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 O rder N u m b er 8808616

T h e b rea k u p o f rom an tic relation sh ip s: A stu d y in th e so cia l

p sy c h o lo g y o f em o tio n s

Westcott, M a ry Lee, P h .D .

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University of Maryland College Park, 1987
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C o p y r ig h t © 1 9 8 7 b y W e s tc o tt, M a r y L ee . A l l rig h ts reserved .

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 THE BREAKUP OF ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS:

A STUDY IN THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

OF EMOTIONS

I by
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Mary Lee Westcott
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Dissertation submitted to the Faculty o f the Graduate School
o f The University o f Maryland in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t
o f the requirements for the degree o f
Doctor o f Philosophy
1987
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Advisory Committee:

Professor Morris Rosenberg

Professor Kenneth C. W. Kammeyer
Professor Edward Z. Dager
Professor Nancy K. Schlossberg
Associate Professor Jennie J. McIntyre

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(c)Copyright by

Mary Lee Westcott

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1987
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 ABSTRACT

T i t l e o f D issertation : The Breakup o f Romantic Relationships: A Study

in the Social Psychology o f Emotions

Mary L. Westcott, Doctor o f Philosophy, 1987

Dissertation directed by: Dept, o f Sociology, University o f Maryland,

Dr. Morris Rosenberg

The purpose of this study is to investigate from a social

psychology of emotions perspective the impact of the breakup of

nonmarital romantic re la tionsh ips. The focus is on emotion management

techniques used by persons who have been involved in recent breakups.

The objectives are to assess gender and role differences in emotional

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reactions, and to id e n t if y e ffe c tiv e coping styles (emotion s e lf­

management s tra te g ie s ) a ffe c tin g psychological w ell-being . The major

independent variables used are gender and role in breakup (leaver or

le ft). The major dependent variables are emotions experienced, s e lf-

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concept dimensions, emotion self-management s tra te g ie s , and (4)

psychological w ell-being.

A purposive survey o f 204 respondents who had experienced a recent

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breakup o f a serious relationsh ip yielded q u an tita tiv e data which were

analyzed by means o f contingency table analyses, t - t e s t s , and analyses

o f variance. The findings v e r if ie d the results of previous studies

indicating primary differences between the leaver and the le ft.

S ig n ific a n tly more o f the le ft fe lt intensely helpless, hu rt, sad,

angry, fr u s tra te d , confused, upset and s till in love. The leaver

t y p ic a lly fe lt free, re lie v e d , q u ilt y and happy. Coping styles

d iffe re d such that leavers used more avoidance and the l e f t used more

emotion work, including suppression (elim inating negative feelings) and

evocation (evoking positive fe e lin g s ). Experiencing feelings and

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 working them through was associated with feeling happier, more "on top

o f the world" and less depressed.

Women more than men used experiential and evocative coping styles

and did not avoid emotions. Men avoided emotions generally, had fewer

p ositive fe e lin g s , were lo n e lie r and less often "on top o f the world."

Women had more positive feelings o f well-being. Although the norms for

breakup were that the woman is more the victim and would take a breakup

more personally, in fa c t men in th is study had fewer positive feeling s,

and had more negative emotions. In a d dition , more o f the women were

leavers.

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Future studies should investigate the mental health affects of

loss experiences other than death or divorce, and the precise ways in

which coping styles can a ff e c t psychological well-being.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was made possible by the support and assistance o f many

people. Special thanks go to Dr. Morris Rosenberg, my c h a ir, for his

unflagging review o f my work, and his concise suggestions and sage

advice, despite the barriers o f distance. His wisdom and d irection are

g r a t e fu lly acknowledged. I also thank a ll my committee members for

t h e ir encouragement.

This dissertation would not have been possible without the support

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given by Dr. Leonard Gordon a t Arizona State University, who allowed me

access to the microcomputer la b , the fa c ilitie s at ASU, and the

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consultation, students and wisdom o f the ASU Sociology fa c u lty . Thanks

in p a rtic u la r go to Dr. P fu h l, Dr. Lanier, Dr. Cuthbertson, Dr.

