaction N

Solution:
FBD:
y
600 lb
θ – 15o
200 lb x
15o N
+↗ ∑ 𝑥 = 0
−200𝑐𝑜𝑠15𝑜 + 600cos (𝜃 − 15𝑜 ) − 800𝑠𝑖𝑛15𝑜 = 0
𝜃 = 63.16𝑜
+↖ ∑ 𝑦 = 0
200𝑠𝑖𝑛15𝑜 − 800𝑐𝑜𝑠15𝑜 + 600𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 − 15𝑜 ) + 𝑁 = 0
𝑁 = 273.97 𝑙𝑏
3.5 FURTHER DISCUSSION OF PLANAR EQUILIBRIUM
Observe that there are only THREE independent equations of equilibrium:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∑𝑀 = 0
If equations that are not independent are obtained, it may be because the selected axes
or moment centers does not permit the one unknown to be found independently of the
other two. It is best to choose other axes or moment centers until the three independent
equations are obtained. In applying moment summations, it is best to select the moment
center at the intersection of two of the unknowns, thereby eliminating these unknowns
from the moment summation.
Examples:
1. Determine the forces P, F, and T required to keep the triangular frame ABC shown in
equilibrium.
Given:
By ratio and proportion

solve for the distances
CD and CE.
3 𝐶𝐷
Required: values of P, F, and T 1
= 8
Solution:
FBD: CD = 24’
Then AD = 12’
3 𝐶𝐸
2
= 8
CE= 12’
D E
Px Fx
Py
Fy
CD= 24’ CE= 12’
To solve for the forces independently, extend the action line of two unknown forces and
take the moment of forces at the point of intersection. (Recall the moment of a force
about a point along its line of action is zero)
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 forces P and F are concurrent at B

(3600)(12) − (𝑇)(8) = 0
𝑇 = 5400 𝑙𝑏
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 forces P and T are concurrent at D. Resolve
2
−(3600)(12) + (1200)(24) + (𝐹)(36) = 0 force F at E into horizontal and vertical
√13
𝐹 = 721.11 𝑙𝑏 components. The moment of Fx at D is zero.
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 forces F and T are concurrent E. Resolve

1
(3600)(24) − (1200)(12) − (𝑃)(36) = 0 force P at D into horizontal and vertical
√10
𝑃 = 6324.56 𝑙𝑏 components. The moment of Px at E is zero.
2. The weight of the trapezoidal block is 7200 lb acting where shown the figure. The
ground reaction varies uniformly from an intensity of pA lb/ft at A to pB lb/ft at B.
Determine pA and pB.
Given:
Required: pA and pB 1
𝑅1 = 𝐴1 = 2 (12)(𝑝𝐴 ) = 6𝑝𝐴
Solution:
FBD: 1
𝑅2 = 𝐴2 = 2 (12)(𝑝𝐵 ) = 6𝑝𝐵
+↻ ∑ 𝑀② = 0
𝑅1 (4) − 7200(8 − 5) = 0
6𝑝𝐴 (4) − 7200 (3) = 0
𝑝𝐴 = 900 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡
② A2
① +↻ ∑ 𝑀① = 0
A1 −𝑅2 (4) + 7200(5 − 4) = 0
−6𝑝𝐵 (4) + 7200(1) = 0

R1 R2
4’ 4’ 4’ 𝑝𝐵 = 300 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡
3. A pulley of 1-ft radius, supporting a load of 500 lb, is
mounted at B on a horizontal beam as shown in the
figure. If the beam weighs 200 lb and the pulley
weighs 50 lb, find the hinge force at C.
Given: Beam weight, WB = 200 lb
Pulley weight, WP = 50 lb
Required: Hinge force at C
Solution: Let Rc = hinge force at C.
FBD:
Pulley:
5
T=500 lb
From the FBD of the pulley:
WP=50 lb
BH +→ ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 0
4
T=500 lb 𝐵𝐻 − (500) = 0
5
BV
𝐵𝐻 = 400 𝑙𝑏 → 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦
+↑ ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 0
Beam: 3
𝐵𝑉 + 5 (500) − 50 − 500 = 0
BV
𝐵𝑉 = 250 𝑙𝑏 ↑ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦
BH
CH From the FBD of the beam:
+→ ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 0
RA CV 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐵𝐻 = 0
WB=200 lb
𝐶𝐻 = 400 𝑙𝑏 →
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
200(2.5) + 𝐵𝑉 (3) − 𝐶𝑉 (5 = 0
The pulley is mounted on the beam by a hinge
at B. Isolate each part of the system for the FBD. 200(2.5) + (250)(3) − 𝐶𝑉 (5) = 0
Assume directions for the reactions of the
support and of the hinge at B (Action of forces 𝐶𝑉 = 250 𝑙𝑏 ↑
are illustrated on Table 3.1).
Hinge force at C:
If the a negative value will be obtained for the
assumed directions, it indicates that the assumed
𝑅𝐶 = √𝐶𝐻 2 + 𝐶𝑉 2
direction is wrong and that the direction is in the
opposite of the assumed direction.
𝑅𝐶 = 471.70 𝑙𝑏
Observe the direction of the forces in B as it acts |𝐶 | 250
on the pulley and on the beam. 𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 (|𝐶𝑉 |) = tan−1 (400)
𝐻
𝑜
𝜃𝑥 = 32.01
𝑅𝐶 = 471.70lb up to the right at 32.01o
4. A 12-ft bar of negligible weight rests in a horizontal position on the smooth inclines.
Compute the distance x at which load T = 100 lb should be placed from point B to
keep the bar horizontal.
Given: T = 100 lb
Required: distance x
Solution:
FBD:
T=100 lb
45o
30o
NA NB
To solve for x, sum moments at B.
NA 30o P=200 lb To solve for NA, use sine law from the
force triangle.
105o 𝑁𝐴 300
= sin 105𝑜
sin 45𝑜
45o T=100 lb
NB
𝑁𝐴 = 219.62 𝑙𝑏
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
(𝑁𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 )(12) − 𝑃 (9) − 𝑇(𝑥) = 0
(219.62𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 )(12) − 200 (9) − 100(𝑥) = 0
𝑥 = 4.82 𝑓𝑡
5. The Fink truss is supported by a hinge at A and by rollers on a 1 to 2 slope at B. The
bracing bars are normal to the inclined members at their midpoints. The wind loads
are perpendicular to AC. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
reactions at A and B.
Given:
12’
B
12’
B
Required: AH, AV, BH, and BV

Solution:
FBD:
Solve for distance AC by
‘ Pythagorean theorem:
𝐴𝐶 = √(12)2 + (36)2 = 37.95 𝑓𝑡
3 √10 3
1 Solve for θ:
1 12
√10 12’ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 37.95
θ B BH θ = 18.43o
AH 72’-2m = 32’
m m Solve for distance m:
√5
2 18.975
AV 𝑐𝑜𝑠18.43𝑜 = 𝑚
BV 1
RB m = 20 ft.
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
(8400)(20) + (18000)(52) + (3160)(18.975) + (1580)(37.95) − 𝐵𝑉 (72) = 0
𝐵𝑉 = 17000 𝑙𝑏 ↑
For BH:
1
𝐵𝐻 = 𝑅𝐵
√5
2
And 𝐵𝑉 = 𝑅𝐵
√5
√5 √5
Then 𝑅𝐵 = 𝐵
2 𝑉
= 2
(17000)
𝑅𝐵 = 19006.58 𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡

1 1
𝐵𝐻 = 𝑅𝐵 = (19006.58)
√5 √5
𝐵𝐻 = 8500 𝑙𝑏 ←
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
3 3 3
𝐴𝑉 − (1580) − (3160) − (1580) − 8400 − 18000 + 𝐵𝑉 = 0
√10 √10 √10
3 3 3
𝐴𝑉 − (1580) − (3160) − (1580) − 8400 − 18000 + 17000 = 0
√10 √10 √10
𝐴𝑉 = 15395.68 𝑙𝑏 ↑
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
1 1 1
𝐴𝐻 + (1580) + (3160) + (1580) − 𝐵𝐻 = 0
√10 √10 √10
1 1 1
𝐴𝐻 + (1580) + (3160) + (1580) − 8500 = 0
√10 √10 √10
𝐴𝐻 = 6501.44 𝑙𝑏 →
3.5 EQUILIBRIUM OF SPATIAL SYSTEMS

Equilibrium of concurrent spatial systems of forces is determined by applying either set of
the following equations or a combination of them. However, since there are only three
independent conditions of equilibrium, no more than three unknown quantities may be
determined.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
And
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
To create equilibrium of non-concurrent spatial systems of forces, both sets of the above
equations must be satisfied. Hence, a general spatial system in equilibrium may be solved
for as many as, but no more than six quantities
For additional examples and explanations, read Chapter 32, pages 76-109 of your
textbook. Practice solving other problems given from your textbook.
After going through the prepared lessons, draw a complete and correct free-body
diagram of each of the bodies designated in the statements. The weights of the bodies are
significant only if the mass is stated. All forces, known and unknown, should be labeled.
(Note: The sense of some reaction components cannot always be determined without
numerical calculation.)
The following problems are given to assess your ability to solve problems on equilibrium of
force systems.
1. The beam is subjected to a load F = 400 N

and is supported by the rope and the
smooth surfaces at A and B.
a. Draw the free-body diagram of the
beam.
b. What are the magnitudes of the
reactions at A and B?
2. For the beam shown:

a. Draw the free-body diagram of
the beam.
b. Determine the reactions at the
supports.
3. Three cables are joined at the junction ring C.

