CHAPTER 1 – CELL STRUCTURE

PART III – ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL

- A GENERALISED ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL AS SEEN UNDER THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Pg 5 fig. 1.4 – Structure of a generalised animal cell.
Pg 6 fig. 1.6 – Animal cells (cheek cells) as seen under a light microscope (x400).
Pg 6 fig 1.5 – Structure of a generalised plant cell.
Pg 6 fig. 1.7 – Plant cells (cells in a moss leaf) as seen under a light microscope (x400).

ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL AS SEEN UNDER THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Pg 18 fig. 1.18 – Animal cell as seen under the TEM.
Pg 19 fig. 1.19 – A typical animal cell as seen with an electron microscope.
Pg 19 fig. 1.20 – Plant cell as seen under the TEM.
Pg 20 fig. 1.21 – A typical plant cell as seen with an electron microscope.

Similarities between animal cells and plant cells.

Both have cell surface membrane (plasma membrane); nucleus containing chromatin (a mass of loosely coiled threads) and nucleolus;
cytoplasm; mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), ribosomes.

Differences between animal cells and plant cells are:

• Presence of centrioles (for nuclear division) in only animal cells.
• Plant cells are usually larger than animal cells.
• Plant cells have: a rigid cell wall; plasmodesmata (pore-like structures in the walls of neighbouring cells); a large central vacuole
surrounded by the tonoplast membrane; chloroplasts (site for photosynthesis)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS

FEATURES PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS
Cell wall Cellulose cell wall present Cell wall absent
Plasmodesmata Present in cell wall No cell wall - no plasmodesmata
Middle lamellae Present between cell walls of adjacent cells Middle lamella absent
Chloroplasts Present in most cells Absent
Vacuole Mature cells normally have a large central vacuole Vacuoles if present, are small and scattered
filled with cell sap throughout the cell
Tonoplast Present around vacuole Tonoplast absent
Cytoplasm Forms a thin layer along the edge of the cell Present throughout the cell
Nucleus At the edge of the cell Often at the center
Lysosomes Lysosomes not normally present – the vacuole Lysosomes almost always present
usually act as lysosomes
Centrioles Absent in higher plants Centrioles present
Cilia and flagella Absent in higher plants Often present
Storage substance Starch grains used for storage Glycogen granules used for storage
Division Only some cells are capable of division Almost all cells are capable of division
Secretions Few secretions are produced A wide variety of secretions are produced

THE CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE

• CYTOPLASM - It is an aqueous material containing chemicals including simple ions (sodium, phosphates and chlorides), organic
molecules (amino acids, ATP and nucleotides, and storage material such as oil droplets) and a variety of cell organelles.

Functions of cytoplasm:
- It acts as a store of vital chemicals.
- It is the site of certain metabolic pathways e.g. Glycolysis (respiration), synthesis of fatty acids and some amino acids.

• PLASMA MEMBRANE or CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE (pg 20 fig. 1.22)

It is extremely thin, about 7 nm.
It is partially permeable and controls the exchange of materials between the
cell and the environment.

The cell membrane consists of a phopholipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded.
The cell membrane is capable of movement and is known as the fluid-mosaic model.

Functions of the plasma membrane:

- It separates the contents of the cell from the external environment.
- It is partially permeable, therefore, controls the exchange of materials between the cell and the environment.
- It enables separate compartments to be formed inside the cell in which specialized metabolic processes can take place.
e.g. photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast, aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria.
- It acts as a receptor sites for recognizing external stimuli such as hormones and other chemicals.

• NUCLEUS (largest cell organelle) (pg 21 fig. 1.23)

Nuclei are spherical to ovoid in shape with size about 10-20 µm in diameter.
It is surrounded by a double membranes, the nuclear envelope, perforated by nuclear pores.
The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER).
The nuclear pores allow substances (ATP, proteins to make ribosomes, nucleotides) to enter and substances (ribosomes, mRNA) to
leave the nucleus.
Within the nucleus is a gel-like matrix called nucleoplasm which contains chromatin (loosely coiled chromosomes) and one or more
nucleoli (singular nucleolus).

