Physico-Chemical and Microbial Contamination Status of Shallow Groundwater in

Monaragala District, Sri Lanka

R.B.D.L. Bandara1 and Tilak Hewawasam2
1
National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Monaragala, Sri Lanka. dishan.pdn@gmail.com
2
Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. hewawasamtilak@gmail.com
Abstract
This study investigates levels of physical, chemical, and microbiological levels in drinking water
samples extracted from dug wells within the Monaragala District of Sri Lanka. A comprehensive
dataset comprising 259 groundwater samples was collected, covering distinct climatic zones, water-
bearing zones, and geological formations. The samples were analyzed for major physical, chemical,
and biological parameters. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated to identify contamination
status, and spatial distribution maps were generated for different parameters. Box plot analysis was
conducted to identify the major governing factors for chemical, physical, and biological
contaminants. Results revealed that 14.6% of groundwater samples were categorized as "excellent"
in terms of drinking water quality, 33.2% as "good," 18.1% as "poor," 8.5% as "very poor," and
25.5% as "unsuitable" based on the WQI. Microbial contamination was found to depend on the
distance to the well from the toilet pit and the well head protection status. Specifically, the dry zone
of the Monaragala District exhibited higher Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), Chloride (Cl-), Fluoride (F-), and Total Alkalinity (TA) compared to the intermediate zone.
Notably, the concentration of total Iron in the dry zone was lower than that in the intermediate zone.
The majority of groundwater samples had a neutral taste and no discernible odor. Pearson correlation
analyses revealed a strong positive correlation between TDS and both EC (r = 0.97) and alkalinity (r
= 0.79), representing a linear relationship. A strong positive correlation (r =0.84) was found between
color and turbidity. Water from both regolith and rock formations demonstrated higher hardness than
water solely from regolith. A moderate negative correlation (r=-0.36 and r=-0.35) was found
between total iron with hardness and alkalinity respectively. Moreover, these findings can be
effectively used by decision-makers for groundwater quality management activities and prioritizing
future piped water projects in the Monaragala District.
Key words: Monaragala; Water quality; WQI; Groundwater; Box plot analysis; Water quality
standard

1. Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), safe drinking water is internationally
recognized as a human right, as it fulfills a basic need for human development, health, and well-
being (WHO, 2011). Acceptable quality indicates that drinking water is safe in terms of physical,
chemical, and bacteriological parameters (WHO, 2004). Drinking water can be obtained from rain,
the surface of the earth, or underground. Döll et al., (2012) estimated that groundwater provides
around 36% of all potable water, 43% of water utilized for irrigated agriculture, and 24% of direct
industrial water supply globally. Groundwater, a critical resource in all climatic zones, is an
important source of water for agriculture, industry, commercial, and domestic purposes all over the
world. Over the last few decades, many researchers have observed that human activities have
drastically lowered the quality of groundwater. According to the WHO, polluted drinking water
causes more than 75% of all diseases in developing countries (WHO, 2002).
Natural chemicals in drinking water can emanate from a variety of sources. There are a variety of
inorganic and organic compounds in all-natural water. Organic chemicals derive from the breakdown
of plant material, algae, and other microorganisms growing in the water or on sediments, whereas
inorganic chemicals derive from the rocks and soil through which water percolates or flows. Long-
term exposure to harmful, naturally occurring substances like arsenic and fluoride, particularly
through drinking groundwater, is a leading cause of chronic disease (Cohen et al., 2006; Kapaj et al.,
2006; Chandrajith et al., 2020), disability, and premature death in many parts of the world. It's
critical to understand the geological circumstances in which harmful substances are likely to exist so
that water sources can be located in safe places or treated to remove dangerous elements. This is
especially crucial when sources of drinking water are being investigated (Tompson et al., 2007). The
most frequent and pervasive health concerns linked to drinking water are infectious disorders
brought on by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths, while Escherichia coli (E. coli)
is the typical microbiological indication of fecal contamination in water (WHO, 2022). Therefore,
identification and quantification of E. coli in water are important to the acceptance of the water
source for drinking purposes.

Groundwater is widely used in Sri Lanka for domestic, agricultural, industrial, and other purposes.
According to Panabokke and Perera (2005), up to 80% of the rural drinking water supply needs are
met from groundwater utilizing dug wells and tube wells fitted with hand pumps. The shallow open-
dug wells that are distributed across the country provide the basic domestic drinking water supply to
a major proportion of rural residents (Panabokke and Perera, 2005). The rainfall deficit in the first
half of the year has resulted in drought in most parts of Sri Lanka. During drought periods,
groundwater is the primary water source in dry zones of Sri Lanka.

As the second largest district in the country, Monaragala sustains a predominantly agrarian populace,
with the majority relying on agriculture for their livelihoods. Financial capabilities limit the
community's capacity to allocate substantial funds to water-related expenditures. Shallow
groundwater, being easily accessible, emerges as a pivotal resource, requiring minimal financial
outlay for utilization. Consequently, for the rural population, shallow groundwater assumes
significance as a primary source, surpassing reliance on piped water. In certain locales, the
distribution of piped water is constrained by elevated terrain and the absence of a comprehensive
distribution infrastructure.

Over 90% of the population residing in the Monaragala District depends on groundwater for their
drinking purposes (Udeshani et al., 2020; Liyanage et al., 2022). Dug wells and deep bore (tube)
wells are mostly used to extract groundwater, which is significantly influenced by groundwater
geochemistry, resulting in health problems such as dental and skeletal fluorosis (Dissanayake 2005;
Chandrajith et al., 2012; Dissanayake and Chandrajith, 2018) and chronic kidney disease
(Chandrajith et al., 2011; Nanayakkara et al., 2014, Piyathilake et al., 2022). It has been identified
that vulnerability to chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) is higher among people
who consume well water as their source of drinking water when compared to people who consume
water from other sources such as natural springs, rainwater, surface water, and centralized public
water supplies (Wasana et al., 2016; Liyanage et al., 2022).

