Unit -1

Research is the process of searching the relevant information in a

systematic manner. It can be defined as an activity which involves
identification of the problem, formulation of hypothesis, research design,
collecting, summarizing and analysing the data and finally conclusion
either in the form of giving solution or in the form of theories.
The major objective of the research is to identify the solution of a particular
problem in a systematic manner. Different types of research have been
conducted in different fields of the study, e.g. in order to identify the solution of
a problem fundamental research has to be carried out while in order to identify
the solution of an immediate problem applied research has to be carried out.
However, all type of researches follows either qualitative or quantitative
approach. The quantitative approach is primarily focused on quantity of the data
obtained from the research, while in qualitative research the primary focus is on
the quality of the obtained data.

Research Objectives
Research is a systematic process of identification, designing, collecting,
analysing and summarizing the data in order to give the solutions to the problem
of a company. The main research objectives are as follows:
1) To identify the problem and give the specific solution related to the
problem. Example : Why the demand of a particular product or service
falls? Why there is fluctuation in the business environment?

2) To develop new theories and concepts.

Example: Green marketing, Horizontal marketing etc.

3) To identify the alternative solutions of a problem.

Example: Which strategy (push or pull) must be followed for the promotion
of the product?
4) To make the process of decision making easier.
Marketing Research
According to the American Marketing Association (AMA),
Marketing Research is defined as, “the function that link customer and
public to the marketer through the information”.

Thus, marketing research is defined as:

Ø Identification
Ø Collection
Ø Analyzing
Ø Dissemination
Ø Use of the information
For the purpose of improving decision making related to the,
Ø Identification and
Ø Solutions of problems and opportunities in marketing.

Classification of Marketing Research

Marketing Research can be classified into two categories: Ø Problem
Identification Research Ø Problem Solving Research.
Process of Marketing Research

Problem Definition
The first step in process of marketing research is to define the problem. In this
step, researcher must define the purpose of the study, background of the study,
information required and also explains how it will be helpful in decision making
process. It involve the discussion with the experts, decision makers, analyzing
the secondary data and also include some qualitative research like focus group
discussion as well.
Approach Development
This step involves the formulation of the research objectives, analytical
models, theoretical framework, research questions and hypothesis
formulation and information required.
Research Design Formulation
Research design is defined as the blueprint for conducting the research process.
The main purpose of the research design is to test the hypothesis formulated and
determine the tentative solution to the research questions.
There are two types of research design:
Ø Exploratory Research Design
Ø Causal Research Design

Formulation of research design includes:

Ø Defining the information required
Ø Analysis of secondary data
Ø Qualitative research
Ø Methods for obtaining the quantitative data
Ø Scaling techniques
Ø Designing the questionnaire
Ø Sampling
Ø Data Analysis
Field Work / Data Collection
Field work involves a capable staff that operates either in the field or
electronically or from the office in order to collect the data. Right selection,
proper training, necessary supervision and the timely evaluation of the staff
helps in reducing the error occurred during the data collection.
Data Analysis Data analysis includes:
Ø Editing
Ø Coding
Ø Transcription
Ø Verification of the data
Report Preparation
The last step of the marketing research process is the report preparation and the
presentation. The whole process must be documented in a report that includes
the problem definition, description of the research approach, research design,
data collection procedure, data analysis methodology and show the results and
main findings of the research.

Scope of Market Research

Sales Analysis:
Much research is done in these areas which are broadly referred to as sales
analysis— measurement of market potential/demand projection, determination
of market characteristics, market share estimation, studies of business trends,
etc.

Sales Methods and Policies:

Marketing research studies are also conducted with a view to evaluating the
effectiveness of present distribution system. Such studies are used in
establishing or revising sales territories.

Product Management:
Market research is also conducted in order to better manage the existing and
new products—to assess consumer feedback, to assess consumer reaction before
launching a new product, etc.
Advantages of Marketing Research:
1. Facilitates planned production
2. Discovery of causes of consumer’s resistance
3. Correction of defects
4. Reveals the nature of demand
5. Effectiveness of existing channels of distribution
6. New uses of the product
7. Market information
8. Discovery of potential market
9. Discovery of new lines of production
Limitations of Marketing Research
(i) A research study will fail to serve its purpose if marketing researcher merely
collects some statistical facts; or is preoccupied with techniques or; uses data of
questionable validity; or communicates the findings in too much vague or
technical language.