Chromosomes are thread-like structures made up of DNA bound to histones proteins. Genes are present on chromosomes and contain
instructions to control the activities of the cell.
Nucleolus is a tiny, rounded, darkly-staining body. It contains DNA from several chromosomes used to synthesis ribosomes (ribosomal
RNA or rRNA). The rRNA then combine with ribosomal proteins (originated from the cytoplasm) to form ribosomes.

Functions of nucleus:
- To control the activities of the cell as it contains the genetic (hereditary) information in the form of DNA.
- To be involved in the production of ribosomes and RNA.
- It allows cell division due to the ability of DNA to replicate.
• CHLOROPLASTS (pg 30 fig. 1.34)

They have elongated shape and are about 3-10 µm long. They are bounded by a double membrane called an envelope.
The outer membrane is smooth and continuous while the inner membrane is folded into a series of flattened fluid-filled sacs called
thylakoids. In some regions of the chloroplast, the thylakoids stack up to form grana. Chlorophyll is present within the thylakoids to
absorb light for the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis.
The stroma is gel-like and contains enzymes for the light-independent stage of photosynthesis to occur.
Also present within the stroma are starch grains, lipid droplets, a circular DNA strand and 70S ribosomes.

Function of chloroplasts:
- It is the site of photosynthesis.

• MITOCHONDRIA (pg 25 fig 1.28)

Mitochondria range in shape from spherical to highly elongated.

They are relatively large organelles, with size 0.5 – 1.5 µm wide and 3.0 – 10.0 µm long.
Mitochondria are surrounded by a double membrane, known as an envelope. The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane
is folded inwards to form finger-like extensions called cristae. The cristae increase the surface area for aerobic respiration (production of
ATP – adenosine triphosphate). The rest of the mitochondrion is the matrix. It is a semi-rigid material containing enzymes, lipids, 70S
ribosomes and a circular DNA.
The number of mitochondria in a cell therefore varies with its metabolic activity. Highly active cells (e.g. liver cells, muscle cells) may
possess up to 1000 – 2000 mitochondria.
Functions of mitochondria:
- They are the site of aerobic respiration (synthesis of ATP).
- They allow synthesis of lipids.

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).

ATP is the universal energy currency of all cells.
It is made in the chloroplasts during photosynthesis and in the mitochondria during aerobic respiration.
ATP is a small, soluble molecule and can easily move within the cell. Whenever energy is needed, ATP is hydrolysed (breaking of
phosphate bond) to release energy very quickly at exactly the right place, just when and where it is needed.

ROLE OF ATP:
1. Contraction of muscle for movement
2. Active transport – ATP provides energy to move materials against their concentration gradient.
3. Anabolic processes – ATP provides energy to build up macromolecules from their component units. E.g. polysaccharide synthesis
from monosaccharides, protein synthesis from amino acids.

• ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) (pg 22 fig. 1.24)

ER is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. It consists of a system of flattened membrane-bound sacs called
cisternae. The space inside the cisternae forms extensively interconnected compartment separated from the surrounding cytoplasm.

There are two distinct types of ER:

1. Rough ER (RER) has ribosomes attached to their outer membranes. It synthesizes proteins and transport the proteins within the cell.
The proteins produced are packed in vesicles which pinched off the RER. The vesicles then fuse with the Golgi apparatus where
proteins are processed, modified and packed into Golgi vesicles. Rough ER is most abundant in cells which are rapidly growing or
secreting enzymes.

2. Smooth ER (SER) has no ribosomes. It synthesises lipids and steroids, and the reproductive hormones oestrogen and testosterone.
SER is most abundant in cells producing lipid-related secretions (e.g. the sebaceous glands of mammalian skin).
[NOTE: In voluntary muscle fibres, a special form of SER is the site of storage of calcium ions, which has an important role in the
contraction of muscle fibres]

Functions of ER:
- The membrane system of ER provides a pathway for the transport of materials throughout the cell.
- RER – to synthesise proteins, especially enzymes.
- SER – to synthesise lipids and steroids (SER).
• GOLGI APPARATUS (GOLGI BODY or GOLGI COMPLEX)
(pg 24 fig. 1.26) – Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898.

It consists of a stack of flattened membrane-bound fluid-filled sacs called cisternae.

At one end of the stack new cisternae are constantly being formed by fusion of vesicles containing proteins made from ER, while the
other end of the cisternae constantly breaks up into Golgi vesicles.