Due to widespread access to shallow groundwater among the majority, the region faces a heightened
probability of contamination. The potential ramifications of contamination in key groundwater
sources within the dry zone, whether induced by anthropogenic or natural activities, pose significant
environmental and health concerns. Despite the critical nature of these issues, there has been a
notable scarcity of comprehensive investigations characterizing the geochemical aspects of
groundwater in these terrains (Jayasena et al., 2008; Dharmagunawardhane et al., 1993). To
proactively address groundwater contamination and strategically develop these resources to meet
future demands, it is imperative to conduct a thorough assessment of the geochemical composition of
groundwater on a regional scale.

In the recent past, a significant number of dug wells and tube wells have been abandoned due to
adverse changes in water quality. Hardness, fluoride (F-), chloride (Cl-), Na, Ca, Mg, and iron have
garnered much attention due to their impact on human health (Dissanayake and Chandrajith, 2018;
Piyathilake et al., 2022). Numerous complaints have been reported, indicating that even dug-well
water is unsuitable for washing and bathing. Hence, it is imperative to consider physico-chemical
and microbial contaminants to gain a comprehensive understanding of the groundwater quality with
respect to its potability.

The WQI serves as a singular numerical indicator, effectively conveying the overall water quality
based on a defined set of parameters. Originally conceived by Horton in 1965 and subsequently
refined by Brown in 1970 (Tyagi et al., 2013), various WQI methodologies exist, with the weighted
arithmetic water quality index method gaining widespread acceptance. This method classifies water
quality based on the degree of purity, utilizing commonly measured variables. The resulting WQI
values fall into distinct categories, such as Excellent, Good, Poor, Very Poor, and Unsuitable,
reflecting the specific characteristics of each WQI (Akther and Tharani, 2017; Alobaidy et al., 2010;
Piyathilake et al., 2022).

The main objective of this study is to assess the physical, chemical and microbiological
contamination levels in groundwater within the Monaragala District and develop a WQI to identify
the relationship between groundwater quality and the main geologies, climatic zones, well status and
water-bearing zones of the wells. The research findings pertaining to the groundwater quality status,
of the Monaragala District are presented through spatial distribution maps of water quality
parameters, a WQI map, and a statistical analysis of water quality results. These maps serve the
purpose of swiftly identifying locations with the most and least suitable water for drinking purposes
in Monaragala. Furthermore, these maps furnish vital information for water supply authorities in the
country, aiding in the identification and prioritization of areas for future drinking water projects.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Study area

Sri Lanka is an island nation located at coordinates 5° 55' – 9° 51' North latitudes and 79° 41'- 81°
53' East longitudes. Surrounded by the Indian Ocean, it is situated to the southwest of the Bay of
Bengal and the southeastern part of the Arabian Sea. Monaragala District, the island's second-largest
district, is situated in the southeast region of the country, covering a total land area of 5,639 km2.
This district extends between the northern latitudes of 6° 10.2' and 7° 16.8' and the eastern longitudes
of 80° 30' and 81° 21' (Environmental Profile, 1993).

2.1.1 Geomorphology, geology and soil

Approximately 90% of the study area is situated within the lowlands of the country, occupying the
interplay between the second peneplain, featuring elevations ranging from 75 m to 500 m, and
presenting predominantly planar terrain. The topography of the study area reveals a distinctive
characteristic of scattered, isolated hillocks dispersed over a flat and undulating ground surface. In
contrast, the remaining section of the study area exhibits mountainous terrain, notably along the
western boundary extending towards the Badulla District, encompassing certain portions of the
Monaragala and Buttala District Secretory Divisions (DSDs). Elevations within this mountainous
expanse fluctuate between 550 m and 1,400 m (Cooray, 1994 a). The study area is underlain by
different rock types of Vijayan and Highland Complexes, two of the four main lithological units of
the Sri Lankan high-grade rocks that occupies 90% of the country. Around 70% of the research
region comprises Vijayan Complex rocks, while Highland Complex rocks are mainly found in the
western and northwestern parts of the Monaragala District.

Figure 1 Map showing the geological units and sample locations of the study area. Black circle – wells constructed on
regolith, Red circle – wells constructed on regolith and partially weathered rock, dotted line – boundary of the Highland
Complex and Vijayan Complex

The Highland Complex rocks also occur as outliers within the Vijayan Complex in Buttala,
Monaragala, and Kataragama and are known as 'Klipern' rocks (Cooray, 1994). Furthermore,
alluvial, unconsolidated sediment deposits are present along streams in the investigated area. The
main lithological units of the Monaragala District are represented in Figure 1. According to the soil
map of Sri Lanka, the Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) and Red Yellow Podzolic (RYP) soil categories
are the most common in the Monaragala District. RBE can be found in dry and semi-dry
intermediate zones, while RYP soils can be found in wet and semi-wet zones (Perera et al., 2020).

2.1.2 Climate Conditions

More than 85% of the Monaragala District has been identified as very high and high drought-
vulnerable areas based on the climatic conditions and agroecological zones of Sri Lanka, as defined
by the Disaster Management Centre (DMC) of Sri Lanka. The rest belongs to moderate and low
drought vulnerability areas.
The Monaragala District, situated in both the dry and intermediate zones of the island, experiences
two distinct rainy seasons: Maha (major) and Yala (minor) which significantly impact its climate
(Perera et al., 2020). These seasons span from early October to late January and from late March to
late May, creating corresponding long and short dry seasons from June to September and February to
March.