Hardert, and Dr. Hudson. Assistance provided by Lauri Goldberg,

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Rodney I t o , Jake Jacobs and Charles Downing is also appreciated. I

would also l i k e to thank friends and family who suffered through my

poverty and u n a v a ila b ility during th is e f f o r t . I wish in p a rtic u la r to

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express my gratitude to Dr. Richard Nagasawa for his support,

assistance, lo y a lty and understanding. Thanks also go to my t y p is t ,

L u c ille Smeeth, for her accomplishment o f a d i f f i c u l t task in a speedy,

cheerful and e f f i c i e n t manner.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

L is t o f Tables ........................................................................................................... v

CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................. 1

Introduction........................................................................................................ 1
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 2
Hypotheses ........................................................................................................ 5
Methodology ........................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER I I THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS:A LITERATURE REVIEW .......................... 10

Biological or Physiological Views ...................................................... 10

Early T h e o r i s t s ...................................................................................10

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Later T h e o r i s t s ................................................................................... 12
Psychological Views .................................................................................... 16
Introduction ....................................................................................... 16
Behaviorism ................................................................................................ 17
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C o g n itiv is m ................................................................................................ 18
Psychological Social Psychologists ......................................... 20
James A v e rill ...........................................................................21
Seymour Epstein ...................................................................... 23
Social Psychological Views ....................................................................... 26
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Early Social Psychologists..... ......................................................... 27
Later Social Psychological Views ................................................. 30
Phenomenology ........................................................................... 30
Symbolic Interactionism.......................................................... 32
Susan Shott .................................................................. 35
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Ralph T u r n e r .................................................................. 35
Steven Gordon .................................................................. 36
A rlie H o c h s c h i l d .......................................................... 38
Social Psychologists (Non-Symbolic In te r a c tio n is ts ) . . . 40
Peggy T h o i t s .................................................................. 40
Thomas S c h o f f .............................................................. .... 43
Jerald Heiss .................................................................. 45
S tru c tu ra lis ts ........................................................................................... 46
Theodore Kemper ....................................................................... 47
Summary o f Four V ie w p o in ts .......................................................................49

CHAPTER I I I EFFECT OF GENDER AND ROLE ON EMOTIONS IN DIVORCE

AND OTHER BREAKUPS...................................................................... 51

Emotions in D i v o r c e ..........................................................................51
Emotions o f Leaver/Left in Divorce ........................................... 53
Emotions o f Leaver/Left in Breakup ........................................... 55
Reasons for Leaver/Left Differences ........................................... 57
Summary of Emotions in Breakupand Divorce ........................... 58

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 Emotional Differences by Gender .................................................. 60
Reasons for Gender Differences .................................................. 61
Emotionality ....................................................................................... 62
Expressions o f Em otions.................... 63
E x a m p l e ............................................................................................ 64
Summary o f Emotional Reactions by Gender .............................. 65
S e lf-E s te e m ................................................................................................ 66

CHAPTER IV METHOD.....................................................................................................69

Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 69
Dependent and Independent Variables .................................................. 69
Scales and Measures U s e d ................................................................................71
Leaver/Left R o l e ................................................................................................ 72
Dependent V a r i a b l e s ................................. 72
Control .................................................................. 73
A c c e p t a n c e ................................................................................................ 74

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Self-Concept Dimensions .............................................................. 75
Self-Concept S t a b i l i t y ....................................................................... 75
Emotion Management and Coping ...................................................... 78
Psychological Well-Being IE .............................................................. 80
Limitations o f D a t a .......................................................................................... 82
Data Collection and S a m p l e ......................................................................... 86
Sample Characteristics ............................................................................... 86

CHAPTER V F IN D IN G S ...................................................................................................93
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Section I - Comparison o f Leavers and L e f t .........................................93

Section I I - Comparison o f Men and Women ......................................... 99

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Section I I I - Analyses o f Four Groups..................................................103

Subgroup Comparisons............................................................................106

Section IV - Coping Styles and Psychological Well-Being . . . .107

Section V - Norms for Emotions in B reakup......................................... 110

CHAPTER VI SUMMARY............................................. 126

APPENDICES

A. Breakup Q u e s tio n n a ire ............................................................................149

BIBLIOGRAPHY.................... 165

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 V

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Sample Characteristics o f Students .................................................. 90

2. C haracteristics o f Parents .................................................................. 91

3. Characteristics o f Relationships o f Respondents ...................... 92

4. In teraction Effects o f Psychological Well-Being and Role

and Gender— Means in ANOVA a n a l y s i s ............................. .... 102

