EED102: Semiconductor

Devices
Dr. Venkatnarayan Hariharan
Dept of Electrical Engg., Shiv Nadar Univ., Delhi NCR

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 Agenda
• Transient analysis of excess carriers produced
by a one-time optical excitation
• Steady-state analysis of excess carriers
produced by a constant, ongoing excitation
• Non-equilibrium and Quasi-Fermi levels
(IMREF)
• Photoconductive cells
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R-G Transient Analysis
• Consider a p-type semicon sample that has been excited by a
short flash of light. Let us see what happens in the immediate
aftermath after stopping the light excitation
• The light flash would have created excess EHP at 𝑡 = 0
• Since EHPs occur in pairs, the initial (ie. at 𝑡 = 0) excess
electron and hole concentrations Δ𝑛 and Δ𝑝 are equal. As the
EHPs recombine in pairs, the instantaneous concentrations of
excess carriers Δ𝑛 𝑡 and Δ𝑝 𝑡 are also equal
• Let us use the SRH model to analyse this time variation (ie.
transient analysis) of electrons (ie. minority carriers)
• Note: Atleast for low-level generation, it is the excess minority
carriers (electrons in this case) that have a more drastic impact on
device behavior than excess majority carriers

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 R-G Transient Analysis
• Since the SRH model has a non-zero expression for time rate of change
of carrier concentrations solely due to R-G, it can be applied to a
transient analysis of that component of carrier concentrations that are
solely due to R-G. The present example being analysed is a situation
where the only processes in action are R-G processes, hence, the model
can be deemed to apply to the overall carrier concentration
• Reiterating the SRH model but this time dropping the RG subscript due
to reasons stated above, we have:
𝒅𝒏(𝒕)
= 𝜶𝒓 𝒏𝟐𝒊 − 𝜶𝒓 𝒏 𝒕 𝒑(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
• In the RHS of the above equation:
• First term is the thermal generation rate 𝒈𝒕𝒉_𝒏 𝑻 = 𝜶𝒓 𝒏𝟐𝒊 which always exists
happening in the background
• Second term is the recombination rate 𝒓𝒏 𝑻 = 𝜶𝒓 𝒏 𝒕 𝒑(𝒕)
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 R-G Transient Analysis
• A similar equation exists for holes too, except that the 𝛼𝑟
coefficient may be different (because the hole capture and
emission dynamics may be different than for electrons in
general). It is especially different when indirect recombination
is the dominant recombination mechanism
• Let 𝑛0 and 𝑝0 be the equilibrium values of electron and hole
concentrations (ie. in the absence of excitation)
• Note: These would be 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑝𝑖 if the semicon is intrinsic. But here
we are considering a general case, viz. a doped semicon (ie. extrinsic)
• Then, it is clear that:
𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑛0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡)
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑝0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡) (refer slide 2)
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 R-G Transient Analysis
• As an example, let us analyze only for electrons (ie. minority carriers in this p-
type sample), by substituting above equations into the SRH model
𝑑 𝑑 Δ𝑛
• We have (after noting that 𝑛0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡) = since 𝑛0 is constant):
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑Δ𝑛(𝑡)
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡) 𝑝0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
• Noting that 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖2 (refer lecture L5):
𝑑Δ𝑛(𝑡)
= −𝛼𝑟 Δ𝑛(𝑡) 𝑛0 + 𝑝0 + Δ𝑛(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
• In the square bracket:
• We have 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 since it is a p-type sample, hence 𝑛0 can be neglected
• If we assume a low-level excitation (aka low-level injection) where excess minority
carriers are created but yet in much lesser quantity than equilibrium majority carriers
(ie. 𝑝0 ≫ Δ𝑛 𝑡 ), then we can also neglect Δ𝑛(𝑡)

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 R-G Transient Analysis
• Thus:
𝒅𝚫𝒏(𝒕)
= −𝜶𝒓 𝒑𝟎 𝚫𝒏(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
𝟏
• Defining 𝝉𝒏 = , we have the solution to this as:
𝜶𝒓 𝒑 𝟎
𝚫𝒏 𝒕 = 𝚫𝒏 ∙ 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉𝒏 where Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑛(𝑡 = 0)
• 𝜏𝑛 is called the recombination lifetime of the
electron. Specifically in this case, it is the minority
carrier lifetime
• Similarly for excess holes in an n-type sample:
𝚫𝒑 𝒕 = 𝚫𝒑 ∙ 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉𝒑
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 R-G Transient Analysis
• Decay of excess electrons and holes
in a p-type GaAs sample by
recombination, for Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑝 = 0.1𝑝0 ,
with n0 negligible, and 𝜏𝑝 = 𝜏𝑛 =
10 𝑛𝑠
• Note: The exponential decay minority
carriers is linear because it this a
semilogarithmic graph
• As can be seen, majority carriers 𝑝(𝑡)
are only marginally changed
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Steady Excitation
• In transient analysis in earlier slides, we saw how
excess carriers that have once been generated
(by optical excitation or any means), decay with
time after that excitation is removed
• We next analyse a situation where there is a
steady excitation where a non-equilibrium,
steady state is reached (because the EHP creation
by excitation is balanced by recombination)
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Steady Excitation
• If a steady light is shone on a semicon sample, an optical
generation rate 𝑔𝑜𝑝 will be added to the background
(always existing) thermal generation 𝑔𝑡ℎ , and the carrier
concentrations 𝑛 and 𝑝 will change to new steady-state
values
• The net generation rate in this situation is:
𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑔𝑡ℎ + 𝑔𝑜𝑝 , where 𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2
• The net recombination rate is: 𝑟 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑝
• In steady state, 𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑟 𝑇 ⇒ 𝒈𝒐𝒑 + 𝜶𝒓 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝜶𝒓 𝒏𝒑