Upon scrutinizing rainfall patterns in the Monaragala District, it is evident that the intermediate and
dry zones manifest substantial variations. Meteorological data from the relevant department
highlights a discernible difference in rainfall. Specifically, the intermediate zone, represented by the
Monaragala rain gauge, consistently records moderately higher precipitation than the dry zone,
where the rain gauge is located in the Hambegamuwa area.

Based on the data extracted from the Statistical Handbook 2019 for Monaragala, the highest
temperatures occur during the months of June, July, and August. Significantly, these months
coincide with low precipitation levels, creating conditions conducive to elevated water evaporation
rates. This observation underscores the association between maximum temperatures and the arid
climatic conditions prevalent during the low precipitation period, emphasizing the impact of weather
patterns on temperature dynamics within the region.

2.1.3 Land Use Pattern

According to the Department of Census and Statistics (2020), the study area is defined by various
land use patterns such as home gardens, permanent crops, paddy fields, forest areas, water bodies,
and other land uses (Table 1). After the introduction of tea, rubber, coconut, and minor export
commodities like coffee and cocoa, the traditional three-phase land use pattern of a tank (Wewa),
homestead (Gangoda), and rain-fed highland (Chena) gave way to commercial agriculture in the
district's wet zone. Paddy is the district's most important crop, accounting for around 71% of
cultivation during the Maha season and only 20% during the Yala season in a normal year
(Environmental Profile of the Monaragala District, 1984).

Table 1 Land use pattern of the study area -2020 (District Land-use Planning Office, Department of Census and
Statistics)

Land Use Area in hectares Percentage

Forest 259,844 46
Home gardens 61,392 11
Paddy 32,551 6
Perennial crops (Sugarcane) 20,216 4
Major crops (Tea, Rubber, Coconut,) 13,997 2
Other field crops (Seasonal crops) 67,557 12
Large inland waters 25,182 4
Abandoned Land 4,119 1
Build upland 959 0
Scrubs/Chena 61,635 11
Other 16,447 3
Total 563,900 100

Yala National Park, Gal Oya National Park, and Udawalawa National Park are among the natural
reserves and forests that cover 46 percent of the district's land. The major reservoirs in the study area
are Senanayake reservoir, Muthukandiya reservoir, Weheragala reservoir, Handapanagala reservoir,
Udawalawa reservoir, and Alikota Ara reservoir. Those reservoirs are sustained by major rivers and
streams such as Menik Ganga, Gal Oya, Heda Oya, Wila Oya, Kumbukkan Oya, Kirindi Oya, and
Ranwanna Oya.

2.2 Field visit and sample collection

The groundwater sampling program was meticulously designed, employing a stratified random
sampling procedure in all DSDs in Monaragala District. Executed between January 8th and 17th 2020,
the water sampling activities were conducted at irregular intervals following consultations with
Grama Niladhari and development officers where pipe born water supply is absent. The objective
was to identify strategically optimal sampling sites with a higher consumer density involved in water
supply. The selection criteria emphasized the safety and active use of dug wells, considering key
details such as location, size, depth, and protective measures. It is essential to note that this study
intentionally excludes consideration of unsafe or disused dug wells.

Concurrently, a comprehensive questionnaire was administered to the well owners at each site to
gather additional pertinent information. After being thoroughly rinsed three times with the water to
be sampled before collection, water samples were gathered in pre-cleaned polyethylene containers.
The numbering of the samples followed established standard procedures by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), and sampling sites were precisely located using the
global positioning system (GPS). Using electrochemical techniques by CON450METER KIT, pH,
EC, and TDS were measured in the field. Subsequently, the collected samples were transported to the
laboratories of the Monaragala and Bandarawela regional water board for comprehensive laboratory
analysis. The samples were placed in a cooled ice box during transportation and stored refrigerated
until analysis (at 5 °C). During the measurement of physical parameters such as pH, total TDS, and
EC, a calibration procedure is conducted after every 10 well parameter measurements. Calibration is
performed in strict adherence to the operational instructions provided by the CON450METER KIT
manufacturer, ensuring precision and accuracy in the instrument readings. The sampling locations
were systematically categorized based on distinct climate zones and geological formations. This
categorization, as outlined in Table 2, provides a robust framework for a comprehensive analysis of
hydrogeological characteristics, facilitating a thorough examination of the spatial distribution of
samples concerning prevailing climatic conditions and geological formations.

Table 2 Number of wells over climate zones and geological units

Monaragala District Climate Zones Geological Units

Dry Intermediate Highland Vijayan
Area 5,639 km2 3,840 km2 1,799 km2 1,364 km2 4,275 km2
No of Wells 259 127 132 114 145

2.3 Laboratory Analysis

Total alkalinity (TA), Total Hardness (TH), and Cl- concentrations were measured using titrimetric
techniques. All titrations were conducted using a HACH® digital titrator. A spectrophotometer (DR-
6000) was used to measure the F- concentration. The spectrophotometer was calibrated using
appropriate standard solutions before the analysis. The total Iron concentrations were analyzed using
automatic atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) methods (Perking Elmer-2800). Standard
analytical procedures were adapted for water analyses as recommended by the American Public
Health Association (APHA) (1995) and HACH® (2002).

Three drops of bromocresol green indicator were added to 50 ml of each of the samples and titrated
with the standard acid (H2SO4), and TA was estimated (bromcresol green indicator changed the color
from blue to yellow at pH 4.5). Amount of acid used at this moment, starting phenolphthalein was
used to react with hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate and it was constituted of TA. Finally, TA
was calculated as follows.
TA ( ) ( ) a ×N× 50× 1000

a = Volume of H2SO4 consumed in ml, N = normality of H2SO4, V= volume of sample used in ml.

