Balaj Khan

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore

Thermodynamics - 2 (ME-212)

Dr. Muhammad Usman

03-May-2024

Page 1 of 34
Acknowledgement

I extend my deepest gratitude to Dr. Muhammad Usman for his invaluable guidance,
overseeing our progress with a discerning eye. His meticulous guidance not only illuminated
our path but also allowed us to rectify our mistakes and navigate the complexities of this project
with confidence and clarity.
His expertise and encouragement have been instrumental in shaping the direction and content
of this report.

I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to my dedicated teammates, Mohid Khan
(Roll No. 2022-ME-81) and Mubeen Sultan (Roll No. 2022-ME-73), whose collaboration and
commitment have enriched the collaborative efforts and contributed significantly to the
completion of this endeavor. Their diligence and professionalism have been truly
commendable.

This research is a testament to our collective efforts and underscores the importance of
collaboration and dedication in tackling complex engineering problems.

Balaj Khan Lodhi

Roll No. 2022-ME-89
Mechanical Department
University Of Engineering & Technology
Lahore

Page 2 of 34
Statement Of Originality

We, the undersigned, Balaj Khan Lodhi, Amman Butt, and Shameer Ahmad, collectively
declare that this research paper titled "[Title of Your Paper]" is the result of our collaborative
efforts and is entirely our own work.

We affirm that all ideas, concepts, and findings presented within this paper are the result of our
joint research and analysis. We have properly acknowledged and cited all sources consulted in
the preparation of this paper, including books, articles, websites, and other scholarly works.
Any quotations, paraphrases, or ideas taken from these sources are clearly attributed to their
respective authors through appropriate citation.

Furthermore, we assert that this paper has not been submitted in whole or in part for any other
academic purpose, and it does not contain any material that infringes the intellectual property
rights or ethical standards of any individual or entity.

We understand the importance of academic integrity and take full responsibility for the
originality and authenticity of this research paper.

________________________ _________________________ __________________________

Balaj Khan Lodhi Mohid Khan Mubeen Asghar
20222-ME-89 20222-ME-81 20222-ME-73
Email:
Email: Email:
ssc.balaj.190385@gmail.com

Page 3 of 34
Abstract
Pakistan relied heavily on imported oil to fulfill its energy requirements, leading to a significant
trade deficit. Transitioning to coal could decrease oil consumption, thereby reducing the import
bill and the trade deficit. Furthermore, it has the potential to generate local employment
opportunities and deliver long-term economic advantages. This intricate engineering challenge
seeks to assess the utilization of different coal types and their effects on the environment and
human health. In this context, well will be comparing various coals (refer to Table) based on
calorific values, practicality, and societal and environmental impacts. Additionally, will assess
the coal composition required to produce 1.07 × 109 kWh energy and its environmental impact.

Page 4 of 34
List of Figures
FIGURE 1 – PAKISTAN’S COAL RESERVES 8
FIGURE 1 – PAKISTAN’S COAL RESERVES 8
FIGURE 2 - PAKISTAN COAL CONSUMPTION BY WORLOMETER 9
FIGURE 2 - PAKISTAN COAL CONSUMPTION BY WORLOMETER 9
FIGURE 3 - AIR QUALITY IN DIFFERENT CITIES OF PAKISTAN 10
FIGURE 3 - AIR QUALITY IN DIFFERENT CITIES OF PAKISTAN ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 4 - GASIFICATION PROCESS 11

List of Table
TABLE 1 - MASS % ANALYSIS OF COAL 13
TABLE 2 - ANALYSIS CONSIDERING HHV 18
TABLE 3 - ANALYSIS CONSIDERING LHV 19
TABLE 4 - ANTHRACITE COAL EMISSIONS ANALYSIS 20
TABLE 5 - BITUMINOUS COAL EMISSIONS ANALYSIS 21
TABLE 6 - SUBBITUMINOUS COAL EMISSIONS ANALYSIS 22
TABLE 7 - LIGNITE COAL EMISSIONS ANALYSIS 24
TABLE 8 - ANALYSIS OF COAL TYPES FOR POWER GENERATION 25

Contents
Acknowledgement 2
Statement Of Originality 3
Abstract 4
Introduction 8
Methodology 13
1. Combustion Equation Development and Heating Value Calculations 13
2. Coal Consumption Evaluation for Power Generation 14
3. Environmental Impact Comparison of Coal Combustion 15
4. Practicality vs. Environmental Impact: Finding the Balance 15
Calculations 16
For Bituminous 16
For Anthracite 17
For Subbituminous 17
For Lignite 17
Results & Discussion: 18
Analysis of Coal Types for Energy Production in Pakistan 18
Calorific Value: 18
Practicality: 18
Environmental Impact: 19
Considering these factors: 19
Analysis of Coal Types for Energy Production in Pakistan (Considering LHV) 19

Page 5 of 34
 Lower Heating Value: 19
Practicality Revisited: 19
Environmental Impact: 20
Anthracite Coal Emissions Analysis: Potential Benefits and Concerns 20
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 20
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): 20
Balancing Benefits and Concerns: 20
Moving Forward: 21
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): 21
Conclusion: 21
Bituminous Coal Emissions Analysis: Weighing Advantages and Disadvantages 21
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 21
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): 22
A Nuance Compared to Anthracite: 22
The Path Forward: 22
Conclusion: 22
Subbituminous Coal Emissions Analysis: Evaluating Trade-offs 22
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 23
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): 23
A Middle Ground, But Still a Challenge: 23
Considerations for Pakistan: 23
Moving Forward: 23
Conclusion: 23
Lignite Coal Emissions Analysis: Environmental Concerns Outweigh Potential Benefits 23
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 24
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): 24
Lignite: The Least Favorable Option? 24
Challenges and Considerations for Pakistan: 24
The Path Forward: 25
Conclusion: 25
Analysis of Coal Types for Power Generation in Pakistan: Balancing Energy Needs with
Environmental Impact 25
Energy Output: 25
Practicality and Resource Availability: 26
Environmental Impact: 26
Selecting the Right Coal: 26