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Steady Excitation
• Proceeding as in the case of transient analysis and
again assuming low-level excitation, and noting that
𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖2 (refer lecture L5), we get:
𝟏
𝚫𝒏 = 𝒈𝒐𝒑 𝝉𝒏 where 𝝉𝒏 =
𝜶𝒓 𝒏𝟎 +𝒑𝟎
𝟏
𝚫𝒑 = 𝒈𝒐𝒑 𝝉𝒑 where 𝝉𝒑 =
𝜶′𝒓 𝒏𝟎 +𝒑𝟎
• Note: In steady-state as long as the light is shining, Δ𝑛
and Δ𝑝 don’t change with time
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 Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Equilibrium carrier statistics (L5) led us to expressions of the form:
𝒏𝟎 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒊 /𝒌𝑻
𝒑𝟎 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝑭 /𝒌𝑻
• The steady excitation considered in this lecture is a non-
equilibrium state. In non-equilibrium, it is convenient to
define/introduce the concept of quasi-Fermi levels (also called
IMREF levels) 𝐸𝐹𝑛 and 𝐸𝐹𝑝 for electrons and holes separately,
such that the above equilibrium expressions still hold albeit with
those modified quasi-Fermi levels, viz.:
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝑬𝑭𝒏 −𝑬𝒊 /𝒌𝑻
𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝑭𝒑 /𝒌𝑻
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Quasi-Fermi Levels
• A given concentration of excess EHPs causes a large
shift in the minority carrier quasi-Fermi level
compared with that for the majority carriers. The
separation of the quasi-Fermi levels 𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 is a
measure of the deviation from equilibrium (at
equilibrium, we have 𝐸𝐹𝑛 = 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝐸𝐹 )
• Quasi-Fermi levels are very useful in visualizing
minority and majority carrier concentrations inside
devices where these quantities vary with position
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 Example
• Consider an n-type Si sample with 𝑛0 = 1014 𝑐𝑚−3 . Suppose 1013 𝐸𝐻𝑃/𝑐𝑚3
are created optically every 𝜇𝑠 by constantly shining light on it with 𝜏𝑛 = 𝜏𝑝 =
2𝜇𝑠
• Thus 𝑔𝑜𝑝 = 1013 𝑐𝑚−3 /𝜇𝑠
• Therefore the steady state hole (and electron) concentration is:
Δ𝑝 = Δ𝑛 = 𝑔𝑜𝑝 𝜏𝑛 = 2𝑒13 𝑐𝑚−3
• Hence 𝑛 = 𝑛0 + Δ𝑛 = 1𝑒14 + 2𝑒13 = 1.2𝑒14 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑛𝑖2
• 𝑝0 = = 2.25𝑒6 𝑐𝑚−3 and 𝑝 = 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 = 2.25𝑒6 + 2𝑒13 ≈ 2𝑒13 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑛0
• Thus we see that:
• Electron concentration (majority) has changed only marginally from 𝑛0 = 1𝑒14 𝑐𝑚 −3 to
1.2𝑒14 𝑐𝑚−3
• Hole concentration
−𝟑
(minority)
−𝟑
has changed drastically (by shining light) from 𝒑𝟎 =
𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝒆𝟔 𝒄𝒎 to 𝟐𝒆𝟏𝟑 𝒄𝒎
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 Example (contd.)
• The quasi-Fermi levels can be found using their defining relations:
𝐸 −𝐸 /𝑘𝑇
𝒏 1.2𝑒14
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝐹𝑛 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑬𝑭𝒏 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝒌𝑻 ∙ 𝒍𝒏 = 26 ∙ 𝑙𝑛
𝒏𝒊 1.5𝑒10
𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹𝑝 /𝑘𝑇
𝒑 2.0𝑒13
𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝑭𝒑 = 𝒌𝑻 ∙ 𝒍𝒏 = 26 ∙ 𝑙𝑛
𝒏𝒊 1.5𝑒10
∴ 𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝑖 = 0.233 𝑒𝑉
and 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 0.186 𝑒𝑉
• Thus, 𝐸𝐹𝑛 lies 0.233 𝑒𝑉 above 𝐸𝑖 and 𝐸𝐹𝑝
lies 0.186 eV below 𝐸𝑖
• Note that 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 cannot be used in
non-equilibrium. That is, 𝑛𝑝 ≠ 𝑛𝑖2
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 Photoconductive Cells
• Because semicons respond to constant excitation of light of certain
wavelengths (depending on 𝐸𝑔 ) by generating excess carriers, the conductivity
of these semicons also change upon such optical excitation. Hence useful as
photoconductive cells, where change in resistance is sensed upon optical
excitation. This fact will be better appreciated when we cover drift as a
transport mechanism in the lectures
• CdS (𝐸𝑔 = 2.42 𝑒𝑉) is commonly used as a photoconductor in the visible spectra, and
narrow-gap materials such as Ge (𝐸𝑔 = 0.67 𝑒𝑉) and InSb (𝐸𝑔 = 0.18 𝑒𝑉) are useful in
the infrared spectra
• For maximum photoconductive sensitivity, we want high mobilities and long
minority carrier lifetimes
• InSb has an electron mobility of about 105 𝑐𝑚2 Τ𝑉𝑠 and therefore is used as a sensitive
infrared detector in many applications
• The time response of a photoconductive cell is limited by the recombination
time 𝜏 and other factors, some of which can be optimized by proper choice of
material and device geometry, often by trading-off sensitivity
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END OF LECTURE

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