EED102: Semiconductor

Devices
Dr. Venkatnarayan Hariharan
Dept of Electrical Engg., Shiv Nadar Univ., Delhi NCR

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Agenda
• Energy bands in crystalline
semiconductors

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 Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• Quantum Mechanics describes the laws of Physics governing
subatomic particles, and the Schrodinger equation is a key
equation that encapsulates these laws
• These laws are key to explaining why the ingredient devices of today’s
gadgets (mobile phones, laptops, etc) such as diodes, transistors, LEDs,
USB drives, lasers, solar cells, etc work the way they do! No kidding!
• With suitable boundary conditions, the final outcomes of this
equation are:
• A set of wavefunctions 𝜓 as a function of space (ie. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), which are
deemed as the eigenvectors of the equation. These are often complex
functions (ie have real & imaginary
∗
parts) and by themselves don’t have
any physical meaning. But 𝜓 𝜓 represents the square of the probability
of finding an electron at that point in space (probability density)
• Eigenvalues pertaining to those wavefunctions, which correspond to
energy values
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 Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• When solved for electrons of an isolated atom (e.g.
Hydrogen, Silicon, etc) in a potential well, the results
show that the electrons can only exist in certain
discrete, allowed energy levels
• When solved for electrons of very many atoms of a
crystalline solid (such as a realistic Si crystalline sample
may contain), the results show that the wavefunctions
of electrons of the individual atoms interact and the
allowed energies are no longer discrete levels, but
rather a range of energies; that is, a band of energies
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Energy Levels → Bands as Atoms get Closer
2 electrons per
• N atoms brought atom in 3p2 level
closer at 0° 𝐾 (max capacity 3p6)
• Left edge of figure
corresponds to
atoms getting close
• Right end 2 electrons per
corresponds to atom in 3s2 level
isolated atoms (max capacity 3s2
=> fully filled)

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 Energy Bands
• In a typical crystalline semiconductor, there are multiple
such bands (each containing so many finely spaced
discrete energy levels that they’re imperceptible, so a
continuous band is a better representation)
• These bands are separated by a bandgap (ie. forbidden
energy range), whose value is typically in 𝑒𝑉, ie. electron
volts

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 Energy Bands
• For semiconductors at 0° K (Kelvin), it turns out that there are
bands of allowed energies that are fully filled with electrons, and
beyond that (ie. higher in electron energy) there are bands that
are fully empty. The highest such fully-filled band is called the
valence band and the lowest empty band is called the conduction
band
• Actually all the empty bands are conduction bands,
but the lowest empty band is most impactful in
device phenomena, and hence the term conduction
band usually refers to the lowest empty band
• The situation at the top of the valence band and the
bottom of the conduction band is key to explaining
several device phenomena
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 Energy Bands
• For current to flow (ie. electron transport to occur), two conditions
need to be satisfied:
A. There must be electrons available in a band
B. Vacant (ie. unfilled), allowed energy states must exist in that band
• In a semiconductor at 0° K, both conditions are not simultaneously
satisfied. Thus, a semiconductor at 0° K acts like an insulator
• However, unlike an insulator, the bandgap 𝐸𝑔 of a semiconductor
isn’t very high. Therefore, at nearabout room temperature, a few
electrons in the valence band get sufficient thermal energy to get
excited to the conduction band, thereby satisfying conditions A
and B above, and hence having some conductivity (much better
than insulator but much worse than conductor)
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 Band Structure vs Band Diagram
• Band structure (top figure) refers to the depiction of
allowed band of energies versus wave-vector 𝑘
(introduced when solving the Schrodinger equation), an
abstract quantity that is related to momentum
• The lattice structure and periodicity of most materials is
different in different directions, hence the full (𝐸, 𝑘) band
structure is a complex 3D surface
• Materials (eg. GaAs) that have the valence band maximum
and conduction band minimum at the same value of 𝑘, are
called direct semiconductors. Very useful for LEDs, etc
• Materials (eg. Si) that have the valence band maximum
and conduction band minimum at different 𝑘 values, are
called indirect semiconductors
• Band diagram (bottom figure at 0° K) refers to the
depiction of allowed band of energies versus spatial
location (ie. position)
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Band Structure of Compound Semicons
• Band structures often depict symbols like 𝐿, Γ, 𝑋, etc. These correspond (in
𝑘-space) to high-symmetry points of the crystal structure, and conduction
band minima can occur at or near these 𝑘-values (for example, 𝐿
corresponds to 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 0)
• The bandgap (𝐸𝑔 ) is the separation along the E-axis (in an E-k band structure)
between the top of the valence band and the lowest point of the conduction
band
• Materials like 𝐴𝑙𝑥 𝐺𝑎1−𝑥 𝐴𝑠, 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠1−𝑥 𝑃𝑥 where 𝑥 is the mole fraction, etc are
called compound semiconductors. As the mole fraction 𝑥 varies, the
bandgap (𝐸𝑔 ) also varies, as also the characteristic of the material from being
a direct to an indirect semiconductor
• 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠1−𝑥 𝑃𝑥 remains a direct semiconductor from 𝑥 = 0 to about 𝑥 = 0.45,
and is therefore used in visible LEDs with mole-fractions in this range
• Most red LEDs are made with 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠1−𝑥 𝑃𝑥 with 𝑥 = 0.4, as its 𝐸𝑔 corresponds to the
wavelength of red light (recall, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐/𝝀)
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END OF LECTURE

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