5. Sex o f Respondents by Leaver/Left S t a t u s ................................. 114

6. Leaver/Left Role and Emotional Responses to Breakup. . . . 114

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7. Percent o f Leavers/Left Feeling Extreme on Emotionat
Time o f B re a k u p .......................................................................................... 116

8. Feelings o f Leavers/Left a t Time o f B reakup ............................... 116

9. Responses to Emotional Breakup by Gender ................................. 117

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10. Gender Differences in Frequency o f Yelling or Shouting
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to Let Off S t e a m ......................................................................................118

11. Gender Differences in Frequency of Avoidance of

Emotionality ........................................................................................... 118

12. Percent Feeling Extreme on Emotion a t Time of Breakup

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by Role and G e n d e r ..................................................................................119

13. Self-Concept S t a b i l i t y and Self-Esteem of

the Four Groups.......................................................................................... 119

14. Frequency o f Use o f Coping Strategies - - Four Groups

o f R e s p o n d e n ts .......................................................................................... 120

15. Psychological Well-Being Variables o f Four Groups

o f R e s p o n d e n ts .......................................................................................... 120

16. T-Test Results for Leaver and Left F e m a l e s ............................... 121

17. T-Test Results for Leaver Males and Females ............................ 122

18. T-Test Results for Left Males and Fem ales................................... 122

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 vi

19. T-Test Results for Leaver and Left M a l e s .................................... 123

20. Use o f Evocation by In te n s ity o f Depression ............................. 124

21. Use o f Experiential Coping and Report o f Being

"On Top o f the W o r ld " ............................................................................. 124

22. Positive Feelings on Bradburn Scale by Frequency o f

Experiencing Emotions .......................................................................... 125

23. Hypotheses and Their Confirmation ................................................. 125

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CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction. Few sociolQgical studies have been conducted on the

emotional impact o f the breakup o f serious heterosexual relationships

(see Metts, 1985; H i l l , Rubin and Peplau, 1979). Some research has

focused on the emotional impact o f divorce; however, the focus o f most

o f these studies has been p rim arily on the causes o f divorce or the

demographic d is trib u tio n o f divorce. The work o f Weiss (1979), Goode

(1956) and Spanier and

emotions resulting from divorce dissolutions.

Investigation o f the emotional

breakup is
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Thompson(1984) focuses to

impact of nonmarital

important because the loss o f such bonds has implications

some extent on

relationsh ip
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for the emotional and psychological well-being o f those who have ended

the relationsh ips. The dissolution of a relationsh ip bond is a

stressful and unhappy event, touching the most "personal and vulnerable
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aspects of a man and a woman, often piercing the very core of a

person's id e n tify and self-esteem" (Newcomb and B en tler, 1981).

Dissolutions of relationships do not "merely cause unhappiness, but

they can also have devastating effects which s p i l l into people's live s

in complex ways" (Duck and Gilmour, 1981). Breakups of relationships

can also cause stress, depression, and a host o f physical disorders and

illnesses (see Lynch, 1977; Baxter, 1982; Chiriboga, 1977, 1978, 1979;

Laudenslager, 1984; and Bloom, 1978).

The purpose o f this study is to investigate the emotional impact

o f the breakup o f nonmarital romantic relationships. In p a r t ic u la r , we

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 2

shall focus on the emotion management techniques used by persons who

have been involved in recent breakups. The goal is to learn about

emotional norms in th is p a rtic u la r loss s itu a tio n , gender differences

in emotional reactions, and e ffe c tiv e coping styles or emotion

management s trategies which might m itigate stress or low levels of

psychological w e ll-being .

Theoretical Framework. In te re s t in the social psychology of

emotions is a fa irly recent development in sociology. Emotions have

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long been regarded as i r r a t i o n a l , subjective, too d i f f i c u l t to measure,

and generally ir r e le v a n t to sociological concerns. It is now becoming

c le a r

social
that emotions

factors are implicated

are a basic
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in the "formation,
experience

shaping,
and that

influencing

and expression o f emotions" (Gordon, 1984).

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In the la s t decade, several sociological theorists have studied

emotion, but only Hochschild has made an e x p li c i t e ffo rt to (1)

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a r tic u la t e emotional experience with social structure (see Franks,

1985); (2) interweave the competing viewpoints of c o g n itiv is ts ,

in t e r a c t io n is ts , and psychologists; (3) describe s o c ia liza tio n outcomes

and norms fo r emotions, and (4) provide a theoretical framework for

emotion management. This study w ill u tiliz e Hochschild's perspective

as the c h ie f guide in the study o f relationsh ip dissolutio n.