To determine the TH of water samples, each sample was buffered to a pH of 10±0.1. When the
Eriochrome Black-T indicator is added as an indicator and reacts with calcium and magnesium, the
color of the solution turns wine red. To determine the endpoint, this solution was titrated against a
previously standardized EDTA solution in the burette until the color changed from wine red to sky
blue. The final reading of the burette was noted, and the titration was repeated to get a concordant
value. Finally, using the analytical calculation, the TH of the water sample was determined in terms
of mg/L of CaCO3. A membrane filter method was performed to determine the Total Coliform (TC)
and Escherichia coli (E. coli) counts per 100 mL of the water sample. M-Endo and M-FC media
were used to culture TC and E. coli present in water, respectively.

Subsequently, for chemical parameter analysis, the same set of random known samples undergoes
further laboratory analysis at both Bandarawela and Monaragala laboratories for each chemical
parameter, enhancing the analytical robustness.

In the process of bacterial culturing, a meticulous quality control procedure is implemented. Two
blank samples are systematically run for each DSD to ascertain the contamination status of
laboratory instruments and guarantee the accuracy and reliability of the analytical data generated
within the laboratory setting.

2.4 Preparation of spatial distribution maps

Spatial distribution maps of water quality parameters, encompassing physical aspects such as EC and
TDS, as well as chemical attributes including pH, TA, TH, Cl-, F-, total Iron, and WQI, were
generated utilizing GIS techniques. The cartographic analysis employed ArcMap™ 10.2 mapping
software, with the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method selected for its enhanced accuracy in
delineating the spatial distribution of measured water quality parameters.

2.5 Estimate of Water Quality Index (WQI)

Accurate assessment of water quality is imperative for the formulation of effective public policies
and the implementation of water quality improvement initiatives. The WQI serves as a
comprehensive indicator, condensing information about water quality into a singular value. Widely
utilized for the identification and assessment of water pollution, WQI is defined as a holistic
representation of the collective influence exerted by diverse quality parameters on the overall water
quality (Horton, 1965).
In this study, the weighted average method was applied in accordance with the prescribed guidelines
outlined in SLS 614:2013 (Sri Lankan Standard) for drinking water quality assessment. The
computation of the weighted arithmetic WQI was carried out utilizing Equation (1), as described in
previous studies by Adimalla et al. (2018), Akther and Tharani (2017), Walsh and Wheeler (2012),
and Piyathilaka et al. (2022).

∑ 1
∑

Where wi is the unit weightage of the ith water quality parameter and qi is the quality rating scale of
the ith parameter. The weightage of each quality factor was determined through the application of
Equations 2 and 3, with the resulting values presented in Table 3. Factors with higher permissible
limits are considered less detrimental, as they pose a lower risk to the quality of drinking water when
present in elevated concentrations. Consequently, the weightage of a factor exhibits an inverse
relationship with its permissible limits. Therefore, the weightage (wi) is computed using the
following equation:

Where wi = weightage factor of ith parameter, k = constant proportionality, vi = standard value of ith
parameter for Sri Lankan standard.

1
3
1
∑ni 1

Where, k is a constant proportionality and vi is the standard value of ith water quality parameter. The
relative weight (Wi) of each parameter is computed using Equation 4.

∑ 4

Where, Wi is the relative weights of each water quality parameter, wi is the calculated weights of
each water quality parameter and, n is the number of water quality parameters. The calculated
weights (wi) and relative weights (Wi) values are presented in Table 3. Then water quality rating
scale was calculated by using equation 5.

i ( ) 5

In the fourth step, a sub-index SIi for each ith water quality parameter and WQI were calculated using
equations (6) and (7), respectively.
SIi = Wi × Qi 6
W I ∑ SIi 7
Table 3 Summary table of the and relative weights (Wi) and recommended SLS 614:2013 limits of each water quality
parameter

Water quality parameter SLS 614:2013 Relative weight (Wi)

pH 6.5-8.5 0.0243
Cl- (mg/L) 250 0.0008
TA (mg/L) 200 0.0010
EC (µs/cm) 750 0.0003
Color 15 0.0130
Turbidity 2 0.0973
F- (mg/L) 1 0.1944
TH (mg/L) 250 0.0008
TC 10 0.0195
TDS (mg/L) 500 0.0004
total Iron (mg/L) 0.3 0.6482

The computed WQI values were categorized into five groups: excellent water (WQI < 25), good
water (WQI 26–50), poor water (WQI 51–75), very poor water (WQI 76–100), and water unsuitable
for drinking (WQI > 100) according to the classification provided by Horton (1965).

2.6 Data analysis

Statistical methods play a pivotal role in identifying the primary influencers on water quality
parameters, as highlighted by Piyathilake et al. (2022). Among these methodologies, the 'box plot'
analysis, as introduced by Esty and Banfield (2003), holds significance. This technique is
instrumental in visually synthesizing and comparing groups of data by employing key statistical
measures such as the median, approximate quartiles, as well as the lowest and highest data points. In
conducting the box plot analysis for our study, R and RStudio Version 4.1.2 were utilized. The
objective was to discern the correlation matrix encompassing both physical and chemical parameters
of groundwater, encompassing 10 water quality variables along with the WQI.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Influence of physical parameters in ground-water quality and spatial distribution

The examination of groundwater quality encompasses a multifaceted analysis of various physical

parameters, each playing a pivotal role in shaping the groundwater environment. This section delves
deeply into the investigation of key physical parameters, namely turbidity, color, taste, and odor,
TDS, and EC. Table 4 displays the statistical distribution of measured physico-chemical parameters
in the study area. According to the APHA, turbidity denotes the cloudiness of water (APHA, 2005),
which is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It arises from the presence of
suspended materials, encompassing clay, silt, organic substances, plankton, and other particulate
matter within the aqueous environment (Alley, 2007).