Determine the tensions in cables AC and BC
caused by the weight of the 30-kg cylinder.
MODULE 4
Analysis of Structures
The basic principles and techniques of

statical analysis has been discussed in
Module 3. The concepts will now be
extended to the determination of how the
loads applied to a structure are distributed
throughout the structure. Among these
structures are trusses, frames, and beams.
This module is concerned with the

determination of the external and internal
forces in plane trusses, frames, and beams.
UNIT 1. ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
Before studying this unit, think of examples of trusses you have seen. Shown in the pictures
below are some structures where trusses are used.
For roof construction
Photo by Yuri Suba
Train station ceiling
Kyoto Train Station by Yuri Suba
A truss tower
Tokyo Tower by Yuri Suba
about external and internal forces in plane structures by answering the activities under the
Elaborate and Evaluation sections.
4.1 CONSTRUCTION TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of members fastened together in such a way as to resist

change in shape; it is a rigid structure. The term ‘rigid’ being used here to indicate that the
truss will not collapse.An example of a truss is shown in Figure 4.1. This truss is composed of
thirteen members. The bars making up the truss are called members and the connections
at the ends of each members are called joints. The upper chord is made up of the bars BD
and DF. The bottom chord is made up of the four bars AC, CE, EG, and GH. The web
members are bars BC, BE, DE, EF, and FG.
Figure 4.1. Plane truss
A truss is an effective structure for carrying large loads that act at the joints and which lie
on the plane of the truss. Massive loads that cannot otherwise be supported by beams of
realistic dimensions can be carried safely be well designed trusses.
The determination of the forces acting on the members of a truss is simplified by the
following assumptions:
1. The members are joined together at their ends by smooth pins.

In practice, the members at each joint are usually riveted or welded to a plate,
called a gusset plate.
Figure 4.2. Gusset plate

2. The weight of the truss members is negligible in comparison with the applied
loads.
3. All applied loads act at the ends of the members.
It follows from the foregoing assumptions that every member of a truss is a two-force
member, and therefore the force acting at each end of the member will be directed
along the axis of the member. A two-force member is a member held in equilibrium by only
two forces.
In the actual design of a truss it is important to state whether the nature of the force is
tensile or compressive. Often, compression members must be made thicker than tension
members because of the buckling or column effect that occurs when a member is in
compression.
Notations
The double subscript notation for forces is not appropriate for the analysis of trusses. It is
more convenient to give the axial forces the same names as those of the members on
which they act. For instance, the force in member AB will be called AB or BA and the force
in member AC will be called AC or CA. The reaction at a support will be given a one-letter
name and a subscript which is the joint on which the force is acting.
Note: Tension arrows are always indicated by an arrow away from the pin and
compression by an arrow toward the pin.
Compression
Tension
Figure 4.3. Tensile forces elongate (stretch) the member,

whereas compressive forces compress (shorten) it.
Simple Truss
The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle. Three bars joined by pins at their ends,
constitute a rigid frame. A simple truss is a planar truss which begins with a triangular
element and can be expanded by adding two members and a joint. For these trusses, the
number of members (m) and the number of joints (j) are related by the equation
2j = m + 3
If 2j<m+3, there are less equations available then there are unknowns. The truss is statically
indeterminate
If 2j<m+3, there are too few members. The truss is unstable.
Redundant / zero force members
The only use of zero force members is to increase stability of the truss during construction or
provide support when applied loading is changed.
In general, if three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear,
the third member is a zero-force member provided no external force or support reaction is
applied to the joint.
Figure 4.4. (a) Joint A in a truss connects three

members, two in a straight line and the third
along the line of a load. Force in the third
member equals the load. (b) If the load is zero,
the third member is a zero-force member.
Example:
1. Identify the zero-force members in the truss.
By inspection:
CB = 0
CD = 0
AE = 0
DE = 0
4.2 METHOD OF JOINTS
In this method, free body diagrams of the joints or pins are constructed, usually after the
reactions at the supports have been determined. Each pin is in equilibrium under the
action of a concurrent force system. Since there are only two independent equations of
equilibrium for a concurrent, coplanar force system, it is preferable to first isolate those pins
where the number of unknowns does not exceed two. Consistency must always be
maintained using Newton’s 3rd law of motion.
The method consists of the following steps:

1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss, and use this diagram to determine the
reactions at the supports.
2. Locate a joint connecting only two members, and draw the free-body diagram of its
pin. Use this free-body diagram to determine the unknown force in each of the two
members. If only three forces are involved (the two unknown forces and a known
one), you will probably find it more convenient to draw and solve the corresponding
force triangle. If more than three forces are involved, you should write and solve the
equilibrium equations for the pin, ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0, assuming that the members
are in tension. A positive answer means that the member is in tension, a negative
answer means that the member is in compression. Once you have found the forces,
enter their values on a sketch of the truss with T for tension and C for compression.
3. Next, locate a joint where the forces in only two of the connected members are still
unknown. Draw the free-body diagram of the pin and use it as indicated in Step 2 to
determine the two unknown forces.
4. Repeat this procedure until you have found the forces in all the members of the
truss.
5. Note that the choice of the first joint is not unique. Once you have determined the
reactions at the supports of the truss, you can choose either of two joints as a
starting point for your analysis.
Examples:
1. Find the axial forces in the members of the truss shown.
Given:
Required: Force in each member of the truss

Solution:
Solve for the reactions by constructing a free diagram of the truss and using the equations
of equilibrium.
AH
RE
AV
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 0
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
𝐴𝑉 (4.8) − 6(3.6) − 9(2.4) − 6(1.2) = 0

𝐴𝑉 = 10.5 𝑘𝑁 ↑
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
−𝑅𝐸 (4.8) + 6(3.6) + 9(2.4) + 6(1.2) = 0

𝑅𝐸 = 10.5 𝑘𝑁 ↑
The FBD of joint A is constructed and the forces in
members AB and AC are obtained. (Always assume the
unknown member forces acting on the joint’s FBD to be in
tension).
AB
5 +↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
3
4 3
10.5 + (5) (𝐴𝐵) = 0
A
AF 𝐴𝐵 = −17.5 𝑘𝑁 negative sign means that the member
is in compression. AB = 17.5 kN (C)
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
4
AV = 10.5 kN 𝐴𝐹 + (5) (𝐴𝐵) = 0 substitute the computed value of AB.
4
𝐴𝐹 + (5) (−17.5) = 0
𝐴𝐹 = 14 𝑘𝑁 AF = 14 kN (T)
BF Joint F is isolated next. (It is not advisable to isolate joint B
at this stage since there are three unknown forces acting
on B.)
FG +↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
F
AF = 14 kN 𝐵𝐹 − 6 = 0
𝐵𝐹 = 6 𝑘𝑁 BF = 6 kN (T)
6 kN
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝐹𝐺 − 14 = 0
𝐹𝐺 = 14 𝑘𝑁 FG = 14 kN (T)
Joint B can now be isolated and only two unknowns will
y appear in the FBD since the forces AB and BF are already
x known.
BC
3
Since tan−1 (4) = 36.87𝑜 , then angle 𝜃 = 2(36.87𝑜 ) = 73.74𝑜
B
θ +↖ ∑ 𝑌 = 0
3 3 −𝐵𝐺 sin 73.74𝑜 − 6 cos 36.87𝑜 = 0
4 4
BG 𝐵𝐺 = −5 𝑘𝑁 BG = 5 kN (C)
BF=6 kN +↗ ∑ 𝑋 = 0
17.5 + 𝐵𝐶 − 6 sin 36.87𝑜 + 𝐵𝐺 cos 73.74𝑜 = 0
17.5 + 𝐵𝐶 − 6 sin 36.87𝑜 + (−5) cos 73.74𝑜 = 0
𝐵𝐶 = −12.5 𝑘𝑁 BC = 12.5 kN (C)
Since the truss is symmetrical and is loaded symmetrically, then the following forces are
equal:
AB = DE AF = HE BF = DH FG = GH BC = CD BG = DG
The force in member CG is found by isolating joint D.
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
3
3 3 2 (5) (12.5) − 𝐶𝐺 = 0
4 4
𝐶𝐺 = 15 𝑘𝑁 CG = 15 kN (T)
CG
Summary of forces:
Finally, the results are tabulated showing the members, magnitudes of forces and their
nature. Sometimes, tensile force is represented with a + sign and compressive force with a
–sign.
Note: The force table is generally prepared, when force in all the members of a truss are
required to be found out.
Member Tension Compression