Page 6 of 34
 Recommendations: 26
Conclusion: 26
Limitations 28
References 33

Page 7 of 34
Introduction
Energy is undoubtedly a cornerstone of
human existence, with the level of
development in a nation intricately tied to
its energy consumption. Coal, revered as a
primary energy source, played a pivotal role
in fueling the industrial revolution, shaping
the destinies of nations worldwide. The
utilization of coal reserves in the 19th
century is credited with propelling many
countries into the ranks of global economic
leaders. Its enduring significance persists to
this day, particularly evident in industries
such as steel manufacturing and electricity
generation. With the inevitable depletion of
petroleum and natural gas reserves on the
horizon and an escalating global energy
demand, coal emerges as a prominent
alternative, alongside nuclear power, to
address these burgeoning needs. Currently,
developing countries account for around
55% of the world's coal consumption, a
figure projected to climb to 65% within the
next 15 years. Forecasts anticipate a
substantial surge in global coal
consumption, with estimates indicating an
increase from 5.3 billion tons in 2001 to 7.5
billion tons by 2025 (Uslu, 2002; Balat and
Ayar, 2004). Extensive global research has
been dedicated to exploring the utilization
of coal as a primary energy source over
alternatives, reflecting a significant area of
study internationally as well as in Pakistan.
The study conducted by M. Sadiq Malkani
on ‘Coal & Water Resources Of Pakistan’
underscores the complexity of this
endeavor. With substantial coal reserves
concentrated mainly in provinces such as
Sindh and Balochistan, Pakistan is poised to
address its energy challenges, which are
largely fueled by a heavy dependence on
imported oil and gas, a key contributor to
their trade deficit. And according to the
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS),
Pakistan's imports of the petroleum group
during the first half (July-December) of the
current fiscal year 2023-24 stood at $8.005
billion. i And the trade balance deficit
$13.872 billion. ii Over time, coal has
played a pivotal role across a spectrum of
industries, from power generation to
cement production, highlighting its
versatility and potential for widespread
application. Beyond its immediate utility,
the development of coal resources holds
promise as a catalyst for broader economic
growth. By tapping into these reserves,
Pakistan anticipates not only bolstering its
energy security but also fostering job
creation, stimulating income generation
within mining communities, and
facilitating the adoption of cutting-edge
technologies. This multifaceted approach
recognizes coal's pivotal role in driving
economic diversification and
modernization, laying the groundwork for
sustainable development and prosperity in
Pakistan's energy landscape.iii
Figure 1 – Pakistan’s Coal Reserves
Figure 2 – Pakistan’s Coal Reserves
Page 8 of 34
However Pakistan's domestic coal
production remains relatively low, resulting
in a significant gap between production and
consumption. In 2016, the country ranked
20th globally in coal reserves with
approximately 3.38 billion tons, reflecting a
considerable potential for energy self-
sufficiency. However, despite this
abundance, Pakistan's coal production
stood at only 4.51 million tons, placing it
34th in the world, which indicates an
underutilization of its coal resources.
Meanwhile, coal consumption within the
country continued to rise, outpacing
production and reaching 10.20 million tons
annually. This disparity led to an annual
deficit of approximately 5.69 million tons,
highlighting a reliance on imports to meet
domestic demand. To bridge this gap and
ensure energy security, Pakistan relied on
coal imports, which amounted to 7.11
million tons.iv
Comparatively, while Pakistan imported
$8.005 billion worth of petroleum products
during the first half of the fiscal year 2023-
24, with a trade balance deficit of $13.872
billion, importing coal could potentially
Figure 3 - Pakistan Coal Consumption By WORLOMETER
Figure 4 - Pakistan Coal Consumption By WORLOMETER
offer a more cost-effective solution. Given
the relative abundance of coal reserves
domestically and the necessity to reduce
reliance on expensive petroleum imports,
shifting towards coal could present a
financially advantageous alternative for
Pakistan. Such a transition not only holds
the potential to address the trade deficit but
also contributes to long-term energy
security and sustainability goals. By
harnessing its coal resources more
effectively, Pakistan can establish a more
balanced and resilient energy portfolio
while mitigating economic vulnerabilities
associated with heavy reliance on imported
petroleum products.
Despite the significant gap between
domestic coal production and consumption,
initiatives such as the expansion plans by
Sindh Engro Coal Mining Co (SECMC)
aims to help by boosting coal production to
11.5 million tons in 2024, from an expected
7.6 million tons this year. v Now is an
opportune moment for Pakistan to
transition to coal, as it promises not only to
alleviate the trade deficit but also to foster a
more sustainable environment.
Page 9 of 34
Pakistan also faces significant air quality
challenges, with two of its cities ranking
among the five worst in the world in 2022.
Despite improvements, Pakistan still ranks
third in the country-wide air quality index,
scoring 70.9.vi To address these air quality
issues and move towards a greener, more
environmentally friendly future, Pakistan
can leverage its substantial coal reserves.
Transitioning to coal as a primary energy
source holds the potential to significantly
reduce pollution levels. By replacing more
pollutant-heavy fuels such as oil and gas
with coal, Pakistan can mitigate harmful
emissions that contribute to poor air quality.
Moreover, implementing modern pollution
control technologies in coal-fired power
plants can further minimize environmental
impact by reducing the release of
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and other pollutants into the
atmosphere.
Additionally, embracing cleaner coal
technologies, such as high-efficiency, low-
emission (HELE) coal plants and carbon
capture and storage (CCS) systems, can
enhance environmental sustainability while
also diversifying Pakistan's energy mix and
enhancing energy security. This transition
not only addresses air quality concerns but
also stimulates economic growth by
Figure 5 - Air quality in different cities of
Pakistan
fostering the development of the domestic
coal industry and creating job
opportunities. Through these efforts,
Pakistan can make significant strides
towards improving air quality, reducing
pollution levels, and building a more
sustainable future for its citizens.
However, its continued use presents a
significant challenge in the fight against
climate change and environmental
degradation. The combustion of coal
releases a staggering amount of carbon
dioxide (CO2) – according to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), coal
combustion was responsible for roughly
43% of global CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion in 2022.vii This greenhouse gas
acts as a heat trap in the atmosphere,
accelerating global warming at an alarming
rate. The consequences of this warming
trend are well documented, including
disrupted weather patterns, rising sea
levels, and increasingly extreme weather
events.
The environmental impact of coal extends
beyond greenhouse gas emissions. Coal-
fired power plants are a major source of air
pollution, releasing harmful pollutants such
as sulfur and nitrogen oxides. In the United
States alone, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) estimates that coal-fired
power plants emit 12 million tons of these
pollutants annually. viii These pollutants
contribute significantly to acid rain, a
phenomenon that damages forests, acidifies
lakes and rivers, and disrupts aquatic
ecosystems. Additionally, coal ash, a
byproduct of coal combustion, can contain
toxic elements like mercury and arsenic.
Improper management of coal ash can lead
to the leaching of these elements into soil
and groundwater, posing a serious threat to
human health.
Page 10 of 34
The human cost of coal dependence is
another cause for concern. The World
Health Organization (WHO) estimates that
air pollution from coal-fired power plants
contributes to over 4.2 million premature
deaths globally each year, primarily due to
respiratory illnesses like asthma and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD).ix
Given the significant environmental and
health risks associated with coal
combustion, the development of cleaner
coal utilization technologies is imperative.
Coal gasification presents a potential
solution. This process transforms coal into
a synthetic gas (syngas) that can be used for
electricity generation in a more
environmentally friendly way.
Gasification offers a two-pronged
approach to mitigating the environmental
impact of coal. Firstly, it has the potential to
capture and store a significant portion of the
CO2 emissions produced during the
gasification process. This captured carbon
can then be permanently stored
underground, preventing it from entering
the atmosphere and contributing to climate
change. Studies suggest that gasification
with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
technology could achieve capture rates of
up to 90%.
Figure 6 - Gasification Process
Secondly, syngas itself burns cleaner than
coal, resulting in lower emissions of
harmful pollutants like sulfur oxides and
nitrogen oxides. This translates to cleaner
air and improved public health, particularly
for communities located near coal-fired
power plants. Additionally, gasification
plants can be more efficient than traditional
coal-fired plants, generating more
electricity with less coal, which leads to a
smaller overall environmental footprint.
However, the path towards clean coal
through gasification is not without its
challenges. CCS technology is still under
development, and ensuring the safe and
permanent storage of captured carbon over
geological timescales requires careful
consideration. The gasification process
itself also produces some emissions, and
there are concerns about water usage and
potential for groundwater contamination at
gasification plants.
Therefore, ongoing research and
development efforts should focus on
improving the efficiency of the gasification
process, minimizing its environmental
footprint, and developing robust CCS
technologies. The implementation of strict
environmental regulations is also crucial to
ensure the responsible operation of
gasification plants.
High-Efficiency, Low-Emission (HELE)
coal plants can also be considered as a
potential stopgap solution. These advanced
power plants represent a measured
approach, aiming to balance the economic
realities of utilizing existing coal
infrastructure with the environmental
imperative to reduce emissions.
The core principle behind HELE plants lies
in maximizing efficiency. They achieve this
through a combination of technological
advancements. Firstly, HELE plants
Page 11 of 34
operate at significantly higher combustion
temperatures compared to traditional coal-
fired plants. This allows for more efficient
energy extraction from the burning coal,
requiring less fuel to generate the same
amount of electricity. A study by General
Electric Power in 2018 suggests that even a
modest 1% increase in efficiency can
translate to a 2-3% reduction in CO2
emissions. x This seemingly small
improvement can have a significant impact
on a large scale.
Secondly, HELE plants go beyond just
burning coal efficiently. They incorporate
sophisticated emission control
technologies. These systems capture and
reduce harmful pollutants like sulfur oxides
(SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) before
they are released into the atmosphere. This
significantly improves air quality,
particularly in regions heavily reliant on
coal-fired power generation for their
electricity needs. Studies indicate that
HELE plants can achieve a reduction in
SOx and NOx emissions by up to 90%
compared to older plants. This translates to
cleaner air, reduced acid rain, and improved
public health, particularly for communities
located near coal-fired power plants.
However, it's crucial to acknowledge the
limitations of HELE plants. While they
offer a significant improvement over
traditional coal plants, they don't eliminate
CO2 emissions entirely. Estimates suggest
HELE plants can achieve a reduction in
CO2 emissions of 20-30% compared to
older plants. This is a positive step, but it
doesn't eliminate the contribution to global
warming. Additionally, the effectiveness of
these plants in reducing overall
environmental impact depends on factors
like the type of coal being used, the
efficiency of the emission control
technologies employed, and the overall
plant design.
In the ongoing quest for reliable electricity
generation with a reduced environmental
footprint, technologies like High-
Efficiency, Low-Emission (HELE) coal
plants and coal gasification have emerged
as potential solutions. While these methods
offer advancements compared to traditional
coal combustion, it's important to
acknowledge that they are not silver bullets
for clean energy production.
HELE plants represent a significant step
forward in coal utilization. Through
advancements in combustion technology,
they operate at higher temperatures,
extracting more energy from the coal and
requiring less fuel to generate the same
amount of electricity. Studies suggest that
even a modest increase in efficiency can
translate to a notable reduction in CO2
emissions. Additionally, HELE plants
incorporate sophisticated emission control
systems that capture and significantly
reduce harmful pollutants like sulfur and
nitrogen oxides before they are released
into the atmosphere. This translates to
cleaner air, particularly in regions heavily
reliant on coal-fired power generation.xi
However, HELE plants aren't without
limitations. Despite the efficiency gains,
they still produce CO2 emissions, a major
contributor to global warming. While
estimates suggest a potential reduction of
20-30% in CO2 emissions compared to
older plants, this doesn't eliminate the issue
entirely. Furthermore, the effectiveness of
HELE plants in minimizing environmental
impact depends on various factors,
including the type of coal used, the
efficiency of the emission control
technologies employed, and the overall
plant design.
Page 12 of 34
Coal gasification presents another approach
to cleaner coal utilization. This process
transforms coal into a synthetic gas
(syngas) that can be used for electricity
generation with potentially lower
emissions. The key advantage of
gasification lies in its ability to capture a
significant portion of the CO2 emissions
produced during the process. This captured
carbon can then be permanently stored
underground, preventing its release into the
atmosphere and mitigating its contribution
to climate change. Studies suggest that
gasification with Carbon Capture and
Storage (CCS) technology could achieve
capture rates of up to 90%.xii
However, challenges remain with coal
gasification. CCS technology is still under
development, and ensuring the safe and
permanent storage of captured carbon over
geological timescales requires careful
consideration. The gasification process
itself also produces some emissions, and
there are concerns about water usage and
potential for groundwater contamination at
gasification plants.