According to SLS 614:2013, a water sample with a turbidity of less than 2 NTU is more favorable
for drinking, and the turbidity values of the present study ranged between 0.01 and 37.1 NTU.
Decomposed materials originating from organic sources, specifically vegetation, and inorganic
components such as soil and rocks contribute to water discoloration. This discoloration is deemed
objectionable primarily for aesthetic considerations rather than health-related concerns, as indicated
by Tomar (1999). In the investigation, the color of water samples obtained from the Monaragala
District ranged from 0 to 246 TCU. The occurrence of taste and odor in water can be attributed to
extraneous substances, encompassing organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gases
(Tchobanoglous, 1985). These constituents may originate from natural, domestic, or agricultural
sources (DeZuane, 1997). Information regarding taste and odor characteristics was collected from
well owners through the completion of a meticulously designed questionnaire.

Table 4. Statistical distribution of measured parameters

Distribution
Parameter 3rd
Min 1st Qu. Median Mean Max SD
Qu.
Turbidity (NTU) 0.01 0.46 0.8 1.71 1.56 37.1 3.43
Color (TCU) 0 3 5 10.06 9.5 246 22.28
TDS (mg/L) 20 108 190.3 262.5 350.2 1,490 233.33
EC (µs/cm) 40 194 327 438.6 567 2,980 374.81
pH 3.47 7.01 7.40 7.37 7.80 8.71 0.682
TA (mg/L) 12.0 100.0 201.0 255.5 377.5 880.0 188.0
Cl- (mg/L) 8.0 19.0 29.0 44.9 53.5 606.0 57.22
F- (mg/L) 0.000 0.405 0.660 0.811 0.995 7.300 0.786
total Iron
0.000 0.010 0.060 0.107 0.140 1.340 0.155
(mg/L)
TH (mg/L) 8.0 80.0 180.0 213.2 314.0 820.0 159.7
The majority of the sampled groundwater exhibited a neutral taste profile and was devoid of any
discernible odor. TDS encompass inorganic salts, primarily consisting of Ca, Mg, K, Na, HCO-3, Cl-
and SO4- along with trace amounts of dissolved organic matter within water. According to the Sri
Lankan quality standard, the acceptable TDS range is 0-500 mg/L. However, no health-based
guideline value is proposed for the TDS by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2022). In the
present study, the range of TDS in the analyzed water samples varied between 5 and 1,490 mg/L.
Overall, 90% of the samples in the Monaragala District are within the acceptable range. According to
614:2013, 750 µs/cm is the recommended value for EC. The EC of water samples from Monaragala
District ranged from 40 µs/cm to 2,980 µs/cm.

3.2 Influence of chemical parameters in groundwater quality

This section predominantly delves into the comprehensive examination of key chemical parameters,
namely pH, TA, Cl-, F-, total Iron, and TH, which are pivotal for the robust evaluation of
groundwater quality. pH serves as a fundamental metric, indicative of the acidity or alkalinity of
water, thereby influencing its chemical interactions and solubility. TA, a measure of the water's
buffering capacity, aids in assessing its resistance to drastic pH changes. Cl- levels are essential
indicators of potential contamination, often associated with anthropogenic activities (Gray, 2008 and
Spellman, 2018). F- concentrations bear significance in safeguarding public health, particularly
concerning dental health (APHA, 2005). Iron, while not directly harmful, is crucial, as its presence
can impact the taste, odor, and aesthetic qualities of water (APHA, 2005). TH, determined by the
concentration of calcium and magnesium ions, according to Spellman (2017), influences water's
suitability for domestic and industrial use.

In the current study, all of the water samples had pH values ranging from acidic to alkaline (3.47 to
8.71), with the Monaragala District studied water samples having a mean pH of 7.37. Overall, 73%
of the groundwater in the region was alkaline. Among the studied samples, the lowest pH value was
recorded in the Bibile DSD area. Geological formations characterized by an abundance of minerals,
such as pyrite, contribute to increased acidity through oxidation processes. The primary rock type
associated with elevated acidity levels is Chanokitic gneiss, which is notably prevalent in the
Highland Complex rock formations within the Bibile area. In general, water with a pH below 6.5
may be corrosive, soft, and acidic. As a result, the water may leach metal ions from the aquifer,
including iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc. The Katharagama region had the highest pH
readings, and all of its water sources were alkaline.

According to SLS 614:2013, the maximum TA value (as CaCO3) is set at 200 mg/L. However, in
this investigation, the TA of the water samples from the Monaragala District was found to be in the
broad range of 12–880 mg/L. Notably, Thanamalwila and Katharagama DSDs generally exhibited
higher alkalinity values. In contrast, only samples from Bibile, Madulla, and Medagama displayed
TA values lower than the maximum tolerable limit. While Cl- ions in drinking water are generally
considered non-hazardous to human health, concentrations exceeding 250 mg/L can impart an
unpleasant salty taste to water, affecting the sensory experience for most individuals (WHO, 2022).
The range of Cl- in water samples spans from 8 to 606 mg/L.

An appropriate concentration of F− in drinking water is crucial for maintaining optimal dental health,
as noted by the APHA (2005) and Tchobanoglous (1985). Specifically, a concentration of
approximately 1.0 mg/L is deemed effective in preventing tooth decay, especially in children
(APHA, 2005). However, excess F- levels may lead to dental fluorosis, a condition characterized by
discolored teeth, as highlighted by Davis (2010) and Tchobanoglous (1985). The concentration of F-
ions ranges from 0.00 to 7.30 mg/L. The Northwestern part of the Monaragala District had relatively
low fluoride levels. Fluoride levels in all water samples from Bibile, Medagama, Monaragala, and
Badalkumbura were acceptable (less than 1.0 mg/L).