AB 17.5 kN
Chords
BC 12.5 kN
Top
CD 12.5 kN
DE 17.5 kN
BF 6 kN
Members
BG 5 kN
Web
CG 15 kN
DG 5 kN
DH 6 kN
AF 14 kN
Bottom
Chords
FG 14 kN
GH 14 kN
HE 14 kN
4.3 METHOD OF SECTIONS

Situations arise when we are only interested in determining the axial forces in a few
selected members of a truss. The method of sections permits us to determine directly the
force in almost any member instead of proceeding to that member by a joint-to-joint
analysis.
In this method, some members of the truss are imagined to be cut by passing a section,,
Figure 4.4, which divides the truss into two parts. One or
more of the members that are cut by the section must
be the members whose axial forces are to be
determined. In rare instances, the cutting section may
have to divide the truss into more than two parts. One
part of the truss is then isolated and all forces acting on
it are shown to obtain a free body diagram.
Among the forces that will appear in the FBD are the
axial force in the members that are cut. Unless all the
bars that are cut are connected to a common pin, the
resulting force is non-concurrent, non-parallel and
coplanar for which there are three independent
equations of equilibrium.
It is essential that the cutting section does not cut more

than three members whose internal forces are
unknown, because the method of sections is based on
the equilibrium of coplanar force systems for which only
three independent equations of equilibrium are
available to solve for three unknowns.
The cutting section need not be straight; its purpose is

to isolate the truss segment selected as the free body
without involving more than three unknowns.
Figure 4.4. (a) Cutting section
through members FE, BE, and BC.
(b) FBD of the left side and the
right side of the section.
Example:
1. For the truss shown, determine each of the forces in bars BD, CD, and CE by means
of an equilibrium equation that determines it independently of the others.
Given:
Required: BD, CD, and CE
Solution:
The values of the support reactions are first obtained from the FBD of the truss.
a
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 0
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0
𝐴𝑉 (40) − (1200 + 400)(25) − (600 + 200)(10) = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 1200 𝑙𝑏 ↑
AH +↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
−𝑅𝐹 (40) + (1200 + 400)(15) + (600 + 200)(30) = 0
𝑅𝐹 = 1200 𝑙𝑏 ↑
AV a
RF
Section a-a cuts the bars BD, CD, and CE. The left side or right side of section a-a can be
isolated as the FBD. Assume tension for the forces BD, CD, and CE.
Isolating the right side of section a-a:

By summing moments about C, force BD can be
determined independently.
√10
1 BD Resolve the horizontal and vertical components of BD at B.
3
The moment of the vertical component of BD at C is zero.
CD
√2 1 +↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
1 3
1200(15) + (𝐵𝐷)(20) = 0
CE √10
𝐵𝐷 = −948.68 𝑙𝑏 BD= 948.68 lb (C)
Since BD turned out to be negative, the assumed sense of

this force is incorrect. BD is in compression.
By summing moments at D, force CE can be

solved independently. The lines of action of
force CD and BD intersect at joint D.
D
xx
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
−(1200 + 400)(15) + 1200(30) − 𝐶𝐸(15) = 0
𝐶𝐸 = 800 𝑙𝑏 (T)
x
x
Sum moments at Q to solve for CD. Resolve
the horizontal and vertical components of CD
Solve for distance x by similar at C. The moment of the horizontal
triangles: component of CD at Q is zero.
𝑥 3
20
=1
x = 60 ft +↻ ∑ 𝑀𝑄 = 0
1
−(1200 + 400)(60) + 1200(75) + 𝐶𝐷(60) = 0
√2
𝐶𝐷 = 141.42 𝑙𝑏 (T)
4.4 FRAMES
A structure is called a frame or machine if at least one of its individual members is a
multiforce member. A multiforce member is defined as one with three or more forces
acting on it, or one with two or more forces and one or more couples acting on it. Frames
are structures which are designed to support applied loads and are usually fixed in position.
Machines are structures which contain moving parts and are designed to transmit input
forces or couples to output forces or couples. Because frames and machines contain
multiforce members, the forces in these members in general will not be in the directions of
the members. Therefore, we cannot analyze these structures by the method of joints or the
method of sections because these methods apply to simple trusses composed of two-force
members where the forces are in the directions of the members.
To determine the forces acting on the members of the frame:

1. Draw the FBD of the members themselves, either singly or in groups. Frame problems
are in general multi-FBD problems, careful planning of the solution is essential before
any actual computation is carried out. The aim should be to get the results in the
most efficient manner.
2. Two-force members, if there are any, must be identified.
3. The solution of simultaneous equations can oftentimes be avoided by appropriate
choices of moment centers and axes of projection of forces.
Example:
1. The A-frame shown is supported by a hinge at E and a roller at A. Compute the
horizontal and vertical components of the hinge forces at B and C as they act upon
member AC.
Given:
Required: BH, BV, CH, and CV as they act upon member AC.
Solution:
Plan of solution:
1. Draw of the FBD of the entire frame to solve for the reaction at A and the
components of the reaction at E.
2. Draw the FBD of member BD to obtain BV.
3. Draw the FBD of member AC to obtain BH, CH, and CV.
FBD of the entire frame:
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝐸𝐻 = 0
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝐸𝑉 (6) = 0
𝐸𝑉 = 0
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
EH −250(6) + 𝑅𝐴 (6) = 0
𝑅𝐴 = 250 𝑁 ↑
RA EV
The direction of the unknown
FBD of member BD and AC: forces can be assumed. If
the result is positive, the
C CH assumed direction is correct.
If negative, then the
direction should be in the
2m 250 N
opposite of the assumed
CV DH
B BH B D direction.
BH
2m From the FBD of BD:
BV DV
BV
A +↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
1.5 m 3m −250(4.5) + 𝐵𝑉 (3) = 0
𝐵𝑉 = 375 𝑁 ↑ on BD
RA=250 N
Hence,
1.5 m 1.5 m BV = 375 N ↓ on AC
From the FBD of AC:
Since BV = 375 N ↓ on AC is already known,
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
250 − 375 + 𝐶𝑉 = 0
𝐶𝑉 = 125 𝑁 ↑ on AC
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
250(1.5) − 𝐶𝑉 (1.5) − 𝐶𝐻 (2) = 0
250(1.5) − 125(1.5) − 𝐶𝐻 (2) = 0
𝐶𝐻 = 93.75 𝑁 ← on AC
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝐵𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 = 0
𝐵𝐻 − 93.75 = 0
𝐵𝐻 = 93.75 𝑁 → on AC
4.5 CABLES
Cables are used in many engineering applications, such as suspension bridges, transmission
lines, aerial tramways, guy wires for high towers, etc. Cables may be divided into two
categories, according to their loading: (1) supporting concentrated loads and
(2) supporting distributed loads.
Notes on the solution of problems:
There is no standard step-by-step procedure for solving problems involving cables. The
reason is that the solution method for every problems is highly dependent on the
information that is given in the problem statement. However, the following are the
guidelines that are applicable in most situations and that maybe helpful.
1. It is not always wise to depend on the given equations discussed below. More often
than not, a good starting point is the FBD of the entire cable or a portion of it. This
FBD, in conjunction with the equations given in the following discussions, should be
used to formulate a method of analysis before proceeding to the actual
computation.
2. Observe that the minimum point of the coordinate system, and the minimum
tension, T0 appear in all of the cable equations. If the location of the minimum point
and/or T0 are not known, they should be first determined.
3. Cables can resist only tensile forces.
4. Tensile force acts tangent to any point along the cable.
5. The maximum tensile force, Tmax, occurs at the highest point of the cable.
Cables with concentrated loads
When a flexible and inextensible cable is subjected to a series of concentrated forces,

then the analysis of the cable can be performed by using the equations of equilibrium
applied to free-body diagrams of either segments or
points of application of the loading.
For analysis, assume:

a) concentrated vertical loads on given vertical
lines,
b) weight of cable is negligible,
c) cable is flexible, i.e., resistance to bending is
small,
d) portions of cable between successive loads
may be treated as two force members
Figure 4.5. Cable with

concentrated loads
Example:
1. Determine the tension in each segment of the cable and the cable’s total length.
Given:
Required: Tension in each cable (TAC, TCD, TBD) and the cable’s total length, L.
Solution:
With the given distances, the tension TBD can be determined first by drawing an FBD
exposing TBD.
AV
TBD
AH D
θD
For θD:
1.5
1.5 m 𝜃𝐷 = tan−1 ( )
1
θD
θD = 56.31o
1m
From the FBD, resolve the horizontal and vertical components of TBD at D and sum
moments at A.
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
356(1) + (200)(2.3) − (𝑇𝐵𝐷 sin 56.31𝑜 )(2.3) − (𝑇𝐵𝐷 cos 56.31𝑜 )(0.8) = 0
𝑇𝐵𝐷 = 346.13 𝑁
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
−𝐴𝐻 + 346.13(cos 56.31𝑜 ) = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 192 𝑁
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
𝐴𝑉 − 200 − 356 + 346.13(sin 56.31𝑜 ) = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 268 𝑁
FBD of node A:
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
−𝐴𝐻 + 𝑇𝐴𝐶 (cos 𝜃𝐴 ) = 0
θA −192 + 𝑇𝐴𝐶 (cos 𝜃𝐴 ) = 0 ------- equation ①
TAC +↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
𝐴𝑉 + 𝑇𝐴𝐶 (sin 𝜃𝐴 ) = 0
268 + 𝑇𝐴𝐶 (cos 𝜃𝐴 ) = 0 ------- equation ②
solve equations ① and ② simultaneously:
θA = 54.382o
TAC = 329.68 N
To obtain TCD, the FBD of node C or node D can be drawn.
Consider FBD of node C:

+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
TAC=329.68 N 𝑇𝐶𝐷 (cos 𝜃𝐶 ) − 329.68(cos 54.382𝑜 ) = 0
𝑇𝐶𝐷 (cos 𝜃𝐶 ) − 192 = 0 ------- equation ③
TCD
54.382o
θC +↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
𝑇𝐶𝐷 (sin 𝜃𝐶 ) + 329.68(sin 54.382𝑜 ) − 356 = 0
𝑇𝐶𝐷 (sin 𝜃𝐶 ) − 88 = 0 ------- equation ④
solve equations ③ and ④ simultaneously:
θC = 24.624o
TCD = 211.20 N
For the total length, L:

LBD
L = LAC + LCD + LBD
LAC
56.31o 1 1.3 1
LCD 𝐿= + +
cos 54.382𝑜 cos 24.624𝑜 cos 56.31𝑜
54.382o 24.624o
L = 4.95 m
Parabolic Cable
When the intensity of vertical loading w is constant, the condition closely approximates
that of a suspension bridge where the uniform weight of the roadway may be expressed
by the constant w. The mass of the cable itself is not distributed uniformly with the horizontal
but is relatively small, and thus we neglect its weight.
• Consider a cable supporting a

uniform, horizontally distributed load,
e.g., support cables for a suspension
bridge.
• With loading on cable from lowest
point C to a point D given by W = wx,
internal force magnitude and
direction are
𝑇 = √𝑇0 2 + 𝑤 2 𝑥 2
𝑤𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝑇0
• Summing moments about D,

𝑥
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0: 𝑤𝑥 − 𝑇0 𝑦 = 0
2
or
𝑤𝑥 2
Figure 4.6. Cable carrying a 𝑦=
uniformly distributed load along 2𝑇0
the horizontal and an FBD of
section CD. • The cable forms a parabolic curve.
Figure 4.7.(a) The shape of a parabolic cable is determined by its span L and sag h;
(b) and (c) shows the span and vertical distance between supports for cables with
supports at different elevations.
The following relationships maybe used:
2 𝑦 2 2 𝑦 4
𝑆𝐵 = 𝐿 [1 + 3 (𝑥𝐵 ) − 5 (𝑥𝐵 ) + ⋯ ]
𝐵 𝐵
𝑤𝑥 2
𝑆 = ∫ √1 + ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
Where: S = length of the parabolic cable

L = horizontal distance between two points on the cable
Example:
1. Cable ACB supports a load uniformly distributed along the horizontal as shown. The
lowest point C is located 9 m to the right of A. Determine (a) the vertical distance a,
(b) the length of the cable, (c) the components of the reaction at A.
Given:
Required: a) vertical distance a,

b) length of cable, S, and
c) components of the reaction at A, AV and AH
Solution:
FBDs: (Pass a cutting plane at the minimum point of the cable)
SA
SB a – 2.25
a) For vertical distance, a:
Consider the FBD of the left side (FBD of AC):
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
−𝑇0 (𝑎) + 5297.4(4.5) = 0
𝑇0 (𝑎 ) = 23838.3 --------------- equation ①
Consider the FBD of the right side (FBD of CB):
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑇0 (𝑎 − 2.25) − 3531.6(3) = 0
𝑇0 (𝑎 − 2.25) = 10594.8 --------------- equation ②
Solve equations ① and ② simultaneously:
a = 4.05 m
T0 = 5886 N
b) For the length of the cable S,
S = SA + SB
SA: yA=a=4.05 m; xA=9 m; L = 9m
2 𝑦 2 2 𝑦 4
𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿 [1 + ( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝐴 ) + ⋯ ]
3 𝑥𝐴 5 𝑥𝐴
2 4.05 2 2 4.05 4
= 9 [1 + 3 ( 9
) − (
5 9
) + ⋯]
𝑆𝐴 = 10.07 𝑚
SB: yB= 4.05 – 2.25 = 1.8 m; xB=6 m; L = 6 m
2 𝑦 2 2 𝑦 4
𝑆𝐵 = 𝐿 [1 + 3 (𝑥𝐵 ) − 5 (𝑥𝐵 ) + ⋯ ]
𝐵 𝐵
2 1.8 2 2 1.8 4
= 6 [1 + 3 ( 6 ) − 5 ( 6 ) + ⋯ ]
𝑆𝐵 = 6.34 𝑚
S = 10.07 + 6.34 = 16.41 m
c) For AH and AV:
Consider the FBD of the left side (FBD of AC):
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
𝑇0 − 𝐴𝐻 = 0
5886 − 𝐴𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 5886 𝑁
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
𝐴𝑉 − 5297.4 = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 5297.4 𝑁
Catenary Cable
A catenary cable carries a load uniformly distributed along the cable itself. Cables
hanging under their own weight are loaded in this way. It is assumed that the cable
assumes a curved shape known as catenary. The vertical force supported is equal to the
weight of the section of cable of length s in place of the load distributed uniformly with
respect to the horizontal.
Figure 4.8. The FBD of a finite portion of the cable,

length s, measured from the origin is shown. The total
vertical force is equal to the weight of the cable
section of length s.
The following relationships may be used:
𝑇0 𝜇𝑥
𝑦= (cosh − 1)
𝜇 𝑇0
𝑇0 𝜇𝑥
𝑠= 𝜇
sinh 𝑇
0
𝜇𝑥
𝑇 = 𝑇0 cosh
𝑇0
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝜇𝑦
Where:
μ = weight of catenary cable per lineal
x = horizontal distance between two points on the cable
y = vertical distance between two point s on the cable
Examples:
1. The 36 m cable shown weighs 1.5 kN/m. Determine the sag H and the maximum
cable tension.
Given: s = 36 m
μ = 1.5 kN/m
Required: sag, H
Maximum tension, T
Solution:
Pass a cutting plane at the minimum point of the cable and draw the FBD of the left side or
the right side of the section.
FBD of the right side:

TB = Tmax
𝑇0 𝜇𝑥
𝑠= 𝜇
sinh 𝑇
0
0 𝑇 (1.5)(15)
18 = 1.5 sinh 𝑇0
By trial and error:
T0 = 21.13 m
𝑇0 𝜇𝑥
𝑦= (cosh − 1)
𝜇 𝑇0
21.13 (1.5)(15)
𝐻= (cosh − 1)
1.5 21.13
H = 8.77 m
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝜇𝑦
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 21.13 + (1.5)(8.77)
Tmax = 34.285 m
Note: Many of the problems you will encounter will involve the solution by trial and error of
an equation involving a hyperbolic sine or cosine.
Additional examples are given in this section. For more explanations on trusses and frames
read Chapter 4 of your textbook.
1. Determine the force in each member of

the crane truss shown.
Solution:
For the given crane truss, the member

forces can be determined without solving
for the support reactions.
We can start our solution at joint A, since