(ii) A research study will suffer if the marketing manager does not offer full
perspective of the research problem; or allows inadequate time; or uses research
as a ‘fire-fighting’ device; or does not really appreciate the value of research.

(iii) Marketing research cannot by itself provide the solution or make the
decision. It only reveals relevant information to the marketing managers who
can be able then to make sound and strategic marketing decisions.

Problems and Precautions in Marketing Research

Lack of data integrity or invalid data

Businesses today view market data as a commodity. With readily available data
on customer behaviour and preferences, market researchers can compile
massive data sets to mine for consumer insights. Indeed, a review of recent
market research industry papers reveals that conversations in the sector have
cantered on data analysis.

Untargeted audiences responding

For businesses, market research is “accurate” when it consists of data that
reflects their customers (or target market) and contributes to the success of new
campaigns, goods, and services.

Therefore, it would be devastating if the wrong audiences responded to your

market research questions. This is equivalent to attempting to fill a basket with
water.

Having unqualified moderators or facilitators handling your surveys

Having incompetent moderators or facilitators manage your surveys is
unacceptable. Your survey facilitators/moderators have a significant impact on
the data that will result from your survey project, particularly when it is
conducted offline with illiterate or semi-literate respondents.
Long duration required to finish the survey
Long surveys are rather common. However, they have a negative influence on
response rate, abandonment rate, sample representativeness, and data quality, all
of which negatively impact response rate.

Not asking in-depth follow-up questions to your target audiences

Only expert researchers comprehend the significance of and know how to
negotiate follow-up inquiries. Some researchers simply keep to the script,
restricting the insights they can glean even though the respondent may be
willing to share more. This reduces the quality of Psychometric data a
researcher can obtain.
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Unit 2
RESEARCH DESIGN
Variables & Types of Variables
When it comes to experiments and data analysis, there are two main types of
variables: dependent variables and independent variables. It’s easy to get these
mixed up, but the difference between dependent and independent variables is
simple. Here is a quick and easy definition of each one, along with some
examples.
1) Dependent Variable: This is the output variable you are really interested in
monitoring to see if it was affected or not. It can also be called the “measured
variable,” the “responding variable,” the “explained variable,” etc. I think it is
easy to remember this one because it is dependent on the other variables.
 2) Independent Variables: These are the individual variables that you believe
may have an effect on the dependent variable. They are sometimes called
“explanatory variables,” “manipulated variables,” or “controlled variables.”

Example #1: Golf Balls Here’s a simple situation: Suppose you want to test golf
ball flight distances, so you set up a simple experiment in which various golf
balls are placed into a mechanical chute and fired into the air. The variable you
really care about, the “output” or dependent variable is golf ball distance.
Independent variables are the variables you are going to test to see how they
affect distance. In this case, they are going to be things like air temperature, golf
ball brand, and color of the golf ball. In the end, if you do a fancy regression
analysis on all your data, you are going to end up with a formula that looks
something like this: golf ball distance = 50 feet + air temperature factor + golf
ball brand factor + golf ball color factor. See how all the independent variables
(air temp, brand, color) have an effect on the dependent variable (distance)?

Hypothesis, Types & Formulation of Hypothesis

Introduction and Definition
Hypothesis and the theories are generally responsible for the movement of
knowledge from the unknown to the known. Hypotheses play a very important
and a critical role in the assertion of a particular thing, as they are able to
describe certain facts and are also able to explain the various relationships
between these facts.
As a result of this, hypotheses help a great deal in the investigation operations
or activities. On the institution of the problem to be answered in the process of
the research, the researcher forms various tentative or possible solutions to these
problems these proposed answers or the solutions are referred to as the
hypothesis. But a very critical and essential point to be kept in mind here is that
these propositions are not at all verified in nature.
So Hypothesis can be referred to as the interpretation of certain facts which is
just a possible solution or a tentative answer to a problem and is completely or
partly unverified in nature.

Role and Functions of the hypothesis

1. Helps in the testing of the theories.
2. Serves as a great platform in the investigation activities.
3. Provides guidance to the research work or study.
4. Hypothesis sometimes suggests theories.
5. Helps in knowing the needs of the data.
6. Explains social phenomena.
7. Develops the theory.
8. Also acts as a bridge between the theory and the investigation.
9. Provides a relationship between phenomena in such a way that it leads to the
empirical testing of the relationship.
10. Helps in knowing the most suitable technique of analysis.
11. Helps in the determination of the most suitable type of research.
12. Provides knowledge about the required sources of data.
13. Research becomes focused under the direction of the hypothesis.
14. Is very helpful in carrying out an enquiry of a certain activity.
15. Helps in reaching conclusions, if it is correctly drawn.