No health-based guideline value is established for total Iron; however, concentrations exceeding 0.3
mg/L can result in stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures. Total Iron levels below 0.3 mg/L
typically do not impart a noticeable taste, although turbidity and color may develop. In this study, the
maximum recorded value of total Iron in the water samples is 1.34 mg/L. Importantly, only
approximately 6% of the samples exceed the 0.3 mg/L threshold.

Hardness is a term utilized to characterize the attributes of highly mineralized waters (APHA, 2005).
The presence of dissolved minerals in water leads to issues such as scale deposits in kettles and
challenges in achieving lather formation with soap (Davis, 2010). The TH of water samples in this
study ranges from 8 to 820 mg/L, with approximately 37% of wells exceeding the desirable limit of
250 mg/L.
Figure 2 Maps show the spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters (a) TDS, (b) EC, (c) Alkalinity (d) total
Iron (e) pH, (f) Hardness, (g) Fluoride (h) Chloride in Monaragala District
3.3 Influence of microbial contamination in groundwater quality

TC, a group of bacteria omnipresent in our surroundings, mostly poses no threat to human health.
Nevertheless, their absence in groundwater is natural, and their presence serves as an indicator for
the potential existence of more harmful organisms. TC’s signal potential issues like regrowth,
biofilm formation, or pollution from the infiltration of extraneous materials like soil or plants into
distribution systems and stored water sources (WHO, 2022). E. coli, found abundantly in both human
and animal feces, tends to proliferate, although some evidence suggests its growth in tropical soils
(Byappanahalli and Fujioka, 1998). SLS 614:2013 dictates the absence of E. coli or thermotolerant
coliform bacteria in any 100 ml sample, with the TC bacteria count not exceeding 10. Notably, 64%
and 42% of the examined samples displayed unsatisfactory levels of TC and E. coli bacteria,
signifying a potential risk of fecal-oral pathogen transmission. The WHO deems E. coli an 'essential
parameter' for minimum water monitoring (WHO, 2011). Specifically, 88% of water samples from
Thanamalwila and Badalkumbura exhibited contamination with E. coli, with only 12% of wells
meeting satisfactory standards. Almost all samples in the Thanamalwila DSD displayed TC counts
exceeding 100 CFU/100 mL as shown in the figure 2.
Total coliforms E-coli

1000

Counts (CFU/100ml)
100

10

1
T11
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10

T12
T13
T14
T15
T16
T17
T18
T19
T20
T21
T22
T23
T24
T25

Sample Number

Figure 2 TCs and E. coli counts (CFU/100 mL) in Thanamalwila DSD.

3.4 Factors affecting for groundwater quality parameters

The regulation of groundwater quality is predominantly governed by the inherent characteristics of

the aquifer system. These include parameters such as the length of the flow path, the residence
duration within the aquifer base materials, and the geochemical composition (Edirisinghe, 2020).
Moreover, Rajasuriyar et al. (2016) have elucidated that natural processes exert a notable impact on
both the quality and quantity of groundwater in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. This influence varies
according to geological, hydrological, and climatic conditions as natural factors. Furthermore,
anthropogenic activities represent a pivotal factor exerting substantial influence on groundwater
composition (Foster and Chilton, 2003; Udeshani et al., 2020).
3.5 Box plot analysis

Box plot analysis stands out as one of the most widely employed methods for visually presenting
tabulated data in a comparative manner. In this study, we utilized this method to elucidate the impact
of geological, hydrological, and climatic conditions on groundwater quality. Additionally, key well
parameters, including the condition of the wellhead and the distance from the toilet pit to the dug
well, were systematically plotted against each water quality parameter. The resulting box plots,
illustrating these relationships, are presented in Figure 3.

Upon a meticulous analysis of TDS, TA and EC values through box plots, distinctive patterns
emerge, particularly between the intermediate and dry climate zones. The box plot visualization
underscores that the intermediate climate zone consistently exhibits lower TDS, TA and EC values
compared to the dry zone. This discrepancy can be attributed to the characteristic environmental
conditions prevailing in the dry zone. With heightened evaporation rates and low precipitation, water
in the dry zone undergoes a concentration process, leading to increased mineralization and elevated
TDS, TA and EC levels. The box plot insights align with the known factors of arid conditions in the
dry zone, shedding light on the intricate relationship between climate, hydrological processes, and
the chemical composition of groundwater, as elucidated by the TDS, TA and EC values derived from
the box plot analysis. In the classification of geological zones, specifically the Highland Complex
and Vijayan Complex, which predominately contain crystalline metamorphic rocks in silicate
composition, the examination of TDS, TA and EC values through box plot analysis reveals a lack of
significant variation between the two complexes. Therefore, the water quality is unaffected by the
lithological differences between the two complexes.

In the context of groundwater extraction, the process involves excavating for dug wells, where well
owners dig until reaching the water table from the regolith. However, a variation in excavation
practices is observed, with some well owners opting to excavate until the bedrock level is reached.
Moreover, subsets of well owners employ blasting techniques to access water within the rock
formations. This diversity in well construction methods underscores adaptability and resourcefulness
in addressing geological challenges, emphasizing the importance of tailored approaches to
groundwater extraction based on the geological characteristics of the subsurface environment.