there are only two unknowns at joint A.
Solve for the angle between member AC and AB:
Cosine law:
𝑥 = √(6)2 + (9)2 − (2)(6)(9) cos 120𝑜
𝑥 = 13.08 𝑓𝑡
Sine law:
x sin 𝛼 sin 120𝑜
6
= 13.08
120o
α 𝛼 = 23.41𝑜
FBD of joint A:
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
−5200 + 𝐴𝐶 sin 23.41𝑜 = 0
AC 𝐴𝐶 = 13088.08 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
23.41𝑜 +→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
A −𝐴𝐵 − (13088.08 cos 23.41𝑜 ) = 0
AB 5886 − 𝐴𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐵 = −12010.74 𝑙𝑏
AB = 12010.74 lb (C)
5200 lb
FBD of joint B:
y The correct direction of AB is drawn on joint B
BC
x
+↗ ∑ 𝑥 = 0
−𝐵𝐷 − 12010.74 cos 30𝑜 = 0
30𝑜 𝐵𝐷 = −10401.61 𝑙𝑏
BD = 10401.61 lb (C)
B AB=12010.74 lb
BD +↖ ∑ 𝑦 = 0
𝐵𝐶 + 12010.74 sin 30𝑜 = 0
𝐵𝐶 = −6005.37 𝑙𝑏
BC = 6005.37 lb (C)
FBD of joint C:
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
CE
−𝐶𝐷 sin 56.57𝑜 + 6005.37 cos 30𝑜 − 13088.08 sin 23.41𝑜 = 0
56.57𝑜 23.41𝑜 𝐶𝐷 = 0.96 𝑙𝑏 ≈ 0
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
30𝑜 AC=13088.08 lb
−6005.37 sin 30𝑜 + 13088.08 cos 23.41𝑜 − 𝐶𝐸 = 0
BC=6005.37 lb CE = 9008.05 lb (T)
CD
2. In the cantilever truss shown, each side
of the square BCFD equals 𝑎√2 while the
length of AB is 2𝑎. Use a combination of
section and joint analysis to find the
force in bar AB.
b
Solution:
b
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝑄 = 0
Consider the left side of section b-b: Q 1 1
−400(6𝑎) + 𝐵𝐶 (4𝑎) − 𝐵𝐶 (2𝑎) = 0
√2 √2
FBD: 1
3 𝐵𝐶 = 1200√2 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
AC
1
BC 1 m
1
FBD of joint B:
1
BC=1200√2 𝑙𝑏
𝑎
AB 1
DF 1
1
1 BD
m
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
1 1
(1200√2) − 𝐵𝐷 = 0
Determine distance m by ratio and proportion: √2 √2
𝐵𝐷 = 1200 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
𝑚−𝑎 𝑚+3𝑎
1
= 3
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
m = 3a −𝐴𝐵 + 2(
1
(1200√2) = 0
√2
AB = 2400 lb (T)
3. For the transmission tower shown,
determine the force in member CJ.
Hint: First use section a-a to find the force in
BC.
Solution:
b b
FBD of the upper part of section a-a:
3
1
BC FG Resolve the horizontal and vertical

components of BC at joint B and sum
BJ JG G moments at G. Only the vertical component
of BC will have a moment at G.
10+8+8 = 26’
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0
3
780(24) − 𝐵𝐶 (26) = 0
√10
𝐵𝐶 = 240√10 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
Pass a cutting plane through members BC, CJ, FJ, and FG. (See section b-b)
FBD of the upper part of section b-b:
Resolve the horizontal and vertical

components of BC and CJ at joint C and sum
3 12’ moments at F. Only the vertical components
1 of BC and CJ will have a moment at F.
4 +↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0
3 CJ 3 4
FG 780(12) − (240√10)(18) − 5 𝐶𝐽(18) = 0
BC=240√10 lb FJ √10
𝐶𝐽 = −250 𝑙𝑏
CJ = 250 lb (C)
10+8 = 18’
4. In the system shown, find the reaction
at D caused by the 1200 lb load.
Neglect the weight of the members.
Solution:
Draw the FBD of each part of the system.
AH
To solve for the reaction at D,
4 RB RD, consider the FBD of
3 member CD. Since there are 4
AV
RB RD
unknowns in member CD, solve
first for the reaction at B, RB,
considering the FBD of member
y
AB.
CH
CV
For distance y, by similar
triangles:
FBD of AB:
𝑦 3
=5
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 10′
4
1200 (4) − 5 𝑅𝐵 (12) = 0 y = 6 ft.
𝑅𝐵 = 500 𝑙𝑏 ↖ on AB
FBD of CD:
+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑅𝐵 (4.2) − 𝑅𝐷 (𝑦) = 0
500(4.2) − 𝑅𝐷 (6) = 0
𝑅𝐷 = 350 𝑙𝑏 ←
5. For the frame shown, determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the
hinge force at B as it acts upon member AC.
Solution:
Draw the FBD of each part of the system.
600 lb
AH
AV
AV AH A
600 lb
600 lb
6’
BH
BV
6’
BV
BH
CH
CV EH
FBD of the pulley: EV
+→ ∑ 𝐻 = 0
600 − 𝐴𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 600 𝑙𝑏 ← on the pulley
+↑ ∑ 𝑉 = 0
−600 + 𝐴𝑉 = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 600 𝑙𝑏 ↑ on the pulley
FBD of member DE:

+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
𝐵𝐻 (6) − 600(16) = 0
𝐵𝐻 = 1600 𝑙𝑏 → 𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝐸
𝐵𝐻 = 1600 𝑙𝑏 ← 𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐶
FBD of member AC:

+↻ ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝐴𝐻 (12) − 𝐴𝑉 (16) − 𝐵𝐻 (6) + 𝐵𝑉 (8) = 0
600(12) − 600(16) − 1600 (6) + 𝐵𝑉 (8) = 0
𝐵𝑉 = 1500 𝑙𝑏 ↑ 𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐶
After going through the prepared lessons, solve the following problems. Also, practice
solving other problems given in your textbook.
For number 1 and 2. Use the method of joints to determine the force in each member of
the roof truss shown. State whether each member is in tension or compression.
Answers:
AB = 6.24 kN C; AC = 2.76 kN T;
BC = 2.50 kN C; BD = 4.16 kN C;
CD = 1.867 kN T; CE = 2.88 kN T;
DE = 3.75 kN C; DF = 0; EF = 1.20 kN C
1.
2.
Answers:
AB = 47.2 kN C; AC = 44.6 kN T; BC = 10.50 kN C;
BD = 47.2 kN C; CD = 17.50 kN T; CE = 30.6 kN T;
DE = 0.
For number 3 and 4, use the method of sections to determine the forces in the members
indicated. State whether the member is in tension or compression.
3. Solve for EG, GH, and HJ
Answers:
EG = 3.46 kN T;
GH = 3.78 kN C;
HJ = 3.55 kN C.
4. Determine the force in members EH and GI.
5. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force at C which member

ABC exerts on member CEF.
Answers:
Cx = 75 lb, Cy = 100 lb
6. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which the pins at A,
B, and C exert on member
ABC of the frame.
Answer:
Bx = 0, By = 428.5 N
7. Determine the maximum tension in the cable shown.
Answer:
TA = 34.64 kN
The following problems are given to assess your ability to solve problems on structures.
1. Use the method of joints to determine the

force in each member of the truss shown.
State whether the force is in tension or
compression. Tabulate your answers.
2. Use the method of sections to

determine the forces in
members AB, FG, AH, and GH.
State whether the forces are in
tension or compression.
3. A block with a mass of 150-kg is supported
by a cable which passes over a 150-mm
diameter pulley that is attached to a frame
as shown in the figure. Determine all forces
acting on member BCD of the frame.
4. The left support of the cable shown is located 10 m below the right support. The
lowest point on the cable is 13 m below the right support. If the maximum tension in
the cable resulting from a uniformly distributed load w along the horizontal is 400 kN,
determine:
a. The angle between the cable and the horizontal at the right support;
b. The magnitude of the distributed load w
c. The length of the cable.
MODULE 5
Centroids and Centers of Gravity
In this module we will deal with centroids, centers of gravity, and centers of mass. The
location of the centroid of an area is of great importance in strength of materials.
UNIT 1. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY

At the end of this unit you should be able to locate the centroid of plane areas and center
of gravity of a flat plate.
Before studying this unit, locate the centroid/center of gravity of each geometric shape.
6.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A FLAT PLATE
The analytical location of the center of gravity is simply an application of the principle of
moments; that is, the moment of the resultant is equal to the moment sum of its parts.
With respect to the y-axis:

𝑊
𝑀𝑂𝑌 = ∑ 𝑀𝑂𝑌
𝑊𝑥̅ = 𝑤1 𝑥1 + 𝑤2 𝑥2 +. . . 𝑤𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑤𝑥
∑ 𝑤𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑊
With respect to the x-axis:

𝑊
𝑀𝑂𝑋 = ∑ 𝑀𝑂𝑋
𝑊𝑦̅ = 𝑤1 𝑦1 + 𝑤2 𝑦2 +. . . 𝑤𝑛 𝑦𝑛 = ∑ 𝑤𝑦
∑ 𝑤𝑦
𝑦̅ =
𝑊
Figure 6.1. Coordinates of the

center of gravity
The equations merely state that the moment of a weight W about an axis is equal to the
moment sum of its elemental weights.
6.2 CENTROIDS OF AREAS AND LINES

If the material of the plate in Figure 6.1 is homogeneous, the weight w may be expressed
as the product of its density γ multiplied by tA, where t is the thickness of the plate and A its
area. The elemental weight is given by yta.
If W = γtA and w = yta:

𝑊𝑥̅ = 𝑤1 𝑥1 + 𝑤2 𝑥2 +. . . 𝑤𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑤𝑥
𝑦𝑡𝐴(𝑥̅ ) = 𝑦𝑡𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑡𝑎2 𝑥2 +. . . 𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑥
Cancelling out the constant terms y and t

∑ 𝑎𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝐴
Gives the method of locating the
and similarly centroid of an area.
∑ 𝑎𝑦
𝑦̅ =
𝐴
∑ 𝑙𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝐿
Gives the method of locating the
and similarly
centroid of a line.
∑ 𝑙𝑦
𝑦̅ = 𝐿
Centroid – defined as the point corresponding to the center of gravity of a plate of

infinitesimal thickness.
The center of gravity refer to the center of weight of actual bodies.
6.3 CENTROIDS DETERMINED BY INTEGRATION

Centroid of an area
Centroid of a line
Characteristics of Centroid
The centroid represents the geometric center of a body

The centroid may be located at a point that does not lie on the line/area.
The coordinates of centroid is calculated with reference to the chosen axis
An area can have only one centroid for all positions of the figure.
In case of symmetric figures, centroid is located along the axes of symmetry
6.4 CENTROIDS OF COMPOSITE AREAS
If a given area can be divided into parts, each centroid of which is known, the moment of
the total area will be the sum of the moments of area of its parts.
Table 6-6.1 on page 198 of your textbook shows the centroids for common geometric
shapes and Table 6-6.2 on page 199 shows some properties of angles and channels.
The following examples are given to illustrate how to locate the centroid of a line and an
area.
1. A slender homogeneous wire of uniform cross section is bent into the shape shown in
the figure. Determine the coordinates of its center of gravity.
Divide the wire into three parts and locate the centroid of each part with respect to the
given x and y axis:
① ② x = 0 (the centroid of the semicircular arc

coincides with the y-axis)
2𝑟
𝑦= (see Table 6-6.1, page 198)
𝜋
3” 2(4) 8
𝑦= 𝜋
=𝜋
3”
y The length of the arc is πr = 4π inches.
𝑥 = −4" (the centroid of the

line is on the left side of the
y-axis, hence the negative
sign)
𝑦 = 3"
③
𝑥 = 4 + 3.464 = 7.464"
4”
𝑦 = 2"
4”
4𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 = 2"
4𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 = 3.464"
Part l, in. x, in y, in lx, in2 ly, in2
① 6 -4 3 (6)(-4) = -24 (6)(3) =18
② 4π 0 8/π (4π )(0) = 0 (4π)( 8/π)=32
③ 8 7.464 2 (8)(7.464)=59.712 (8)(2) = 16
Total L=26.566 35.712 66
∑ 𝑙𝑥 35.712
𝑥̅ = 𝐿
= 26.566
𝑥̅ = 1.34"
∑ 𝑙𝑦 66
𝑦̅ = =
𝐿 26.566
𝑦̅ = 2.48"
2. Locate the centroid of the shaded area shown.
Divide the area into regular geometric shapes. Make

sure the centroids of the geometric shapes can be
identified.
The area can be divided into three parts

as shown, with the unshaded triangle as
a negative area since it is not part of the
shaded area.
Part a, in2. x, in y, in ax, in3 ay, in3
(1/2)(12)(6)=36 4 8 (36)(4)=144 (36)(8)=288
(12)(6)=72 6 3 (72)(6) = 432 (72)(3)=216
-(1/2)(12)(6)=-36 6 2 (-36)(6)=-216 (-36)(2) = -72
Total A=72 360 432
∑ 𝑎𝑥 360
𝑥̅ = 𝐴
= 72
𝑥̅ = 5"
∑ 𝑎𝑦 432
𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= 72
𝑦̅ = 6"
3. Locate the centroid of the shaded area in the figure,

created by cutting a semicircle of diameter r from a
quarter circle of radius r.
Part a, in2. x, in y, in ax, in3 ay, in3

Quarter 𝜋𝑟 2 4𝑟 4𝑟 2
𝜋𝑟 4𝑟 𝑟3 𝜋𝑟 4𝑟2
𝑟3
( )= ( )=
circle 4 3𝜋 3𝜋 4 3𝜋 3 4 3𝜋 3
Semicircle 𝑟 2 4𝑟 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2 4𝑟 𝑟3 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 3
𝜋 (2) 𝜋𝑟 2 − ( )=− − ( )=−
− =− 6𝜋 2 8 6𝜋 12 8 2 16
2 8
Total 𝜋𝑟 2 3𝑟 3 0.137𝑟 3
𝐴= = 0.393𝑟 2 = 0.25𝑟 3
8 12
∑ 𝑎𝑥 0.25𝑟3
𝑥̅ = 𝐴
= 0.393𝑟2
𝑥̅ = 0.636𝑟
∑ 𝑎𝑦 0.137𝑟3
𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= 0.393𝑟2
𝑦̅ = 0.349𝑟
4. A beam has the cross section shown in the figure. Compute the moment of area of
the shaded portion about the horizontal centroidal axis xo of the entire section.
Solution:
For the location of 𝑦̅ measured from the base of the cross section:
(The distance of the centroid of each part is measured from the reference which is the
base of the cross section)
Part a, in2. y, in ay, in3

6”x 1” (6)(1) = 6 13.5 (6)(13.5) = 81
1” x 12” (1)(12) = 12 7 (12)(7) = 84
12” x 1” (12)(1)=12 0.5 (12)(0.5) = 6
Total A=30 171
∑ 𝑎𝑦 171
𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= 30
𝑦̅ = 5.7" 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
For the moment of area of the shaded portion:
The moment of area, Q = ay:
4.7
𝑄 = (1)(4.7) ( 2 ) + (1)(12)(5.7 − 0.5)
𝑄 = 73.445 𝑖𝑛3
5. Locate the centroid of the built-up section shown in the figure. Refer to Table 6-6.2
on page 199 of your textbook for the properties of the elements.
Solution:
Since the cross section is symmetrical with respect to a vertical axis, the centroid of the
cross section lies on the axis of symmetry. Therefore, only the location of the centroid with
respect to a horizontal axis will be determined.
With the base of the cross section as the reference:
16” + 0.28”= 16.28”
Part a, in2. y, in ay, in3

2-8”x6”x1” 2(13)=26 16.28 -1.65 = 14.63 380.38
16” x 1” (16)(1)=16 8 + 0.28 = 8.28 132.48
2-5”x3”x1/2” 2(3.75)=7.5 0.75 + 0.28 = 1.03 7.725
12”-20.7 lb channel 6.03 0.70 4.221
Total A=55.53 524.806
∑ 𝑎𝑦 524.806
𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= 55.53
𝑦̅ = 9.45" 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
After going through the prepared lessons, locate the centroid of the shaded area.
y
1. 100 mm
225 mm
75 mm
x
50 mm 125 mm
2.
3. Locate the centroid of the line ABC.
B 75 mm
40o
A
Answers: 1) (114.2 mm, 106.4 mm)
2) (0.858”, 1.142”)
3) (244 mm, 141.3 mm)
The following problems are given to assess your ability to locate centroids of areas and
lines.
Problems 1 and 2. Locate the centroid of the shaded area
1. 2.
3. Two 10”-15.3 lb channels are welded together as shown in the figure. Find the
moment of area of the upper channel about the horizontal centroidal axis xo of the
entire section. Use Table 6-6.2 on page 199 of your textbook for the properties of
channels.
MODULE 6
Moments of Inertia
In this module we will deal with area moment of inertia. Area moment of inertia is essential
in structural design. Many engineering formulas, such as those being used in the analysis
and design of beams and columns involve the use of the moment of inertia.
UNIT 1. MOMENTS OF INERTIA
At the end of this unit you should be able to determine the moment of inertia of a
composite area.
Before studying this unit, let us recall the concept of centroids. Read/research about the
importance of centroids and moments of area.
List some important applications of centroids and moments of area in the field of
engineering.
7.1 DEFINITION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of inertia applied to areas has no physical meaning when examined by itself; it is
merely a mathematical expression denoted by the symbol I.
Mathematical definition of moment of inertia
By definition, the moments of inertia of a differential

area dA about the x and y axes are 𝑑𝐼𝑥 = 𝑦2 𝑑𝐴
and 𝑑𝐼𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑑𝐴, respectively. For the entire area A
the moments of inertia are determined by integration;
𝐼𝑥=∫𝑦2𝑑𝐴
𝐼𝑦=∫𝑥2𝑑𝐴
The moment of inertia of area is sometimes called the second

moment of area because each differential area multiplied Figure 7.1.
by its moment arm gives the moment of area, multiplied a Coordinates of the
second time by its moment arm it gives the moment of inertia. differential area dA
Units and signs
SI system: mm4, cm4, or m4

U.S customary units: in4 or ft4
The sign of I is independent of the sign of the moment arm; it depends entirely on the sign
of the area.
7.2 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