In the Golgi apparatus, the proteins are processed, modified and packed to form the required products. The products are then
transported by vesicles that bud off from the Golgi apparatus to other parts of the cell or out of the cell (secretion).

Golgi apparatus is well-developed in secretory cells (e.g. in pancreas cells producing pancreatic juice) and neurons.

Functions of Golgi apparatus:

- To transport and chemically process and modify the materials contained within it.
- To produce glycoproteins (by adding carbohydrate chains to proteins) and glycolipids (by adding carbohydrate chains to lipids).
- To produce secretory enzymes, e.g. digestive enzymes of the pancreas.
- To produce and secrete mucin. Mucin forms mucus in solution and is secreted by goblet cells in the gut and the respiratory system.
- To synthesise and release vesicles containing new cell walls needed during cell division of plant cells.
- To form lysosomes.

• LYSOSOMES (pg 24 fig. 1.27)

They are tiny spherical vesicles bound by a single membrane with no internal structure.
They are about 0.1-0.5 µm in diameter and contain hydrolytic/digestive enzymes (hydrolases) such as proteases, lipases and
nucleases in acid solution. They isolate hydrolytic enzymes from the rest of the cell to prevent damage to the cell and the organelles.
They are abundant in secretory cells and in phagocytic white blood cells.
In plant cells the large central vacuoles may act as lysosomes.
Functions of lysosomes:
- To breakdown unwanted structures such as worn-out organelles (e.g. mitochondria) within the cell (autophagy).
- In autolysis (self-destruction of whole cell by the release of the contents of lysosomes within the cell.) e.g. in mammary glands after
lactation.
- To digest material which the cell consumes from the environment by endocytosis . e.g. the digestion of bacteria in WBCs.
- To release enzymes outside the cell (exocytosis) in order to break down other cells, e.g. in the reabsorption of tadpole tails during
metamorphosis.
- Heads of sperm have a special type of lysosome, the acrosome, containing hydrolytic enzymes to digest a path to the ovum (egg) for
fertilization.

• VACUOLES - They are fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane.

In animal cells, small vacuoles (e.g. phagocytic vacuoles, food vacuoles) are present and are temporary.
In mature plant cells, a large central vacuole surrounded by the tonoplast membrane is usually present. The tonoplast membrane is
selectively permeable and controls exchange between the vacuole and the cytoplasm. The vacuole of plant cells contains cell sap, a
concentrated solution of mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, enzymes, wastes (e.g. tannins) and sometimes pigments.

Functions of vacuoles:
- The sugars and amino acids may act as a temporary food reserve.
- The pigments (e.g. anthocyanins) are of various colours and may colour the petals to attract insects for pollination, or fruits to facilitate
dispersal by animals.
- To temporarily store organic wastes which are removed when the leaves fall.
- They occasionally contain hydrolases and can act as lysosomes.
- They support herbaceous plants and parts of woody plants by providing osmotic system which creates a pressure potential.
- They allow osmotic uptake of water by osmosis which is important in cell expansion during cell growth.

• RIBOSOMES – (pg 23 fig. 1.25)

They are minute organelles (about 22nm in diameter) and are made up of rRNA and protein.
They lack membrane and consist of two parts: a smaller subunit and a larger subunit.
Ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleoli.
Two populations of ribosomes exist: free and ER-bound ribosomes.
Two types of ribosomes exist: 70S and 80S ribosomes.
The 70S ribosomes are slightly smaller and are found in mitochondria, chloroplasts and prokaryotes while the 80S ribosomes occur in
the cytoplasm of eukaryotes.

Function of ribosomes: The site of protein synthesis. They make proteins which are then transported by RER throughout the cell.

• STORAGE GRANULES
Starch grains occur within chloroplasts and the cytoplasm of plant cells.
Glycogen granules occur throughout the cytoplasm of animal cells.
Oil or lipid droplets are found within the cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells.
• MICROTUBULES (pg 27 fig. 1.29)

They are long, rigid, hollow tubes about 25 nm in diameter and up to several micrometers in length.
They form part of the cytoskeleton of the cell and are made of two similar proteins: α- and β-tubulin arranged in a cylinder.
The assembly of microtubules from tubulin molecules occurs in cells at the MTOCs (microtubule organizing centres).