The observation of slightly higher TDS, TA and EC values in water obtained from both regolith and
rock formations, compared to water sourced solely from regolith formations, suggests that the soil
may have undergone complete weathering, depleting all mobile ions such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, etc.,
from the system. This may explain why groundwater wells constructed only in the regolith have
reported low TDS, TA and EC levels. On the other hand, while the bedrock is being chemically
weathered and converted into the regolith, the mobile ions are still being depleted from the
weathering front. These weathering fluxes may contribute to the high TDS, TA and EC observed in
groundwater from wells constructed in both regolith and basement rock. This observation hints at a
complex interplay between soil-water interactions and the mobility of constituents such as ions in the
geological matrix. In hydrogeological settings of this nature, the interaction between rock and water
can lead to increased mineralization, influencing TDS, TA and EC levels. This influence is
particularly noteworthy given that ion mobility in groundwater can be influenced by various factors,
including soil characteristics and redox conditions.
Figure 3 Boxplot analysis of TDS, EC and pH
Figure 4 Boxplot analysis of pH, Alkalinity, Cl- and F-
In the assessment of climate zones and water-bearing zones, the box plot distribution values for pH
exhibit a little lower pH median values in the intermediate zone compared to the dry zones and a
uniform pattern observed in regards to water-bearing zones. Conversely, when scrutinizing
geological zones, a subtle variation in pH is observed (Figure 3), with Vijayan Complex rocks
demonstrating slightly higher pH values. This nuanced shift in pH within the geological context
highlights the potential influence of specific geological formations, such as the Vijayan Complex
rocks, on the chemical composition of groundwater.

Upon analyzing the Cl- and F- distribution within geological and water extraction zones, no
conspicuous patterns or distinct distributions are apparent. However, when examining the influence
of climate zones on groundwater chemistry, a subtle distinction emerges. The dry zone exhibits
slightly higher Cl- and F- values than the intermediate zone, suggesting a potential correlation
between climatic conditions and Cl- and F- concentrations. These nuanced variations highlight the
intricate interplay between climate and groundwater composition, providing valuable insights into
regional differences in chloride levels within distinct climatic zones.

Factors contributing to elevated Cl- and F- levels include fertilizer applications in agriculture
practices, saline water intrusion from adjacent surface water bodies, and groundwater mixing with
irrigated water. According to Rubasinghe et al., (2015), leaching of highly soluble Cl- and F- can
occur due to these factors. Evaporation and water-rock interactions play a major role in determining
the primary ion composition in the dry zone.

As depicted in Figure 5, the intermediate zone exhibits elevated total Iron concentrations compared
to the dry zone. This observation can be attributed to the lower pH values characteristic of the
intermediate zone, potentially contributing to the higher iron concentration. The lower pH enhances
the water solubility of iron, influencing its mobility in groundwater.

Furthermore, water sourced from regolith formations demonstrates a more pronounced distribution
of iron concentrations than water derived from both regolith and rock formations. This suggests that
well-aerated water, particularly from wells solely tapping into regolith formations, tends to exhibit
comparatively higher iron concentrations because of the oxidized form, Fe3+ (ferric iron), which is
more soluble in water.

In contrast, when considering geological zones, wells within the Vijayan Complex showcase a higher
distribution of total Iron concentrations compared to those within the Highland Complex. This
disparity can be linked to the prevalence of iron-bearing rocks, such as Hornblende Biotite gneiss
and Hornblende Biotite migmatite, within the Vijayan Complex. These rocks contain a higher
proportion of iron-bearing minerals as accessory components (Usman et al., 2021), contributing to
the observed variations in total Iron concentration distributions between the geological zones.

A discernible distribution pattern of considerable TH values is evident in the well samples from both
the intermediate and dry zones. Notably, the dry zone exhibits elevated TH values, with a median
value of approximately 300 mg/L, surpassing the maximum acceptable limit set by the WHO. This
heightened hardness in the dry zone can be attributed to factors such as evaporation and low
precipitation, contributing to the observed variation. In the context of geological zones, there is a
marginal increase in mean hardness distribution observed in the Highland complex rock, although
this increment is negligible and can be disregarded.
Figure 5 Boxplot analysis of F-, total Iron and TH
When comparing water-bearing zones, higher hardness values can be obtained from water
originating from regolith and rock formations. Water that flows through regolith and rocks spends
more time in contact with mineral rich substances, allowing for greater mineral dissolution and thus
higher hardness levels. Furthermore, water extracted from deeper areas may have a higher mineral
content compared to the water only extracted from regolith formation. Areas where the predominant
rock types are marble and calc gneiss are more prone to exhibiting elevated hardness values through
interactions between soil and rock. The mobility of calcium and magnesium ions may be the primary
factor contributing to this phenomenon.

Previous research has elucidated that placing latrine pits within a lateral distance of 25 m from the
water supply is a primary source of contamination (Dzwairo et al., 2006). According to the PHI
manual of Sri Lanka, the prescribed minimum safe distance to the toilet pit is 16 m. As indicated by
the data distribution presented in Figure 6, the toilet pit emerges as the predominant factor
influencing the counts of both TC and E. coli bacteria in the groundwater of the Monaragala District.

Wells situated at distances greater than 16 m from the toilet pit exhibit lower counts of TC and E.
coli compared to wells located within proximity of less than 16 m. However, adherence to WHO
standards mandates the absence of E. coli in safe drinking water. The graph's median value for wells
situated beyond16 m from the toilet pit closely approaches zero. In contrast, when the distance is less
than 16 m, the median count exceeds 3, indicating a higher level of bacterial contamination.

The well head is a critical component of well protection, and in the wells of the Monaragala District,
three distinct states of well head protection exist: full protection, partial protection, and no well head
protection. The well head serves as a vital feature in preventing the ingress of bacteria from domestic
and other animals that may access the well guard wall and release their fecal matter directly into the
well.

Figure 6 Boxplot analysis of well head protection and distance from the toilet pit and the well position
To mitigate this risk, the implementation of a protected dug well is imperative. As depicted in Figure
6, protected dug wells exhibit a markedly lower distribution of TC and E. coli counts compared to
partially and non-protected wells. This underscores the significance of well head protection in
maintaining water quality by reducing the likelihood of bacterial contamination from external
sources.