The moment of inertia for an area relative to a line or axis perpendicular to the plane of the
area is called the polar moment of inertia and is denoted by the symbol J.
𝐽𝑧=𝐼𝑥+𝐼𝑦
This equation states that the polar moment of inertia for an area with respect to an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two
mutually perpendicular axes in its plane which intersect on the polar axis.
7.3 RADIUS OF GYRATION

The term radius of gyration is used to describe another mathematical expression and
appears most frequently in column formulas. It is usually denoted by the symbol r.
𝐼
𝑟=√
𝐴
Where I is the moment of inertia and A the cross-sectional area.
7.4 TRANSFER FORMULA FOR MOMENT OF INERTIA
It is often necessary to transfer the moment of inertia from

one axis to another parallel axis. The transfer formula
affords a method of doing this without further integration.
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑2
This equation states that for any area the moment of

inertia with respect to any axis in the plane of the area is Figure 7.2. Moments of
equal to the moment of inertia with respect to a parallel inertia between parallel
centroidal axis plus a transfer term composed of the product axis.
of the area multiplied by the square of the distance between
the axes.
Note: the centroidal axis involved in the transfer formula is always the centroidal axis of the
area used in the transfer term Ad2.
7.5 MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR COMPOSITE AREAS

A composite area consists of a series of connected “simpler” parts or shapes, such as
rectangles, triangles, and circles. Provided the moment of inertia of each of these parts is
known or can be determined about a common axis, then the moment of inertia for the
composite area about this axis equals the algebraic sum of the moments of inertia of all its
parts.
Table 7-6.1 on page 223-224 shows the moments of inertia for geometric shapes.
Table 7-6.2 on page 224 shows properties of some structural sections.
7.6 PRODUCT OF INERTIA

The product of inertia for an area is the summation of the product of each differential area
by its moment arms about two perpendicular reference axes. It is denoted by the symbol
Pxy wherein the subscripts denote the reference axes. The product of inertia is required to
determine the maximum and minimum moments of inertia of an area.
Units and signs
The unit of the product of inertial is of the same form as that for the moment of inertia:
SI system: mm4, cm4, or m4

U.S customary units: in4 or ft4
The sign for the product of inertia depends on the location
of the area relative to the axes, being positive if the area lies
principally in the first or third quadrants and negative if the
area lies principally in the second or fourth quadrants.
Note: The product of inertial is zero with respect to axes of

symmetry.
7.7 TRANSFER FORMULA FOR PRODUCT OF INERTIA
𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 𝑃̅𝑥𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
This equation forms the basis of the method of computing

products of inertia for areas composed of simple geometric
shapes.
Figure 7.3. Product of

inertia between parallel
sets of axes.
The following examples are shown to illustrate how to determine the moments of inertia
and products of inertia of composite areas and built-up sections.
1. The shaded area shown has an area of 5 in2 and a

moment of inertia of 30 in4 about axis X1. Find the
moment of inertia about axis X2.
Given: A = 5 in2
Ix1 = 30 in4
Required: Ix2
Solution:
Transfer formula: 𝐼𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑜 + 𝐴𝑑 2
30 = 𝐼𝑥𝑜 + (5)(2)2
𝐼𝑥𝑜 = 10 𝑖𝑛4
𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥𝑜 + 𝐴𝑑2
𝐼𝑥2 = 10 + 5(3)2
𝐼𝑥2 = 55 𝑖𝑛4
2. Determine the moment of inertia of the T-section
shown in the figure about its centroidal X0 axis.
Also, compute the radius of gyration of the area
with respect to the Xo axis.
Solution:
①
𝑑1
𝑑2 ②
𝑦̅
1
The area can be divided into two rectangles. Ix for a rectangle is 12 𝑏ℎ 3.
Solve first for the location of the centroidal axis xo.
Parts Area, in2 y, in Ay, in3 𝐼 x̅ , in4 d, in Ad2, in4

① 12 7 84 1 d1=2 48
(6)(2)3 = 4
12
② 12 3 36 1 d2=2 48
(2)(6)3 = 36
12
Total 24 120 40 96
120
𝑦̅ = 24
𝑦̅ = 5 𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑥𝑜 = 𝛴𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝛴𝐴𝑑2

= 40 + 96
𝐼𝑥𝑜 = 136 𝑖𝑛4
Radius of gyration:
𝐼 136
𝑟𝑋𝑜 = √ 𝑥𝑜
𝐴
= √ 24
𝑟𝑋𝑜 = 2.38 𝑖𝑛
3. Find the moment of inertia about the indicated
Y axis for the shaded area shown.
Solutions:
The area can be divided into three geometric shapes

(triangle, square and a quarter circle). The quarter
circle has a negative area since it is not part of the
shaded area.
Parts Area, in2 𝐼 y̅ , in4 d, in Ad2, in4

Triangle 1 1 4 192
(6)(4) = 12 (4)(6)3 = 24
2 36
Square (4)(4) = 16 1 8 1024
(4)(4)3 = 21.33
12
Quarter circle 𝜋 −0.055(4)4 = −14.08 10-(0.424)(4)= -866.78
− (4)2 = −12.57
4 8.304
Σ 31.25 349.22
𝐼𝑦 = 𝛴𝐼̅𝑦 + 𝛴𝐴𝑑2
= 31.25 + 349.22
𝐼𝑦 = 380.47 𝑖𝑛4
4. The cross section of a culvert is

shown in the figure. Compute
the moment of inertia about the
horizontal X-axis.
Solution:
Parts Area, in2 𝐼 x̅ , in4 d, in Ad2, in4
Square 36 1 2 36
(6)(6)3 = 108
12
Triangle (right) 9 1 2 36
(3)(6)3 = 18
36
Triangle (left) 9 1 2 36
(3)(6)3 = 18
36
Semicircle -25.13 −0.11(4)4 = −28.16 4-(0.424)(4)= -133.40
2.304
Σ 115.84 -25.4
𝐼𝑥 = 𝛴𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝛴𝐴𝑑2
= 115.84 + (−25.4)
𝐼𝑥 = 90.44 𝑖𝑛4
5. A plate and angle column is composed of
four 8” x 4” x 1” angles with the short legs
connected to a web plate 14” x 1” plus two
flange plates each 18” x 2 ¼” as shown in the
figure. Determine the values of 𝐼̅𝑥 and 𝐼̅𝑦 .
Solution:
Parts Area, in2 𝐼 x̅ , in4 d, in Ad2, in4

14” x 1” 14 1 0 0
(1)(14)3 = 228.67
12
2 – 18” x 2 ¼” 2(18)( 2 ¼) = 81 1 (
14.5
)+
2.25
= 5681.39
(2) [ (18)(2 ¼)3 ] = 34.17 2 2
12
8.375
4 – 8” x 4” x 1” 4(11) = 44 (4)(11.6) = 46.4 (
14.5
) − 1.05 = 1691.36
2
6.20
Σ 309.24 7372.75
𝐼𝑥𝑜 = 𝛴𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝛴𝐴𝑑2
= 309.24 + 7372.75
𝐼𝑥𝑜 = 7681.99 𝑖𝑛4
Parts Area, in2 𝐼 y̅ , in4 d, in Ad2, in4

14” x 1” 14 1 0 0
(14)(1)3 = 1.17
12
2 – 18” x 2 ¼” 2(18)( 2 ¼) = 81 1 0 0
(2) [ (2 ¼)(18)3 ] = 2187
12
4 – 8” x 4” x 1” 4(11) = 44 (4)(69.6) = 278.4 0.5 + 3.05 = 554.51
3.55
Σ 2466.57 554.51
𝐼𝑦𝑜 ̅
= 𝛴𝐼𝑦 + 𝛴𝐴𝑑 2
= 2466.57 + 554.51
𝐼𝑦𝑜 = 3021.08 𝑖𝑛4
6. Compute the product of inertia of the
triangular area shown in the figure with
respect to the given X and Y axes.
Solution:
②
①
Yo
𝑏 ℎ 2 2
For a right triangle: 𝑃̅𝑥𝑦 = − 72
h
Xo
b
Parts Area, in2 𝑃̅ xy, in4 𝑥̅ , in 𝑦̅, in ̅̅̅, in4
𝐴𝑥𝑦
① 13.5 (3)2(9)2
= 10.125 2 3 81
72
② 27 −
(6)2(9)2
= −40.50 5 3 405
72
Σ 40.5 - 30. 375 486
= −30.375 + 486
𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 455.625 𝑖𝑛4
7. Find the product of inertia of the shaded area

shown in the figure about the specified X and Y
axes.
𝑃̅ xy for the rectangle and semicircle is zero because each shape