Functions of microtubules:
- To provide an internal skeleton (cytoskeleton) for support and for cells to maintain their shape.
- To provide routes for transport of materials within cytoplasm (e.g. for Golgi vesicles to move in or out of the cell).
- As major components of cilia and flagella and contribute to movement.
- To form spindle fibres involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

• CENTRIOLES AND CENTROSOMES (pg 27 fig. 1.30, pg 28 fig 1.31) –

Centrosome of centrioles
produce spindle fibres which
attached to chromosomes
during cell division.

Centrioles are present in only animal cells. They occur in pairs and are arranged at right angles to each other just outside the nucleus in
a region known as the centrosome. Each consists of a hollow cylinder about 0.5 µm long and 0.2 µm in diameter, consisting of nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring.

At the beginning of nuclear division the centrioles replicate themselves and the two new pairs move to opposite poles of the cell. It is the
centrosome then that produces microtubules to form the spindle on which the chromosomes become aligned for cell division.
(NOTE: Centrioles are needed for the production of cilia. They are found at the base of cilia and flagella where they act as MTOCs to
form microtubules. These microtubules extend into the cilia and flagella and are involved in the beating movement of these organelles.

Function of centrioles: Before an animal cell divides, the centrioles replicate, move to opposite poles of the cell and form spindle fibres.
• CILIA AND FLAGELLA – (pg 28 fig. 1.32)
Cilia and flagella are almost identical, except that cilia are usually shorter (up to 25 µm long while flagella may be 1000 µm long) and
more numerous. Both are about 0.2 µm in diameter. Cilia and flagella are covered with an extension of the plasma membrane and
contain microtubules. The microtubules are arranged in an outer cylinder of 9 pairs, surrounding 2 central microtubules
(9+2 arrangement of microtubules).
The basal bodies originated from centrioles form microtubules that extend into the cilia and flagella. The microtubules undergo sliding
motions allowing the beating movement of cilia and flagella. The beating movement can move the whole organism, e.g. cilia of
Paramecium, or move material within an organism, e.g. cilia lining the respiratory tract to move mucus.

Functions of cilia and flagella:

- Use for locomotion in single-celled organisms.
- Cilia of epithelial cells move substances (example: along airways to move mucus).

• MICROVILLI (singular: MICROVILLUS)

They are tiny finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane.

They increase the surface area by as much as 25x and are particularly numerous in cells specialized for absorption.
Examples: intestinal epithelium and kidney tubule epithelium).

Plant cells lack microvilli because of their rigid cell walls.

• CELLULOSE CELL WALL (present in plant cells only)

It is rigid and consists of cellulose fibres arranged in criss-cross manner, held together by a matrix of other complex polysaccharide,
namely hemicellulose and pectic substances. The microfibrils may be regular or irregular in arrangement. The cell wall is freely
permeable, allowing free movement of molecules and ions through to the cell surface membrane.

Some cell walls have deposit of lignin, examples xylem vessel elements. The lignin provides support in woody plants and prevents the
xylem vessels from collapsing when transporting water.

Functions of cellulose cell wall:

- To make cell turgid for mechanical support and protection.
- It prevents osmotic bursting of the cell.
- To allow movement of water and mineral salts through and along it (apoplast pathway).
- In some cell walls the presence of cutin, suberin or lignin in the matrix makes the cell less permeable to substances.
Lignin helps to keep the water within the xylem, and cutin in the epidermis of leaves forms the cuticle and reduces transpiration.
Suberin in root endodermal cells prevents movement of water across them, thus controls the uptake of water and mineral ions by plants.
- The arrangement of cellulose fibrils in cell wall determines the pattern of growth and the overall shape of a cell.
- Occasionally cell walls act as food reserves, ex. storage of hemicellulose in some seeds.

• MIDDLE LAMELLAE (present in plants only) –

It is a thin layer of pectic substance (calcium and magnesium pectates).

Function: It cements neighbouring cells together.

• PLASMODESMATA (present in plants only) –

They are cytoplasmic connection between cells.

Function: It enables a continuous system of cytoplasm, the symplast, to be formed between neighbouring cells for transport of
substances between cells.(e.g. ions can pass from cell to cell through the plasmodesmata without having to pass through cell walls or
cell surface membrane.
It also allows communication between neighbouring cells.