Sources of hypothesis
1. Observations made in routine activities.
2. Theories based on the scientific approach.
3. Analogies. 4. Knowledge obtained from the functional executives.
5. Results of the research and development department.
6. Experience of the investigator.
Characteristics of hypothesis
1. Should be very specific in nature.
2. Concept of the hypothesis should be clear.
3. Should be empirically testable.
4. Should be related to the devices and the techniques that are available.
5. Should relate to the body of the theory. 6. Should recognize the specific
variables and their relation
Types of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by

H0, it is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not
affect athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy
sessions have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a
coincidence.

2. Alternative hypothesis

Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is

donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the
independent variable. A good alternative hypothesis example is “Attending
physiotherapy sessions improves athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water
evaporates at 100°C.”

The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.

 Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be

either positive or negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies
H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
 Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims
an effect on the dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result
would be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis
is ‘≠.'

3. Simple hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly

two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example,
“Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung
cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis

In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship

between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance,
“Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser
cholesterol, and high metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more
fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol,
and high metabolism.

5. Associative and casual hypothesis

Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables there will
be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative
hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects
others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the
dependent.

6. Empirical hypothesis

Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis claims a

theory's validation via experiments and observation. This way, the statement
appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.

Say, the hypothesis is “Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of
anemia than those who take vitamin B12.” This is an example of an empirical
hypothesis where the researcher the statement after assessing a group of women
who take iron tablets and charting the findings.

7. Statistical hypothesis

The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by

studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population
belong in the age group of 22-27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a
particular statement.
Research Design & Types of Research Design
A research design is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design
of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental,
experimental, review, meta-analytic) and subtype (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal
case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent
variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a
statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created
to seek answers to research questions

Confirmatory versus exploratory research

Confirmatory research tests a priori hypotheses—outcome predictions that
are made before the measurement phase begins. Such a priori hypotheses are
usually derived from a theory or the results of previous studies. The
advantage of confirmatory research is that the result is more meaningful,
in the sense that it is much harder to claim that a certain result is
statistically significant. The reason for this is that in confirmatory research,
one ideally strives to reduce the probability of falsely reporting a nonsignificant
result as significant. This probability is known as α-level or a type I error.
Loosely speaking, if you know what you are looking for, you should be very
confident when and where you will find it; accordingly, you only accept a result
as significant if it is highly unlikely to have been observed by chance.

Exploratory research on the other hand seeks to generate a posteriori

hypotheses by examining a data set and looking for potential relations
between variables. It is also possible to have an idea about a relation between
variables but to lack knowledge of the direction and strength of the relation. If
the researcher does not have any specific hypotheses beforehand, the study is
exploratory with respect to the variables in question (although it might be
confirmatory for others). The advantage of exploratory research is that it is
easier to make new discoveries due to the less stringent methodological
restrictions. Here, the researcher does not want to miss a potentially interesting
relation and therefore aims to minimize the probability of rejecting a real effect
or relation, this probability is sometimes referred to as β and the associated error
is of type II. In other words, if you want to see whether some of your measured
variables could be related, you would want to increase your chances of finding a
significant result by lowering the threshold of what you deem to be significant.
Sometimes, a researcher may conduct exploratory research but report it as if it
had been confirmatory this is a questionable research practice bordering fraud

Need and Importance of Research Design

Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results
attained. It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. It is needed
due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of the many research
operations. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing
maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and time. For
building of a car, we must have a suitable blueprint made by an expert designer.
In a similar fashion, we require a suitable design or plan just before data
collection and analysis of the research project. Planning of design must be
carried out cautiously as even a small mistake might mess up the purpose of the
entire project. The design helps the investigator to organize his ideas, which
helps to recognize and fix his faults, if any. In a good research design, all the
components go together with each other in a coherent way. The theoretical and
conceptual framework must with the research goals and purposes. In the same
way, the data gathering method must fit with the research purposes, conceptual
and theoretical framework and method of data analysis.