The emotional experiences o f the "leaver" and the " l e f t " w i ll also

be investigated in th is study. Understanding the roles o f "breaker-

upper" (le a v e r) and "broken-up-with" (le ft) is essential to

understanding anything else about a breakup. According to H i l l , Rubin

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 3

and Peplau (1979) both women and men f e l t less depressed, less lo n e ly ,

f r e e r , and happier but more g u i l t y , when they were the breaker-uppers

or leavers than when they were the broken-up-with or le ft. Other

research, too, suggests that one's position as e ith e r leaver or l e f t

has a bearing on the q u a lity and duration o f emotional reactions a t the

end o f a re la tio n s h ip (Goode, 1956; Weiss, 1975; Spanier and Thompson,

1984; Metts, 1985; Brown e t a l, 1980; Kitson, 1985). According to

H i l l , Rubin and Peplau (1979), there was a general tendency for the two

partners' reactions to be inversely re la te d .

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A second in te r e s t is in the ro le of gender. Various researchers

also believe th a t there are some systematic emotional differences

between the sexes in t h e ir reactions to a breakup. Both sex role

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differences and l e a v e r / l e f t differences w i ll be explored in the course
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of th is study.

Breakups may also involve a change in id e n t it y of e ith e r the

leaver or l e f t (Vaughn, 1977). Breakup can tr ig g e r a sense o f having

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lo s t an important segment o f one's id e n t it y . In ad d itio n , self-concept

in s ta b ility and lowered self-esteem may re s u lt from a breakup.

According to Veroff (1 977), the person may experience feelings of

id e n t it y loss, worthlessness, and a sense of non-being.

The c h ie f coping mechanism we shall consider in this report is

emotional self-management. A number of writers have directed a tten tio n

to the process o f emotional self-management. Worden and Sobel (1978)

studied the suppression o f negative emotional expression, Haan (1977)

focused on regulating a ffec t, and Lazarus (1974) looked a t managing

unpleasant fe e lin g s . Hochschild described such emotion management

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 4

techniques as evocation or suppression. Thoits (1984) subsumed coping

styles under three categories: emotion focussed, perception focussed

and problemfocussed. These coping functions, strategies and

a c tiv itie s w ill be reviewed and a new schema developed which

incorporates t h e ir major ideas.

Much research on coping has focussed not so much on types of

emotion self-management as on coping resources, such as self-esteem or

social competence. L ittle is known, however, about the effectiveness

o f coping or emotion management techniques. There is some suggestion

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th a t d iffe re n t styles of coping may be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y e ffe c tiv e in

regard to well-being (P e a rlin and Schooler, 1978; Menaghan, 1982).

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A major aim of th is study is to learn whether the emotions

engendered by the breakup d i f f e r by gender and role in the breakup

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(leaver or l e f t ) . The major independent variables to be used in this

study are gender and ro le in breakup. The major dependent variables

used w i ll be: the emotions experienced as a re s u lt o f the breakup;

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c ertain self-concept dimensions (self-esteem and self-concept

s ta b ility ); c ertain emotion management strategies (evocative,

suppressive, e x p e r ie n t ia l, and avoidant); and psychological w ell-being.

In summary, th is d issertation w i l l be concerned with fiv e major

questions concerning persons who have experienced the breakup of a

nonmarital romantic re la tio n s h ip :

1) Are there differences in the emotional responses o f men and

women and o f leaver and le f t ?

2) Are there differences in the global self-esteem and s e lf -

concept s t a b i l i t y o f men and women and o f leaver and l e f t ?

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 5

3) Are there differences in the copingstyles and emotion

management strategies o f men and women and of leaver and le f t ?

4) Are there differences in the psychological well-being o f men

and women and o f leaver and le f t ?

5) Is psychological well-being affected by emotionality and

coping style?

HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses used to guide th is study may be stated as follows:

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Hypothesis K Leaver/Left and Emotions. In general, the leaver

and l e f t are affected by relationship breakup d i f f e r e n t ly .

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that the leaver w ill be more l i k e l y to feel the emotions of g u ilt,

f r u s tr a tio n , r e l i e f , freedom, and happiness. The l e f t w ill be more

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lik e ly to experience the emotions of hu rt, upset, anxiety,

helplessness, fe a r, s till in love, b itte rn e s s , anger, confusion,

sadness, disappointment and loneliness. The ratio n a le for this

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hypothesis is explained in Chapter I I I , pages 53-58.