Methodology
Pakistan faces a growing energy demand, and coal has emerged as a potential solution to meet
this need. However, the environmental impact of coal combustion necessitates a careful
evaluation of its practicality and sustainability. This project aims to comprehensively assess the
use of various coal types for power generation in Pakistan, considering both their energy output
and environmental consequences.
Table 1 - Mass % analysis of coal

Analysis Anthracite Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite

Mass Percent (medium volatility)
C 83.9 80.7 58.8 42.4
𝑯𝟐 2.9 4.5 3.8 2.8
S 0.7 1.8 0.3 0.7
𝑶𝟐 0.7 2.4 12.2 12.4
𝑵𝟐 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.7
𝑯𝟐 𝑶 2.5 3.3 19.6 34.8

1. Combustion Equation
Development and Heating Value
Calculations
• Combustion Equation Development:
The initial stage involves crafting sulfur, etc.) and atmospheric oxygen
balanced chemical equations, unique to (O2). The resulting products of these
each coal variety (anthracite, reactions will encompass carbon
bituminous, subbituminous, and dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O),
lignite). These equations will serve as a sulfur oxides (SOx), and nitrogen
roadmap, meticulously depicting the oxides (NOx). To ensure a clear and
complete reaction between the various definitive picture, we will assume
components of coal (carbon, hydrogen, complete combustion with excess

Page 13 of 34
 oxygen, signifying the complete
conversion of all fuel elements into
their respective products.
• Stoichiometric Analysis: Next, we
will leverage the valuable data provided
in Table 1, which details the ultimate
analysis of each coal type. This data
offers a breakdown of the mass
percentages of various elements present
in each coal variety. By applying the
fundamental principle of the law of
• Heating Value Calculations: To
evaluate the energy output potential of
each coal type, we will determine their
higher heating value (HHV) and lower
heating value (LHV) in Btu/lbm. HHV
represents the total heat released during
combustion, including the heat from
condensed water vapor. LHV excludes
this heat as it might not be usable
depending on the power plant design.
• Data Sources: To obtain reliable HHV
values, we will consult established data
sources such as reputable coal property
databases or well-respected engineering
handbooks. These resources serve as
treasure troves of information,
meticulously compiled by experts in the
field. Alternatively, we can explore
correlations or mathematical
relationships that estimate HHV based
on the ultimate analysis data obtained
from Table 1. It's crucial to ensure
consistency in units throughout the
analysis. Since HHV values are often
presented in MJ/kg (megajoules per
kilogram) in these databases, we'll need
to convert them to Btu/lbm for a unified
comparison across all coal types.
conservation of mass, we can
meticulously determine the coefficients
for each element and compound within
the reaction equations. This meticulous
balancing ensures a precise
representation of the combustion
process, guaranteeing that the number
of atoms for each element on the
reactant side (coal and oxygen) is equal
to the number of atoms on the product
side (emission gases and water Vapor.
• LHV Calculation: Finally, we will
determine the LHV for each coal type
by subtracting a key value from the
HHV. This value represents the latent
heat of vaporization of water, which is
the energy required to convert liquid
water into steam at its boiling point. A
typical value for this latent heat is
around 970 Btu/lbm. The subtraction
process involves multiplying this latent
heat by the mass percentage of water
(H2O) present in each coal type as listed
in Table 1. This calculation effectively
removes the contribution of water vapor
condensation from the total heat output,
providing a more realistic picture of the
usable energy available from each coal
type.
2. Coal Consumption Evaluation for
Power Generation
The project will determine the theoretical
coal consumption required to achieve the
stated energy output (1.07 x 10^9 kWh)
from the coal-powered thermal system.
Here's the approach:
• Energy Unit Conversion: The
provided energy output will be
converted from kWh to Btu using the
conversion factor: 1 kWh = 3412 Btu.
Page 14 of 34
 This ensures consistent units for
calculations throughout the analysis.
• Coal Consumption Calculation: By
dividing the total required energy (in
Btu) by the HHV of each coal type (in
Btu/lbm), we will determine the
theoretical mass of coal required for
complete combustion. This provides an
initial estimate of coal consumption
needed for each coal variety to generate
the specified energy output.
3. Environmental Impact
Comparison of Coal Combustion
Coal combustion releases pollutants that
have detrimental environmental and health
effects. We will conduct a comparative
analysis of the exhaust products from the
combustion equations developed for each
coal type. Here's what we'll focus on:
• Pollutant Analysis: Our focus will be
on environmentally harmful fractions
like:
o Sulfur oxides (SOx): These
contribute to acid rain and
respiratory problems.
o Nitrogen oxides (NOx): These
contribute to smog formation and
respiratory problems.
o Unburned hydrocarbons
(possible if combustion isn't
perfect): These contribute to air
pollution.
• Comparative Emissions: We will
compare the amount of these pollutants
produced per unit of energy generated
(e.g., grams of SOx per kWh) for each
coal type. This will provide valuable
insights into the relative environmental
impact of each coal variety.
• Additional Environmental
Considerations: Beyond the exhaust
products, we will acknowledge other
environmental factors associated with
coal utilization:
o Impact of coal mining on land
and water resources.
o Emissions associated with coal
transportation.
o Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2)
– although all coals release CO2,
the amount might vary slightly
depending on the carbon content.
4. Practicality vs. Environmental
Impact: Finding the Balance
While some coal types might offer higher
energy output (lower consumption), their
environmental impact might be more
severe. To identify a practical and
sustainable solution, we will consider the
following:
• Consumption Comparison: Based
on the HHV calculations, we will
compare the coal consumption
required for each type to generate
the same amount of energy. Lower
consumption indicates higher
efficiency from a practicality
standpoint.
• Environmental Impact Trade-off:
We will revisit the environmental
impact comparison from step 3,
considering the relative severity of
pollutant emissions for each coal.
Page 15 of 34
Calculations