has an axis of symmetry.
Parts Area, in2 𝑃̅ xy, in4 𝑥̅ , in 𝑦̅, in ̅̅̅, in4
𝐴𝑥𝑦
Rectangle 18 0 1.5 3 81
Triangle 9 −
(3)2(6)2
= −4.50 4 2 72
72
Semicircle 14.14 0 1.27 3 -53.87
Σ 40.5 - 4.5 99.13
= −4.5 + 99.13
𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 94.63 𝑖𝑛4
Read Chapter 7 of your textbooks for further applications of moments of inertia and
products of inertia. Read about the maximum and minimum moments of inertia and
Mohr’s circle for moments of inertia.
7.8 MOMENTS OF INERTIA WITH RESPECT TO INCLINED AXES
𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦
𝐼𝑢 = + cos 2𝛼 − 𝑃𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝛼
2 2
𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦
𝐼𝑣 = − cos 2𝛼 + 𝑃𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝛼
2 2
𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦
𝑃𝑢𝑣 = sin 2𝛼 + 𝑃𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝛼
2
𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦 2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
+ ( ) +(𝑃𝑥𝑦 )
Figure 7.4. Moment of inertia 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 2
with respect to inclined axes.
Examples:
8. For the 6-in. by 12-in. rectangular area shown in the figure, find the moment of
inertia about the inclined u axis.
Solution:
𝑏ℎ 3
𝐼𝑋 = 3
(12)(6)3
𝐼𝑋 = = 864 𝑖𝑛4
3
ℎ𝑏 3
𝐼𝑌 = 3
(6)(12)3
𝐼𝑌 = 3
= 3456 𝑖𝑛4

𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 0 + (12)(6)(6)(3) = 1296 𝑖𝑛4
𝐼𝑥+𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥 −𝐼𝑦
𝐼𝑢 = 2
+ 2
cos 2𝛼 − 𝑃𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝛼
864+3456 864−3456
= 2
+ 2
cos 2(30) − 1296 sin 2(30)
𝐼𝑢 = 389.63 𝑖𝑛4
9. Find the maximum and minimum moments of inertia with respect to the axes
through the centroid of the 9” by 6” triangular area shown in the figure. Also
compute the moment of inertia with respect to the given centroidal U axis.
Solution:
𝑏ℎ 3
𝐼𝑋̅ = 36
(6)(9)3
𝐼𝑋̅ = = 121.5 𝑖𝑛4
36
ℎ𝑏 3
𝐼𝑌̅ =
36
(9)(6)3
𝐼𝑌̅ = 36
= 54 𝑖𝑛4
𝑏 2 ℎ2
𝑃̅𝑥𝑦 = −
72
(6)2(9)2
𝑃̅𝑥𝑦 = − = −40.5 𝑖𝑛4
72
𝐼𝑥+𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥 −𝐼𝑦
𝐼𝑢̅ = + cos 2𝛼 − 𝑃𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝛼
2 2
121.5+54 121.5−54
= + cos 2(35) − (−40.5) sin 2(35)
2 2
𝐼𝑢̅ = 137.35 𝑖𝑛4
𝐼𝑥+𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥−𝐼𝑦 2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
+√( 2
) +(𝑃𝑥𝑦 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛
121.5+54 121.5−54 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + √( ) +(−40.5)2 = 140.47 𝑖𝑛4
2 2
121.5+54 121.5−54 2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − √( ) +(−40.5)2 = 35.03 𝑖𝑛4
2 2
7.9 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR MOMENT OF INERTIA
Mohr’s circle – a graphical representation of the
transformation equations for moments and products of
inertia. Developed by the German engineer Otto Mohr in
1882.
Rules for applying Mohr’s circle are given on page 238 of

your text book.
Example:
10. A certain area has the following properties: Figure 7.5. Construction
𝐼𝑥 = 40 𝑖𝑛4 ; 𝐼𝑦 = 100 𝑖𝑛4 ; and 𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 40 𝑖𝑛4 of the Mohr’s circle
Determine the maximum and minimum moments

of inertia and also the angle that the axis of maximum
inertia makes with the X-axis. Illustrate by a diagram.
x-axis
A
Ix, +Pxy Figure 7.6. Characteristics
(40, +40) of the Mohr’s circle
2α
D β B I
O Imin E C Imax Coordinate of C: (70, 0)
CE = 70 – 40 = 30
Iy, -Pxy AE = 40
(100, -40)
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅 = √(30)2 + (40)2 = 50
y-axis 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐷
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 70 − 50 = 20 𝑖𝑛4
100−40 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵
40 + 2
= 70
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 70 + 50 = 120 𝑖𝑛4
𝐴𝐸 40
tan 𝛽 = 𝐶𝐸 = 30
β = 53.13o
2𝛼 = 180 − 53.13 = 126.87𝑜

𝛼 = 63.44𝑜
After going through the prepared lessons, solve the following problems.
1. Determine the radius of gyration of the shaded area

with respect to the specified y axis.
(Ans. ry = 46.65 mm)
2. Obtain the moment of inertia of the composite area

about the specified x and y axes.
3. Two 10-in 15.3-lb channels are welded together as shown in

the figure. Compute the value of 𝐼̅𝑥 .
(Ans. Ix = 116.5 in4)
4. Determine the product of inertia of the area shown
with respect to the x and y axes.
(Ans. Pxy = -1.131 x 106 mm4)
5. Determine the moments of inertia and the product

of inertia of the shaded area in the figure with
respect to new centroidal axes obtained by
rotating the x and y axes 30° counterclockwise.
Also, determine the maximum and minimum
moments of inertia of the area.
(Ans. Ix’ =2.12 x 106 mm4, . Iy’ =8.28 x 106 mm4
Px’y’ = -0.532 x 106 mm4)
The following problems are given to assess your ability to determine the moments of inertia
and products of inertia of composite areas and built-up sections.
1. For the shaded area, determine the moments of

inertia with respect to the given x and y axes.
2. The shorter legs of two 6”x 4” x ½” angles are welded
to a 12”-20.7-lb channel. Determine the moments of
inertia of the combined section with respect to
centroidal axes respectively parallel and
perpendicular to the web of the channel.
3. The shaded area has the following properties:
𝐼𝑥 = 1.26 𝑥106 𝑚𝑚 4 ; 𝐼𝑦 = 6.55 𝑥105 𝑚𝑚 4 ; and

𝑃𝑥𝑦 = −1.02 105 𝑚𝑚4
Determine the moments of inertia of the area about the
x’ and v’ axes if θ=30o.
4. Find the maximum and minimum moments of

inertia with respect to axes through point 0 of the
shaded area shown in the figure.
MODULE PREPARED BY:
Engr. Yuriko Lynn A. Suba
CE/GE Department, SEA

ArchE 1 - Statics of Rigid Bodies

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MODULE IN

STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should be

1. demonstrate knowledge on the basic

2. apply the principles of static

3. relate the course to other engineering

4. determine the centroid of an area and

Engage ............................................................................................................................................... 121

Engage ............................................................................................................................................... 131

I. Module and Unit Topics

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

• If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)

Formative Assessment Activities

Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your

Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine whether

IV. Specific Guidelines

classcode_lastname_firstname (i.e. 2304_DELA CRUZ_JUAN).

(BOX/HIGHLIGHT FINAL ANSWERS FOR PROBLEMS)

Main references for this course:

c. Kraige, L. G. & Meriam, J. L. (2004). Engineering mechanics: statics, seventh

The main reference can be purchased and is available in bookstores nationwide.

Contact Information of the Facilitator:

Engr. Yuriko Lynn A. Suba

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

1. A force is a physical quantity having

A. Both magnitude and direction

2. On Earth, which one of the following statements about weight is TRUE?

A. An object’s weight always has a magnitude of m·g

3. Which one of the following is equal to a newton?

A. kg/s2 B. kg·m/s2 C. kg·m/s D. kg2·m2/s2

A. The tree pulls on the rope with a force of 1000 N

Figure 1.1. Classification of Engineering Mechanics

1.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND AXIOMS

- A body with mass but with dimensions that can be neglected.

- Invariant property of a body which measures its resistance to a change of motion.

- The action exerted by one body upon another.

Figure 1.2. Graphical representation of a force.

- Manifested by a change in, or a tendency to change, the state of motion of the

Internal effect of a force

- Produce stress and deformation in the body.

A change in any of these characteristics will result in a corresponding change in the

SI system: newton (N)

U.S. customary units: pound (lb) or kip (k) = 1000 lb

Figure 1.4. Parallelogram law

Figure 1.5. Action – reaction

Guide to solving problems:

The solutions must be based on the axioms of mechanics.

1. Problem Statement: Includes given data, specification of what is to be determined,

Figure 1.6. Classification of force systems.

1.4 FORCE AND COMPONENTS

Figure 1.7. Rectangular components

Or using the slope:

Note: the orientation of the x- and y-axes is arbitrary.

1. Compute the x and y component of each of the four forces shown.

𝜃 = 33.69𝑜 + 36.87𝑜 = 70.56𝑜

3. The body on the 30o incline is acted upon by a