Hypothesis 2. Leaver/Left amd Emotion Management We predict that

the leaver w ill use more e xperiential coping, and the le ft w ill use

more suppressive emotion work and more avoidance. See lit e r a t u r e

review in Chapters I I and I I I for background on this hypothesis.

Hypothesis 3 . Leaver/Left and Self-Concept Dimensions. We

predict that the leaver w i ll experience higher self-esteem and higher

s ta b ility of self-concept than the le ft. The rationale for this

hypothesis appears in Chapter I I I , pages 66-68.

Hypothesis 4. Leaver/Left and Psychological Well-Being. We

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predict th a t the leaver w i l l have higher levels o f psychological w e ll-

being than the l e f t . Chapter I I I , p a r t ic u la r ly pages 51 through 60,

give an explanation for th is hypothesis.

Hypothesis 5^. Gender and Emotions. Among persons who have

experienced a breakup, we predict that men w ill be more lik e ly to

report anger and bitterness and women w ill be more l i k e l y to express

f e a r , h u rt, anxiety and helplessness. For background on hypotheses 5

through 9 see pages 60 through 66 o f Chapter I I I .

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Hypothesis 6. This researcher predicts that women w i l l display

more em otionality than men, except fo r anger.

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Hypothesis This researcher predicts that women w i ll be more

lik e ly to avoid expressions o f anger and men w ill be more l i k e l y to

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avoid outward displays o f fear and sadness.

Hypothesis 8. Gender and Emotion Management. This researcher

predicts th a t women w i ll be more lik e ly to use evocative and

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e x p e rie n tia l styles o f coping with the breakup and men w ill be more

l i k e l y to use avoidance.

Hypothesis 9. Gender and Psychological Well-Being. This

researcher predicts th a t men w ill be more traumatized and harder h i t by

a breakup, and w i l l experience lower lev e ls o f w ell-being.

Hypothesis 10. Coping and Psychological Well-Being. We predict

th a t more a ctive coping s ty le s , such as evocative and e xperiential

s ty le s , w i l l be associated with more positive psychological well-being

than less active s ty le s , such as avoidance.

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METHODOLOGY

For purposes o f th is study, q u a lita tiv e and qu an tita tiv e research

methods were used. A purposive sample was obtained in order to te s t

the hypotheses. Completed questionnaires were obtained from 204

respondents who had experienced a recent (w ithin the la s t 18 months)

breakup of a serious re la tio n s h ip (one th a t lasted longer than 6

months).

The questionnaire included items describing the kinds and

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in te n s ity o f emotions experienced, emotion management techniques used,

a self-esteem scale, a self-concept s t a b i l i t y scale, and a

psychological well-being scale. Both open- and closed-ended questions

were included. Demographic variables tapped age, sex, race, r e lig io n ,

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m arital status of parents, grade point average (if in school), and
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social class (education and occupation of mother and f a t h e r ).

Questions on the length of the r e la tio n s h ip , the recency of the

breakup, role in the breakup, and whether the breakup was anticipated
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were also included in the questionnaire.

Indepth interviews were conducted with fiv e individuals to

supplement the q u a n tita tiv e findings. In the unstructured interviews

the discussion focused on (1) the feelings aroused and methods of

control of those fe e lin g s , (2) d e ta ils regarding emotion work and

coping s t y le , and (3) concrete examples of emotions, norms, and

processes involved in t h e ir expression.

CHAPTER SUMMARIES

Chapter presents an overview o f this study, the major variables

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to be u t i l i z e d , and the basic the o re tic a l framework.

Chapter I I is a discussion o f various theories o f emotions. Four

broad approaches to the study o f emotions are presented: (1) the

physiological, (2) the psychological, (3) the social psychological

(e specially that of symbolic interactionism) and (4) the sociological

or structural approach. The ideas of a number of theorists who

represent the various approaches are described and discussed in some

d e ta il.