HHV Values
‘Dulong's Formula, also known as Petit and Dulong's Law, is a principle in physics used to
estimate the specific heat capacity of certain solid elements. It focuses on the relationship
between an element's atomic weight and its ability to store thermal energy.’

𝑂
14600 𝐶 + 62000 (𝐻 − ) + 4050 𝑆
8

C, H, O, S are mass fractions

For Anthracite,
83.9 2.9 0.7⁄100 0.7
14600( ) + 62000 ( − ) + 4050( )
100 100 8 100
HHV = 14021.5 btu/lb
For Bituminous,
0.024
14600(0.807) + 62000 (0.045 − ) + 4050(0.018)
8
HHV = 14459.1 btu/lb
For Subbituminous,
0.122
14600(0.588) + 62000 (0.038 − ) + 4050(3 × 10−3 )
8
HHV = 10007.45 btu/lb
For Lignite,
0.124
14600(0.424) + 62000 (0.028 − ) + 4050(7 × 10−3 )
8
HHV = 6993.75 btu/lb

Complete Combustion Equation

For Bituminous
Mole fractions:
80.7 4.5 1.8 2.4 1.1 3.3
𝐶+ 𝐻2 + 𝑆+ 𝑂2 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻𝑂
12 2 32 32 28 18 2
6.725𝐶 + 2.25𝐻2 + 0.05625𝑆 + 0.075𝑂2 + 0.039𝑁2 + 0.1833𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 )
Hydrogen Balance:
2.25𝐻2 + 0.1833𝐻2 𝑂 = 2.433𝐻2 𝑂
Oxygen Balance:
6.725𝐶 + 2.25𝐻2 + 0.05625𝑆 + 0.075𝑂2 + 0.039𝑁2 + 0.1833𝐻2 𝑂
+𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑦𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑧𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑤𝑁2
So;
0.1833 𝑦
0.075 + + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 𝑥 + + 𝑧
2 2
2.433
0.075 + 0.09165 + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 6.725 + + 0.05625
2
𝑎𝑡ℎ = 7.83125
𝑤 = 0.039 + 3.76(7.83125) = 29.4845

Page 16 of 34
Therefore;
𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝑪 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝑯𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝑵𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶
+𝟕. 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟐𝟓(𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝑵𝟐 ) → 𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝟖𝟒𝟓𝑵𝟐

For Anthracite
Mole fractions:
83.9 2.9 0.7 0.7 1.3 2.5
𝐶+ 𝐻2 + 𝑆+ 𝑂2 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻𝑂
12 2 32 32 28 18 2

6.991𝐶 + 1.45𝐻2 + 0.0218𝑆 + 0.0218𝑂2 + 0.04642𝑁2 + 0.1388𝐻2 𝑂

+𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑦𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑧𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑤𝑁2
So;
0.1388 𝑦
0.09124 + + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 𝑥 + + 𝑧
2 2
1.5888
0.09124 + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 6.991 + + 0.021875
2
𝑎𝑡ℎ = 7.716035
𝑤 = 0.04642 + 3.76(7.716035) = 29.05871
So;
𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝑪 + 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝑯𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟐𝑵𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟖𝑯𝟐 𝑶
+𝟕. 𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟎(𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝑵𝟐 ) → 𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟖𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟕𝑵𝟐

For Subbituminous
Mole fractions:
58.8 3.8 0.3 12.2 1.3 19.6
𝐶+ 𝐻2 + 𝑆+ 𝑂2 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻𝑂
12 2 32 32 28 18 2

4.9𝐶 + 1.9𝐻2 + 9.375 × 10−3 𝑆 + 0.3812𝑂2 + 0.0464𝑁2 + 1.088𝐻2 𝑂

+𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑦𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑧𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑤𝑁2
So;
1.0888 𝑦
0.3812 + + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 𝑥 + + 𝑧
2 2
2.9888
0.9256 + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 4.9 + + 9.375 × 10−3
2
𝑎𝑡ℎ = 5.4781
𝑤 = 0.0464 + 3.76(5.4781) = 20.644
So;
𝟒. 𝟗𝑪 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝑯𝟐 + 𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟒𝑵𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖𝟖𝑯𝟐 𝑶
+𝟓. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟏(𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝑵𝟐 ) → 𝟒. 𝟗𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝟖𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑺𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟒𝑵𝟐

For Lignite
Mole fractions:
42.4 2.8 0.7 12.4 0.7 34.8
𝐶+ 𝐻2 + 𝑆+ 𝑂2 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻𝑂
12 2 32 32 28 18 2

3.533𝐶 + 1.4𝐻2 + 0.0218𝑆 + 0.3875𝑂2 + 0.025𝑁2 + 1.933𝐻2 𝑂

+𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑦𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑧𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑤𝑁2
So;

Page 17 of 34
 1.9333 𝑦
0.3875 +
+ 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 𝑥 + + 𝑧
2 2
3.333
1.35415 + 𝑎𝑡ℎ = 3.533 + + 0.021875
2
𝑎𝑡ℎ = 3.8672
𝑤 = 0.025 + 3.76(3.8672) = 14.565
So;
𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟑𝑪 + 𝟏. 𝟒𝑯𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝑵𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶
+𝟑. 𝟖𝟔𝟕𝟐(𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝑵𝟐 ) → 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟑𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓𝟔𝟓𝑵𝟐

Anthracite → LHV =14021.5 - 9(0.045) (1008.6) = 13613.017

Bituminous → LHV =14459.1 - 9(0.045) (1008.6) = 14050.6
Subbituminous → LHV =10007.45 - 9(0.045) (1008.6) = 9598.96
Lignite → LHV =6993.75 - 9(0.045) (1008.6) = 6585.267

Results & Discussion:

Analysis of Coal Types for Energy Production in Pakistan
This analysis evaluates the suitability of various coal types (Anthracite, Bituminous,
Subbituminous, Lignite) for power generation in Pakistan, considering their calorific values,
practicality, and environmental impact.
Table 2 - Analysis Considering HHV

15000
HHV (btu/lb)

10000

5000

0
Anthracite Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite
Coals

Calorific Value:
Our analysis reveals a significant disparity in the energy content of these coals, measured in
Higher Heating Values (HHV). Bituminous coal boasts the highest potential energy output
per unit weight (14459.1 Btu/lbm), followed closely by Anthracite (14021.5 Btu/lbm)
([Placeholder for source of HHV data]). Subbituminous coal falls between these two, while
Lignite exhibits the lowest HHV (6993.75 Btu/lbm), signifying the least usable energy per
unit mass.
Practicality:
High-grade coals (Bituminous & Anthracite) offer a calorific punch, but extraction costs can
hit hard. Pakistan's abundant Lignite emerges as a tempting, readily available option. However,
its lower energy output demands burning more to match the powerhouses, potentially negating
cost benefits due to increased transport and handling needs. A strategic selection balancing
energy output with practicality is key.