3.6 Water Quality Index (WQI)

The water quality index for shallow groundwater in Monaragala District is calculated and mapped to
determine its drinking suitability. The calculated WQI for each of the 259 groundwater samples is
shown in Table 6. The shallow groundwater samples in Monaragala District have five water quality
levels (excellent, good, poor, very poor, and unsuitable). According to the results, 14.7% of
groundwater samples are categorized as excellent in terms of drinking water quality, 33.2% of the
samples are categorized as good, 18.1% of the samples are categorized as poor, 8.5% of the samples
are categorized as very poor, and 25.5% of the samples are categorized as unsuitable in terms of the
WQI. Figure 7 illustrates the spatial distribution of the WQI map. The WQI map revealed that the
intermediate climate zone areas of the Monaragala District are the safest zone in terms of
groundwater quality for drinking purposes. In those highly elevated areas, nearly all the WQI values
of the groundwater samples are in excellent and good categories, where groundwater can be highly
recommended for drinking purposes. In general, the groundwater quality decreases from the
intermediate zone to the dry zone, mostly in the Monaragala District.

Figure 7 Map shows the spatial distribution of WQI in Monaragala District

Table 6. Statistical data of WQI in each DS divisions
Divisional Secretariat (DSD) Min Max SD Mean
Thanamalwila 39 656 137.23 205.64
Bibile 6 309 76.08 85.44
Sevanagala 12 230 62.12 57.33
Siyambalanduwa 6 273 79.62 120.01
Buttala 8 181 42.24 42.95
Wellawaya 11 204 46.52 49.92
Monaragala 32 264 78.74 95.08
Badalkumbura 26 458 114 130.72
Madulla 21 140 25 58.12
Medagama 15 81 16.32 37.91
Katharagama 24 218 52.28 54.84

3.7 Relation between water quality parameters

According to the findings from the Pearson correlation analysis, a robust positive correlation is
observed between color and turbidity (r = 0.88), suggesting an augmentation in color intensity with
increasing turbidity levels. EC demonstrates a strong positive correlation with TDS (r = 0.97) and
total alkalinity (r = 0.85). Furthermore, total alkalinity (r = 0.86) exhibits a substantial positive
correlation with both water hardness (r = 0.86) and TDS (r = 0.79). Moderate positive correlations
are apparent between total Iron and turbidity (r = 0.55), as well as between total Iron and color (r =
0.54). The presence of insoluble oxidized iron (Fe+3) may contribute to the observed turbidity in
groundwater. Additionally, EC moderately correlates with TH (r = 0.61), Cl- (r = 0.55), and F- (r =
0.53). TA displays a moderate positive correlation with F- (r = 0.50), while TH moderately correlates
with TDS (r = 0.52). Notably, a moderate negative correlation is identified between total iron and
both TH (r = -0.36) and alkalinity (r = -0.35), indicating a tendency for decreased alkalinity and
hardness as total iron concentration increases. In the context of water quality, the WQI in the
Monaragala District is strongly influenced by coliform contamination, as indicated by a strong
positive correlation (r = 0.92) in the Pearson correlation analysis. This implies that, in this region,
microbial parameters play a pivotal role in determining water quality, with physico- chemical
parameters having a lesser impact on the overall drinking WQI.

Table 7. Correlation coefficient matrix of physico-chemical parameters of groundwater quality

total
Clr Tu pH E.C. Cl- TA F- TH TDS
Iron
Clr 1.00
Tu 0.84** 1.00
pH -0.15 -0.19 1.00
E. -0.12 -0.16 0.38 1.00
Cl- -0.01 -0.05 0.08 0.55 1.00
TA -0.13 -0.19 0.34 0.85** 0.46 1.00
F- -0.11 -0.13 0.23 0.53* 0.49 0.50* 1.00
TH -0.12 -0.17 0.21 0.61* 0.39 0.86** 0.45 1.00
total
0.55* 0.54* -0.16 -0.24 -0.14 -0.35 -0.23 -0.36 1.00
Iron
TDS -0.13 -0.16 0.42 0.97** 0.47 0.79** 0.44 0.52* -0.21 1.00
** Strongly correlated parameters * Moderately correlated parameters (Clr- Color, Tu-Turbidity)

4. Conclusions

In this study, the WQI method was applied to investigate the water quality status of the Monaragala
District of Sri Lanka. Out of the analyzed samples, 14.7%, 33.2%, 18.1%, 8.5%, and 25.5% are
categorized under the excellent, good, poor, very poor, and unsuitable categories, respectively, in
terms of the WQI. Moreover, based on the results, it can be determined that the shallow groundwater
of the study area displayed geochemical variance influenced by geology and climate, with the dry
zone showing higher EC, TDS, and TA. The study underscores the lithology's substantial impact on
groundwater quality. Microbial contamination was evident, with 64% and 42% of samples showing
unsatisfactory levels of TC and E. coli bacteria, respectively. Therefore, effective disinfection
programs are imperative to prevent health risks, especially for immunocompromised individuals.
Wells situated at distances greater than 16 m from toilet pits exhibited lower coliform and E. coli
counts. Protected dug wells demonstrated significantly lower counts than both partially and non-
protected wells, highlighting the necessity for targeted interventions. Policymakers can identify the
state of the water quality in a particular location with the help of the water quality indices computed
in this study. Furthermore, our research will help policymakers in the Monaragala District plan future
piped water projects by providing optimal groundwater source management.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the General Manager and Regional
manager, Monaragala of National Water Supply and Drainage board of Sri Lanka for providing
advanced laboratory facilities to carry out this research. Further, author would especially want to
thank Mr. A.G.A. Jayawardhana for preparation of maps.
Availability of data and material Not applicable.
Code availability Not applicable.

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