Chapter III w i ll focus on the effects of marital breakup or

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divorce and how they r e la te to breakup. The l i t e r a t u r e on the types o f

emotions e lic ite d , the in te n s ityIE of reactions experienced, and the

e ffe c t o f the in d iv id u a ls ' role as l e a v e r / l e f t or as males and females

w i ll be reviewed. This chapter looks a t the "breakup" phenomenon as

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seen by sociologists. The growing psychological li t e r a t u r e on

relationsh ip dissolution (Duck et a l, 1982) is reviewed b rie fly in

terms o f "stages" o f d iss o lu tio n , major variables involved, and the

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causes o f the breakup and i t s e ffe c t on emotions. This chapter also

describes s o c ia liza tio n of sex roles and its application to gender

differences in emotions and coping behaviors. A b r i e f discussion o f

self-concept dimensions and t h e ir relationsh ip to breakup w ill be

presented here also.

Chapter IV describes the methods used in th is study and the

procedures involved in a survey o f students a t Arizona State University

and other individuals involved in singles' groups. The methodology

employed in both the survey and the unstructured interviews w i ll be

detailed and presented in th is chapter. The ra tio n a le for the measures

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used w i ll be presented. Information on the four coping styles and a

b r ie f overview o f how the styles were derived w i ll also be covered.

The results of the data analysis are presented in Chapter V. Data

analysis consisted o f correlatio n a l analysis, analysis o f variance, and

T -te s ts . A discussion o f the findings and in terp re ta tio n s resulting

from th is study w i ll be presented. Norms for breakup w ill also be

discussed.

Chapter VI presents a summary of the s ig n ific a n t findings,

presents conclusions, and draws implications from this study.

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CHAPTER I I

THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses four major approaches to the social

psychology o f emotions: (1) the biological or physiological, (2) the

psychological, (3 ) the social psychological, and (4) the s ociological.

BIOLOGICAL OR PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS

Early Works. The biological approach assumes th a t emotions are

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caused by in t e r n a l, physiological, nervous system processes, rather

than cognitive or psychological processes. IE Darwin (1892) proposed the

firs t theories in th is t r a d it io n ; he investigated the s im il a r it i e s

between man and animals in physical and postural c h a r a c te ris tic s , such
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as the baring o f teeth or fangs to r e f l e c t anger. He believed th a t i f

animals and man had emotions which survived, emotions must be innate

a ttrib u te s which were in herited by the next generation. Thus emotions

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for him evolved and were b io lo g ic a lly determined. In his view,

emotions were in n a te, in s t in c t u a l, and phylogenetic.

James (1948) contended th a t emotions are "constituted and made up

of bodily changes," that they follow from the "perception of an

ex citin g f a c t ," and that the emotions are synonymous with an expression

such as crying or f l i g h t . The l a t t e r "expression" occurred between the

time o f perception and the emotion, so that "we f le e , therefore we feel

a f r a id ." This viewpoint holds that responses are in s tin c tu a l. I t also

assumes that physiological sensations or feelings of a somatic nature

are the emotion.

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Modifying James' theory, Cannon in 1929 presented the thalamic

theory o f emotions. The theory holds that a receptor is stimulated

which excites the cortex in a kind of conditioned response. The

c o rtic a l neurons are made ready for discharge and "act in a special

combination in a given emotional expression...being released fo r action

is a primary condition for t h e ir service to the body" (Cannon, 1929).

C r it ic a l o f James, Cannon saw the viscera as too slow or not capable o f

distinguishing d if fe r e n t emotions. Cannon believed that the causes o f

emotions could be physio log ically specified: that emotions were

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aroused and d iffe r e n tia te d by d is tin c t iv e patterns o f thalamic region

a c tiv a tio n , which produced visceral

IE responses, skeletal muscle

movements, and emotional awareness. Cannon and the other e a rly

the oris ts had not yet id e n t ifie d e x p l i c i t "patterns o f arousal" which

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corresponded to d if f e r e n t emotions, although the ensuing s p e c if ic it y

debate began from t h e ir work (see below).

James' theories held th a t emotions were induced by s p e c ific organs

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being a c tiv a te d , while Cannon f e l t hormones or other chemicals induced

emotions. James believed in the " s p e c ific ity theory" (Kemper, 1978)—

that d iffe re n t emotions are associated with d if f e r e n t physiological

responses— whereas Cannon denied the s p e c if ic it y position. Cannon held

th a t a common group o f physiological processes underlies a l l emotions.

In physiological experiments on animals, Cannon showed that pain, fe a r,

and anger were accompanied by epinephrine secretions and physiological

arousal. Although he did not t r e a t emotions such as happiness, joy or

lo ve, he appeared to id e n t if y a common basis for fe a r and rage, which

challenged the s p e c if ic it y position.

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