Page 18 of 34
Environmental Impact:
While all coals pollute, the severity depends on both the coal itself and the power plant's efficiency.
Lower-grade Lignite, despite its availability, burns dirtier due to higher moisture and ash content. This
translates to increased emissions of harmful pollutants that impact air quality and public health (IEA,
2021; EPA, 2020). Higher-grade coals, though potentially less abundant, might offer a cleaner burning
alternative.
Considering these factors:
• Bituminous coal offers the most attractive option in terms of calorific value, but
economic feasibility and potential environmental impact require further investigation.
• Anthracite coal is similar to Bituminous coal in terms of calorific value, but its
availability and cost might be less favorable.
• Subbituminous coal presents a middle ground between calorific value and potential
environmental impact, requiring a balance between energy needs and pollution
concerns.
• Lignite coal, while readily available in Pakistan, has the lowest calorific value and
potentially the most significant environmental impact due to higher emissions.

Analysis of Coal Types for Energy Production in Pakistan (Considering LHV)

This analysis reevaluates the suitability of various coal types (Anthracite, Bituminous,
Subbituminous, Lignite) for power generation in Pakistan, considering their Lower Heating
Values (LHV) alongside practicality and environmental impact. LHV represents the usable
energy available after accounting for moisture content in the coal.
Table 3 - Analysis Considering LHV

LHV

15000
LHV (Btu/lb)

10000

5000

0
Anthracite Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite
Coal

Lower Heating Value:

The provided LHV data (in Btu/lbm) shows a similar trend to HHV, with Anthracite
(13613.017) and Bituminous (14050.6) coals boasting the highest values, followed by
Subbituminous (9598.96) and Lignite (6585.267) ([Placeholder for source of LHV data]).
However, the gap between Bituminous and Anthracite coals narrows compared to HHV,
suggesting that the moisture content might be slightly higher in Anthracite.
Practicality Revisited:
The analysis regarding practicality remains largely applicable. While Bituminous and
Anthracite coals offer superior energy output per unit mass burned, their availability and
extraction costs might be higher. Pakistan's abundant Lignite reserves provide a readily

Page 19 of 34
available resource, but the lower LHV necessitates burning more Lignite to achieve the same
energy output as Bituminous or Anthracite coals, potentially negating cost advantages due to
increased transportation and handling needs.
Environmental Impact:
The environmental impact discussion holds true. Lignite, with its lower LHV, often has higher
moisture content, leading to potentially greater SOx, NOx, and PM emissions during
combustion (International Energy Agency, 2021). xiii Bituminous and Anthracite coals, with
lower moisture content, might result in lower emissions compared to Lignite.

Anthracite Coal Emissions Analysis: Potential Benefits and Concerns

This analysis examines the provided emission data for Anthracite coal, focusing on Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) at 99.688% and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) at 0.31193%. Understanding these
emissions is crucial for evaluating the environmental impact of using Anthracite coal for power
generation.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
Anthracite coal boasts a high CO2 emission rate, indicating a significant contribution to
greenhouse gas emissions when burned. CO2 traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to global
warming and climate change. This poses a major environmental concern associated with
Anthracite coal (Environmental Protection Agency, 2023).xiv
Table 4 - Anthracite Coal Emissions Analysis

Anthracite Emissions CO2

0.3% SO2

99.7%

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):

The SO2 emission rate for Anthracite coal appears relatively low compared to other coal types.
SO2 emissions contribute to acid rain, respiratory problems, and other environmental and
health issues. While the lower SO2 emission is a positive aspect, it's important to acknowledge
that even seemingly low levels can have a cumulative impact on air quality, especially with
large-scale coal use (Clean Air Task Force, 2023).xv
Balancing Benefits and Concerns:
Anthracite coal offers advantages like high energy density (calorific value) and potentially
lower levels of certain pollutants like SO2 compared to other coals. However, the significant
CO2 emissions pose a serious environmental challenge.

Page 20 of 34
Moving Forward:
Utilizing Anthracite coal for power generation requires careful consideration. Here are some
crucial steps:
• Emission Control Technologies: Implementing advanced emission control systems in
power plants can significantly reduce SO2 emissions and potentially capture some CO2
emissions. However, these technologies come with additional costs.
• Renewable Energy Integration: Pakistan should prioritize integrating renewable
energy sources like solar and wind into its energy mix to reduce reliance on fossil fuels
and mitigate the overall CO2 emissions footprint.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Exploring the feasibility of CCS technologies that
capture CO2 emissions from power plants and store them underground could be a long-term
solution, but this technology is still under development.
Conclusion:
Anthracite coal offers potential benefits in terms of energy output and potentially lower SO2
emissions, but its high CO2 emissions raise significant environmental concerns. Pakistan
should carefully evaluate the trade-offs and prioritize strategies like emission control
technologies, renewable energy integration, and potentially CCS to mitigate the environmental
impact of using Anthracite coal for power generation.

Bituminous Coal Emissions Analysis: Weighing Advantages and Disadvantages

This analysis examines the emission data for Bituminous coal, focusing on Carbon Dioxide (CO2) at
99.171% and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) at 0.08288% ([Placeholder for source of emission data]).
Understanding these emissions is crucial for evaluating the environmental impact of using Bituminous
coal for power generation.
Table 5 - Bituminous Coal Emissions Analysis

Bituminous Emissions CO2

0.1% SO2

99.9%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

Similar to Anthracite coal, Bituminous coal exhibits a very high CO2 emission rate, indicating a
significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. As CO2 traps heat in the atmosphere, its
presence exacerbates global warming and climate change, posing a major environmental concern
associated with Bituminous coal (Environmental Protection Agency, 2023).

Page 21 of 34
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):
The SO2 emission rate for Bituminous coal appears considerably lower compared to Anthracite coal.
While this is a positive aspect, it's important to remember that even seemingly low levels of SO2
emissions can contribute to acid rain, respiratory problems, and other environmental and health
issues, especially with large-scale coal use (Clean Air Task Force, 2023).
A Nuance Compared to Anthracite:
While both Anthracite and Bituminous coals share the disadvantage of high CO2 emissions,
Bituminous coal might have a slight edge in terms of SO2 emissions. This could be due to variations in
sulfur content within different coal seams. However, the overall environmental impact remains
significant due to the dominant CO2 emissions.
The Path Forward:
The considerations outlined for Anthracite coal are equally applicable to Bituminous coal:
• Emission Control Technologies: Implementing advanced emission control systems can
significantly reduce SO2 emissions and potentially capture some CO2 emissions from
Bituminous coal power plants.
• Renewable Energy Integration: Pakistan should prioritize integrating renewable energy
sources like solar and wind into its energy mix to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate
the overall CO2 emissions footprint.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Exploring the feasibility of CCS technologies for capturing
and storing CO2 emissions from Bituminous coal power plants could be a long-term solution,
but this technology is still under development.
Conclusion:
Bituminous coal offers advantages like high energy density but, like Anthracite, presents a significant
environmental challenge due to its high CO2 emissions. Pakistan should carefully evaluate the trade-
offs and prioritize strategies like emission control technologies, renewable energy integration, and
potentially CCS to mitigate the environmental impact of using Bituminous coal for power generation.
Subbituminous Coal Emissions Analysis: Evaluating Trade-offs
This analysis examines the emission data for Subbituminous coal, focusing on Carbon Dioxide (CO2) at
99.809% and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) at 0.1909% ([Placeholder for source of emission data]).
Understanding these emissions is crucial for evaluating the environmental impact of using
Subbituminous coal for power generation in Pakistan.
Table 6 - Subbituminous Coal Emissions Analysis

Subbituminous Emissions CO2

0.2% SO2

99.8%

Page 22 of 34
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
Subbituminous coal exhibits a very high CO2 emission rate, similar to Anthracite and Bituminous coals.
This indicates a substantial contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, as CO2 traps heat in the
atmosphere, exacerbating global warming and climate change (Environmental Protection Agency,
2023).xvi This poses a major environmental concern associated with Subbituminous coal.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):
The SO2 emission rate for Subbituminous coal falls between Anthracite and Bituminous coals. While
this is a positive aspect compared to Anthracite, it's still not ideal. SO2 emissions contribute to acid
rain, respiratory problems, and other environmental and health issues, especially with large-scale coal
use (Clean Air Task Force, 2023).xvii
A Middle Ground, But Still a Challenge:
Subbituminous coal might offer a slight advantage in terms of SO2 emissions compared to Anthracite,
but the overall environmental impact remains significant due to the dominant CO2 emissions.
Additionally, Subbituminous coal often has higher moisture content than higher-rank coals, potentially
leading to slightly lower energy output per unit mass burned. This could necessitate burning more
Subbituminous coal to achieve the same energy output as other coal types, potentially negating any
slight advantage in SO2 emissions.
Considerations for Pakistan:
Pakistan should carefully evaluate the trade-offs associated with Subbituminous coal:
• Energy Security: Subbituminous coal's availability in Pakistan could offer some energy security
benefits.
• Environmental Impact: The high CO2 emissions pose a significant environmental challenge.
• Economic Feasibility: The potential need to burn more Subbituminous coal for equivalent
energy output compared to higher-rank coals needs to be factored into cost analysis.
Moving Forward:
Strategies outlined for Anthracite and Bituminous coals are equally applicable here:
• Emission Control Technologies: Implementing advanced emission control systems can
significantly reduce SO2 emissions and potentially capture some CO2 emissions from
Subbituminous coal power plants.
• Renewable Energy Integration: Pakistan should prioritize integrating renewable energy
sources like solar and wind into its energy mix to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate
the overall CO2 emissions footprint.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Exploring the feasibility of CCS technologies for capturing
and storing CO2 emissions from Subbituminous coal power plants could be a long-term
solution, but this technology is still under development.
Conclusion:
While Subbituminous coal offers potential advantages in terms of availability and potentially lower
SO2 emissions compared to Anthracite coal, its high CO2 emissions and potentially lower energy
output per unit mass raise environmental and economic concerns. Pakistan should carefully evaluate
these trade-offs and prioritize strategies to mitigate the environmental impact of using Subbituminous
coal for power generation.

Lignite Coal Emissions Analysis: Environmental Concerns Outweigh Potential Benefits

This analysis examines the emission data for Lignite coal, focusing on Carbon Dioxide (CO2) at 99.384%
and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) at 0.61535% ([Placeholder for source of emission data]). Understanding these

Page 23 of 34
emissions is crucial for evaluating the environmental impact of using Lignite coal for power generation
in Pakistan.
Table 7 - Lignite Coal Emissions Analysis

Lignite Emissions CO2

0.6% SO2

99.4%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

Similar to other coal types analyzed, Lignite coal exhibits a very high CO2 emission rate. This translates
to a significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, as CO2 traps heat in the atmosphere,
exacerbating global warming and climate change (Environmental Protection Agency, 2023). This poses
a major environmental concern associated with Lignite coal.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):
The SO2 emission rate for Lignite coal appears to be higher compared to other coal types analyzed
(Anthracite, Bituminous, Subbituminous). While SO2 emissions from any coal type are problematic,
the seemingly higher level in Lignite raises additional concerns. SO2 emissions contribute to acid rain,
respiratory problems, and other environmental and health issues, especially with large-scale coal use
(Clean Air Task Force, 2023).
Lignite: The Least Favorable Option?
Among the coal types analyzed, Lignite appears to be the least favorable option from an
environmental standpoint. While it might boast advantages in terms of availability in Pakistan, the
combination of high CO2 emissions and potentially higher SO2 emissions presents a significant
environmental challenge. Additionally, Lignite often has the lowest energy output per unit mass
burned due to its higher moisture content. This necessitates burning more Lignite to achieve the same
energy output as other coal types, further negating any potential benefits from its abundance.
Challenges and Considerations for Pakistan:
Pakistan faces a complex dilemma when considering Lignite coal:
• Energy Security: Lignite's availability offers some energy security benefits.
• Economic Feasibility: The low energy output per unit mass and potentially higher mining costs
could make Lignite less economically attractive despite its abundance.
• Environmental Impact: The high CO2 and SO2 emissions pose significant environmental
challenges.

Page 24 of 34
The Path Forward:
Strategies outlined for other coals are applicable here, but with a stronger emphasis on alternatives
due to Lignite's significant drawbacks:
• Renewable Energy Integration: Pakistan should prioritize a rapid shift towards renewable
energy sources like solar and wind to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the overall
CO2 emissions footprint.
• Emission Control Technologies: Implementing advanced emission control systems in power
plants using Lignite, if absolutely necessary, can help reduce SO2 emissions to some extent.
However, these technologies come with additional costs.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Exploring the feasibility of CCS technologies for capturing
and storing CO2 emissions from Lignite coal power plants is a potential long-term solution,
but this technology is still under development.
Conclusion:
While Lignite coal offers potential advantages in terms of availability, its high CO2 and SO2 emissions,
along with potentially lower energy output and higher mining costs, make it the least environmentally
friendly option among the coals analyzed. Pakistan should prioritize a rapid transition towards
renewable energy sources and carefully evaluate the economic feasibility and environmental impact
of using Lignite coal before considering it for power generation.

Analysis of Coal Types for Power Generation in Pakistan: Balancing Energy

Needs with Environmental Impact
This analysis examines the suitability of various coal types (Anthracite, Bituminous, Subbituminous,
Lignite) for power generation in Pakistan, considering their fuel combustion percentages (Anthracite
- 6.991%, Bituminous - 6.725%, Subbituminous - 4.9%, Lignite - 3.533%) [Placeholder for source of fuel
combustion data]. Fuel combustion percentage refers to the portion of the coal mass that is converted
into usable energy during combustion.
Table 8 - Analysis of Coal Types for Power Generation

6
Mole Fraction

0
Anthracite Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite
Fuel Comsumption (%)

Energy Output:
The data indicates a clear trend: Anthracite and Bituminous coals boast the highest fuel combustion
percentages, translating to a greater amount of usable energy per unit mass burned. Subbituminous
coal offers a middle ground, while Lignite exhibits the lowest fuel combustion percentage.

Page 25 of 34
Practicality and Resource Availability:
While Anthracite and Bituminous coals offer high energy output, their availability and extraction costs
might be higher compared to Subbituminous or Lignite coals. Pakistan has significant reserves of
Lignite, making it a potentially attractive option from a resource availability standpoint. However, the
lower fuel combustion percentage necessitates burning a larger quantity of Lignite to achieve the
same energy output as Anthracite or Bituminous coals. This can lead to increased transportation and
handling costs, potentially negating the initial cost advantage of Lignite.
Environmental Impact:
All coal types release pollutants during combustion. However, the composition of the coal and the
efficiency of the power plant significantly influence the type and amount of pollutants released.
Generally, coals with lower fuel combustion percentages, like Lignite, tend to have higher moisture
content and ash content (International Energy Agency, 2021). Burning Lignite can lead to increased
emissions of sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM), all of which
contribute to air pollution and respiratory health problems (Environmental Protection Agency, 2023).
Anthracite and Bituminous coals typically have lower moisture and ash content, resulting in potentially
less harmful emissions compared to Lignite.
Selecting the Right Coal:
Considering these factors, selecting the optimal coal type for Pakistan requires a nuanced approach:
• High Energy Output: Anthracite and Bituminous coals offer the most energy per unit mass
burned, but economic feasibility and environmental impact need evaluation.
• Resource Availability: Lignite's abundance in Pakistan is a potential benefit, but its lower
energy output and potentially higher emissions require careful consideration.
• Environmental Impact: All coal types contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution. Mitigation strategies like emission control technologies and renewable energy
integration are crucial.
Recommendations:
A comprehensive analysis is necessary to determine the optimal coal type for Pakistan. This analysis
should include:
• Cost-benefit analysis: Considering the cost of coal acquisition, transportation, and potential
pollution control measures.
• Environmental impact assessment: Evaluating the specific emissions profile of each coal type
and its impact on air quality and public health.
• Power plant efficiency: Modern power plants with advanced emission control technologies
can significantly reduce pollution from coal combustion.
Conclusion:
Pakistan faces a complex challenge in balancing its energy needs with environmental responsibility.
While some coals offer higher energy output, they might come with drawbacks like higher costs or
environmental concerns. A sustainable approach would prioritize:
• Renewable Energy Integration: Pakistan should focus on integrating renewable energy
sources like solar and wind into its energy mix to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
• Clean Coal Technologies: Investing in advanced emission control technologies for coal power
plants can significantly reduce harmful emissions.
• Strategic Coal Selection: Based on a thorough analysis, Pakistan can select the coal type that
offers the best balance of energy output, economic feasibility, and environmental impact.

Page 26 of 34
By carefully considering these factors, Pakistan can make an informed decision regarding coal
selection for power generation and pursue a more sustainable energy future.

Bituminous:
total = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟖𝟏𝟐
% co2 6.725/6.7812= 99.171
% so2 0.05625/6.7812=0.082876

Anthracite:
𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 = 7.012875
%co2 6.991/7.012875=99.688
%so2 0.021875/7.012875=0.311926

Subbituminious:
𝟒. 𝟗𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑺𝑶𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓
%co2 4.9/ 𝟒. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓=99.809
%so2 𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑/ 𝟒. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓=0.1909

Lignite:
𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟑𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑺𝑶𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟓
%co2 3.533/ 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟓=99.384
%so2 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓/ 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟓=0.61535

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Limitations

Although there is potential but there is a notable absence of recent and comprehensive surveys
or studies in Pakistan focusing on various aspects of coal utilization, such as production,
consumption, environmental impacts, and policy developments. Without access to updated
data, it becomes challenging to accurately assess the current state of the country's energy
landscape and the potential implications of increasing coal utilization. This gap in information
hinders the ability to make informed decisions and develop effective strategies for addressing
Pakistan's energy challenges.
Secondly, while there is existing literature on coal usage, particularly in the context of energy
production, there appears to be a scarcity of studies that promote coal usage while also
acknowledging and addressing its negative impacts. Many of the available papers may focus
solely on the benefits of coal as an energy source, neglecting to thoroughly examine the
associated environmental and social consequences. As a result, there is a lack of comprehensive
analysis and balanced discussion on the pros and cons of coal utilization, which is essential for
making well-informed decisions and developing sustainable energy policies.
Addressing these research gaps will require efforts to conduct updated surveys and studies in
Pakistan to gather new data on coal utilization and its impacts. Additionally, there is a need for
more literature that provides a balanced perspective on coal usage, highlighting both its benefits
and drawbacks. By filling these gaps in research and knowledge, policymakers, stakeholders,
and researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding coal
utilization and develop strategies that prioritize sustainability and environmental protection
while meeting energy needs.

Results and Discussions: Balancing Energy Needs and Environmental Impact in

Pakistan's Coal Selection for Power Generation (Extended Analysis)
Introduction
Pakistan faces a significant challenge in meeting its growing energy demands. Coal-fired power
plants currently contribute a substantial portion of the country's electricity generation.
However, this dependence on coal comes with significant environmental consequences. This
extended analysis delves deeper into the suitability of various coal types (Anthracite,
Bituminous, Subbituminous, Lignite) for power generation in Pakistan, considering energy
output, resource availability, environmental impact, economic feasibility, and potential
mitigation strategies.

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Coal Characteristics and Energy Output
The analysis of fuel combustion percentages (Anthracite - 6.991%, Bituminous - 6.725%,
Subbituminous - 4.9%, Lignite - 3.533%) reveals a clear trend (Source: [Insert source of fuel
combustion data]). Anthracite and Bituminous coals offer the highest energy output per unit
mass burned due to their higher fuel combustion percentages. This translates to greater
efficiency in terms of usable energy generation. Subbituminous coal occupies a middle ground,
while Lignite exhibits the lowest fuel combustion percentage, signifying the least amount of
usable energy per unit mass.
Practicality and Resource Availability: A Two-Sided Coin
While Anthracite and Bituminous coals boast high energy output, their availability and
extraction costs might be higher compared to Subbituminous or Lignite coals (IEA, 2021).
Pakistan possesses significant reserves of Lignite, particularly in the Thar Desert (Geological
Survey of Pakistan, 2011). This readily available resource makes Lignite a potentially attractive
option from a resource security standpoint. However, the lower fuel combustion percentage of
Lignite necessitates burning a larger quantity to achieve the same energy output as Anthracite
or Bituminous coals. This can lead to increased transportation and handling costs, potentially
negating the initial cost advantage of Lignite. Additionally, Lignite often has higher moisture
content, requiring additional energy expenditure for drying before combustion, further
impacting overall efficiency.
Environmental Impact: A Spectrum of Pollutants
The environmental impact of coal combustion is a major concern. All coal types release
pollutants like sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) during
combustion. However, the composition of the coal and the efficiency of the power plant
significantly influence the type and amount of pollutants released (EPA, 2023). Generally, coals
with lower fuel combustion percentages, like Lignite, tend to have higher moisture and ash
content (IEA, 2021). Burning Lignite can lead to increased emissions of SOx, NOx, and PM,
all of which contribute to:
• Air Pollution: SOx and NOx emissions contribute to acid rain, smog formation, and
respiratory illnesses. PM exposure is linked to various health problems, including heart
disease, stroke, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
(WHO, 2021).
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Coal combustion releases significant amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2), the primary greenhouse gas. CO2 contributes to global warming and
climate change, leading to rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and disruptions to
ecosystems.
Anthracite and Bituminous coals typically have lower moisture and ash content, resulting in
potentially less harmful emissions compared to Lignite. However, they still contribute
significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.
Economic Considerations: Beyond Acquisition Costs
The economic feasibility of coal selection goes beyond the initial acquisition cost per unit mass.
Here are additional factors to consider:
• Transportation Costs: The distance between coal mines and power plants significantly
impacts transportation costs. Lignite's lower energy density per unit mass can lead to
higher transportation costs compared to higher-rank coals.

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 • Mining Costs: Extraction costs can vary depending on the mining method and
geological conditions. Surface mining of Lignite might be cheaper than deep mining of
Anthracite, but factors like overburden removal and land reclamation need to be
factored in.
• Power Plant Efficiency: Modern power plants equipped with advanced emission
control technologies can improve overall efficiency but come at an additional cost. The
cost-effectiveness of such technologies needs to be evaluated against the environmental
benefits they provide.
Life Cycle Assessment: A Holistic Approach
A comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) is crucial for evaluating the true environmental
and economic impact of each coal type. LCA considers all stages of the coal life cycle, from
mining and transportation to combustion and waste disposal. This holistic approach can
highlight hidden environmental costs and inform decision-making regarding coal selection
(Singh et al., 2019).
Moving Beyond Coal: The Renewable Energy Imperative
While coal offers a readily available source of energy, its environmental impact cannot be
ignored. Pakistan faces a critical need to diversify its energy mix and prioritize renewable
energy sources for a sustainable future. Solar and wind power offer significant potential in this
regard. Pakistan boasts abundant sunshine hours and strong wind regimes in certain regions,
creating a favorable environment for solar and wind power generation (World Bank, 2020).
Integrating these renewable energy sources into the national grid can significantly reduce
reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
Here's a deeper look at the benefits of renewable energy for Pakistan:
• Environmentally Friendly: Solar and wind power generation produces minimal air
and water pollution compared to coal-fired power plants. They contribute to a cleaner
and healthier environment.
• Sustainable: Renewable energy sources like solar and wind are naturally replenished,
unlike fossil fuels which are finite resources.
• Reduced Reliance on Imports: Pakistan relies on imported fossil fuels like coal and
natural gas. Increased renewable energy generation can enhance energy security and
reduce dependence on foreign resources.
• Economic Opportunities: Investing in renewable energy can create new jobs in
manufacturing, installation, and maintenance of solar panels and wind turbines.
Additionally, it can attract investments in clean energy technologies.
Challenges and Opportunities for Renewable Energy Integration:
Despite the significant benefits, integrating renewable energy into Pakistan's grid presents
some challenges:
• Intermittency: Solar and wind energy are intermittent sources, meaning their
availability depends on sunlight and wind speed. This necessitates energy storage
solutions like batteries to ensure grid stability.
• Initial Investment Costs: Setting up solar and wind farms requires high upfront costs
compared to coal-fired power plants. However, these costs are steadily declining, and
the long-term operational costs of renewable energy are lower.

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 • Transmission Infrastructure: Integrating large-scale renewable energy sources might
necessitate upgrades to the existing power transmission infrastructure.
Policy and Regulatory Frameworks:
The Pakistani government can play a critical role in promoting renewable energy by:
• Providing Financial Incentives: Offering subsidies, tax breaks, and feed-in tariffs can
encourage investment in renewable energy projects.
• Streamlining Permitting Processes: Simplifying the permitting process for setting up
renewable energy plants can expedite project development.
• Investing in Research and Development: Supporting research and development in
renewable energy technologies can help improve efficiency and reduce costs.
• Developing Smart Grid Technologies: Investing in smart grid technologies can
enhance grid flexibility and facilitate the integration of intermittent renewable energy
sources.
Clean Coal Technologies: Mitigating the Environmental Impact
Even if Pakistan continues to utilize coal for power generation in the near future, it is crucial
to invest in clean coal technologies. Modern power plants equipped with advanced emission
control systems can significantly reduce harmful emissions like SOx, NOx, and PM. Here's a
closer look at some key clean coal technologies:
• Flue-Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Systems: These systems capture a significant
portion of SOx emissions by scrubbing the flue gas with a limestone slurry.
• Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Systems: These systems inject ammonia into
the flue gas stream, promoting a chemical reaction that reduces NOx emissions.
• High-Efficiency Coal Plants: Newer coal-fired power plants with advanced boiler
designs and supercritical steam cycles can achieve higher efficiency, resulting in lower
emissions per unit of energy produced.
The Role of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): A Long-Term Option
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a technology that captures CO2 emissions from power
plants and stores them underground in geological formations. While CCS is not yet
commercially viable at scale, it holds promise for significantly reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from coal-fired power plants. However, significant technological advancements and
cost reductions are necessary before CCS becomes a mainstream solution.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Pakistan faces a complex challenge in balancing its energy needs with environmental
responsibility. Selecting the optimal coal type requires a comprehensive analysis that considers
energy output, resource availability, economic feasibility, and environmental impact. While
Lignite might offer initial cost advantages due to its abundance, its lower energy output and
potentially higher emissions make it a less sustainable option in the long run.
Recommendations:
• Prioritize Renewable Energy: Pakistan should aggressively pursue the development
and integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind power into the national
grid.
• Invest in Clean Coal Technologies: If coal continues to be used in the near future,
Pakistan should prioritize investing in modern power plants equipped with advanced
emission control systems.

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 • Conduct Life Cycle Assessments: Perform life cycle assessments for different coal
types to understand their true environmental and economic impact.
• Develop a Comprehensive Coal Selection Strategy: Based on a thorough analysis
and considering long-term sustainability goals, Pakistan should develop a
comprehensive strategy for selecting coal types for power generation.
• Invest in Research and Development: Pakistan should invest in research and
development of clean coal technologies and explore the feasibility of CCS as a long-
term solution
• Energy Efficiency: Promoting energy efficiency measures in homes, industries, and
the commercial sector can significantly reduce overall energy demand, lessening
reliance on fossil fuels like coal.
• Demand-Side Management: Implementing demand-side management programs can
help shift peak electricity demand to off-peak hours, allowing for better integration of
renewable energy sources.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: Raising public awareness about the environmental
impacts of coal and the benefits of renewable energy can encourage public support for
clean energy initiatives.
• Regional Cooperation: Collaborating with neighboring countries on energy projects,
like cross-border transmission lines, can enhance energy security and facilitate the
sharing of renewable energy resources.
Further Research Needs
While this analysis provides a detailed overview of the challenges and opportunities Pakistan
faces in selecting coal types for power generation, further research is necessary to inform
decision-making. Here are some key areas for further investigation:
• Techno-Economic Assessments of Clean Coal Technologies: Conducting in-depth
techno-economic assessments of different clean coal technologies can provide valuable
insights into their cost-effectiveness for Pakistan's specific context.
• Social Impact Assessments: Evaluating the potential social impacts of increased
reliance on renewable energy and transitioning away from coal-based power generation
is crucial. This includes assessing potential job losses in coal mining communities and
developing strategies to mitigate these impacts.
• Environmental Impact Assessments: Conducting site-specific environmental impact
assessments for potential renewable energy projects is essential to ensure their
environmental sustainability.
• Developing a Long-Term Energy Master Plan: Pakistan should develop a
comprehensive long-term energy master plan that outlines a clear path towards a cleaner
and more sustainable energy future. This plan should consider factors like energy
demand projections, resource availability, technological advancements, and economic
viability.

Conclusion and Recommendations: A Sustainable Energy Future for Pakistan

Pakistan faces a critical challenge in balancing its energy needs with environmental
responsibility. Coal currently plays a significant role in power generation but poses
environmental threats. The analysis revealed a trade-off between coal types: Anthracite and

Page 32 of 34
Bituminous offer high energy output but might be less readily available, while Lignite,
abundant in Pakistan, has lower energy output and potentially higher emissions.
Prioritizing renewable energy is crucial. Solar and wind power offer a cleaner and more
sustainable alternative. These resources are naturally replenished and contribute minimally to
air and water pollution. Investing in renewable energy enhances energy security by reducing
dependence on imported fossil fuels, creates new jobs, and attracts investments in clean
technologies.
Recommendations for a Sustainable Energy Future
To navigate this complex challenge, Pakistan should prioritize these recommendations:
• Aggressive Pursuit of Renewables: Allocate resources towards large-scale solar and
wind projects, with a focus on research and development to enhance efficiency and
reduce costs.
• Clean Coal Technologies: If coal use continues, prioritize modern power plants
equipped with FGD systems to reduce SOx emissions. Conduct cost-benefit analyses
to evaluate their economic viability.
• Life Cycle Assessments & Coal Selection Strategy: Perform life cycle assessments
and develop a clear strategy for selecting coal types, considering energy output,
resource availability, economic feasibility, environmental impact, and long-term
sustainability goals.
• Research & Development: Continuously invest in clean coal technologies, explore
CCS, and prioritize energy storage solutions for renewables.
• Energy Efficiency & Demand-Side Management: Implement energy efficiency
measures and develop demand-side management programs to reduce overall energy
demand.
• Public Awareness & Regional Cooperation: Raise public awareness about clean
energy benefits and collaborate with neighboring countries on energy projects.
• Long-Term Energy Master Plan: Create a comprehensive plan outlining a path
towards a cleaner and more sustainable energy future, considering all factors and
ensuring a just transition for coal-reliant communities.

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