The importance of research design in research methodology is due to the

following:
 It may result in the preferred kind of study with helpful conclusion.
 It cuts down on inaccuracy.
 Allows you get optimum efficiency and reliability
.  Reduce wastage of time.
 Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research
problem
.  Of great help for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
 It is a guide for giving research the right path.
 Gets rid of bias and marginal errors.
 Provides an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of money,
effort, time, and manpower

The features that a good research procedure must possess are –

1. Should be systematic in nature.
2. Should be logical.
3. Should be empirical and replicable in nature.
4. Should be according to plans.
5. Should be according to the rules and the assumptions should not be based on
the false bases or judgments
6. Should be relevant to what is required.
7. Procedure should be reproducible in nature.
8. Controlled movement of the research procedure.

Scaling Techniques
A common feature of marketing research is the attempt to have respondents
communicate their feelings, attitudes, opinions, and evaluations in some
measurable form. To this end, marketing researchers have developed a range of
scales. Each of these has unique properties.
What is important for the marketing analyst to realise is that they have widely
differing measurement properties. Some scales are at very best, limited in their
mathematical properties to the extent that they can only establish an association
between variables. Other scales have more extensive mathematical properties
and some, hold out the possibility of establishing cause and effect relationships
between variables.
Measurement
The assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain prespecified rules.
Scaling
The generation of a continuum upon which measured objects are located.
Characteristics and Level of Measurement
All the scales that we use in marketing research can be described in terms of
four basic characteristics. These characteristics are description, order, distance,
and origin, and together they define the level of measurement of a scale.
 Description
The unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the
scale. All scales possess description.
 Order
The relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by
descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

 Distance
The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale
descriptors are known and may be expressed in units.
 Origin
The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or
true zero point.

Primary Scales of Measurement

There are four primary scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratio
Classification of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales
One of two types of scaling techniques in which there is direct comparison of
stimulus objects with one another.
For example, respondents might be asked whether they prefer Coke or Pepsi.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only
ordinal or rank order properties. For this reason, comparative scaling is also
referred to as nonmetric scaling.
Paired comparison scaling
A comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is presented with two
objects at a time and asked to select one object in the pair according to some
criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature.

Rank order scaling

A comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with
several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to
some criterion.
Constant sum scaling
A comparative scaling technique in which respondents are required to allocate
a constant sum of units such as points, dollars, chits, stickers, or chips among a
set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion
Q-sort scaling
A comparative scaling technique that uses a rank order procedure to sort
objects based on similarity with respect to some criterion.
For example, respondents are given 100 attitude statements on individual cards
and asked to place them into 11 piles, ranging from “most highly agreed with”
to “least highly agreed with.” The number of objects to be sorted should not be
less than 60 nor more than 140; 60 to 90 objects is a reasonable range. The
number of objects to be placed in each pile is prespecified, often to result in a
roughly normal distribution of objects over the whole set.

Noncomparative scales
One of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled
independently of the other objects in the stimulus set.
For example, respondents may be asked to evaluate Coke on a 1-to-6 preference
scale (1 not at all preferred, 6 greatly preferred). Similar evaluations would be
obtained for Pepsi and RC Cola.
Continuous rating scale
Also referred to as a graphic rating scale, this measurement scale has the
respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a
line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other
Companies such as McDonald’s have used the Perception Analyzer to measure
consumers’ reactions to commercials, company videos, and other audio/visual
materials.

Itemized rating scale

A measurement scale having numbers and/or brief descriptions associated with
each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position

1) Likert scale
A measurement scale with five response categories ranging from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree,” which requires the respondents to indicate a
degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements related
to the stimulus objects.
Semantic differential
A 7-point rating scale with endpoints associated with bipolar labels that have
semantic meaning

Stapel scale
A scale for measuring attitudes that consists of a single adjective in the middle
of an even-numbered range of values, from 5 to 5, without a neutral point (zero)
Sampling
Population
The aggregate of all the elements, sharing some common set of characteristics,
that comprises the universe for the purpose of the marketing research problem.
Census
A complete enumeration of the elements of a population or study objects.
Sample
A subgroup of the elements of the population selected for participation in the
study.
Sampling
In statistics, sampling is the process of selecting a subset of data from a larger
dataset. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. The main difference between the two types of sampling
is how the sample is selected from the population.

Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a type of sampling where every member of the
population has a known and equal chance of being selected for the sample. This
means that the sample is chosen randomly from the population, using a random
number generator or other methods to ensure that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Probability
sampling is considered the most reliable and unbiased method because it
ensures that the sample is representative of the population and reduces the
potential for bias.

Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a type in which the sample members are not
randomly selected from the population. In non-probability sampling, the sample
may be selected based on convenience, availability, or other factors rather than
random selection. Non-probability sampling is generally considered less reliable
and less unbiased than probability sampling because it is not guaranteed to be
representative of the population.
Types of Probability Sampling
Several different sampling methods can be used for probability sampling.
Some common sampling methods for probability sampling include:

 Simple random sampling: This is the most basic method of

probability sampling, where every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the sample. This is typically
done using a random number generator, lottery or other methods to
select a subset of the population randomly.
 Systematic random sampling: This is a probability sampling
method where the sample is selected using a systematic, random
approach. This method involves selecting a random starting point in
the population and then selecting every kth member of the
population (for example, checking every 6th piece produced by the
machine) to be included in the sample. For instance, if the
population contains 1000 members, and the sample size is 100, the
researcher could select a random number between 1 and 10 and
then select every 10th member of the population starting from that
point. This method ensures that every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected for the sample and can be more
efficient than simple random sampling.
 Stratified sampling: This method involves dividing the population
into different subgroups, or strata, based on certain characteristics
 and then randomly selecting a sample from each stratum. This
ensures that the sample is representative of the various subgroups in
the population. For example, if ten people are drawn to represent a
country, five of them are male and five are female, to avoid gender
bias.
 Cluster sampling: This method involves dividing the population
into different clusters and then randomly selecting a sample of
clusters. All members of the selected clusters are then included in
the sample. This method is often used when it is impractical to
sample the entire population and can be more efficient than simple
random sampling. Sampling is often clustered by geography or by
time periods. For example, survey all customers visiting particular
stores on particular days.

Some common sampling methods for non-probability sampling include:

 Convenience sampling: This method involves selecting a sample

based on convenience or availability. For example, a researcher
may choose a sample of participants from a nearby community or a
convenient location rather than selecting a random sample from the
population. It's usually done when you want to get as many
responses as possible quickly. Convenience samples are typically
biased toward those who agree with your research question. For
example, surveying friends and family members.
 Judgement sampling is a method of non-probability sampling
where the sample is selected based on the judgement or expertise of
the researcher. In judgement sampling, the researcher uses their
knowledge and experience to select a sample that is believed to
represent the population. This method is often used when it is
difficult or impossible to sample the population randomly or when
the researcher has expertise in a particular field that allows them to
select a representative sample. However, judgment sampling is
generally considered less reliable and less unbiased than probability
sampling because it is not guaranteed to be representative of the
population. For example, an auditor selects a sample based on their
concerns in the earlier audit.
 Quota sampling: This method involves setting quotas for different
subgroups in the population and selecting a sample to meet those
quotas. Typically the researcher identifies the target group and then
randomly selects a percentage of the group. For example, a
university wants to survey student attitudes toward their courses.
They know that there are around 1000 students enrolled each year,
so they randomly select 200 students each year.
  Snowball sampling: This method involves starting with a small
group of participants and then asking them to refer other
participants who fit the criteria for the study. This process is
repeated until the desired sample size is reached. This method is
often used when it is difficult to access the target population.

Sampling Design Process

Define the Target Population

Sampling design begins by specifying the target population. The target
population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information
sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. The target
population must be defined precisely. Imprecise definition of the target
population will result in research that is ineffective at best and misleading at
worst. Defining the target population involves translating the problem definition
into a precise statement of who should and should not be included in the
sample. The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling
units, extent, and time. An element is the object about which or from which the
information is desired. In survey research, the element is usually the respondent.
A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that is available
for selection at some stage of the sampling process.

Determine the Sampling

Frame A sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target
population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target
population. Examples of a sampling frame include the telephone book, an
association directory listing the firms in an industry, a mailing list purchased
from a commercial organization, a city directory, or a map.
Select a Sampling Technique
Selecting a sampling technique involves several decisions of a broader nature.
The researcher must decide whether to use a Bayesian or traditional sampling
approach, to sample with or without replacement, and to use nonprobability or
probability sampling.
Bayesian approach
A selection method in which the elements are selected sequentially. The
Bayesian approach explicitly incorporates prior information about population
parameters as well as the costs and probabilities associated with making wrong
decisions
sampling with replacement
A sampling technique in which an element can be included in the sample more
than once.
sampling without replacement
A sampling technique in which an element cannot be included in the sample
more than once

Determine the Sample Size

Sample size refers to the number of elements to be included in the study.
Determining the sample size is complex and involves several qualitative and
quantitative considerations.
Important qualitative factors that should be considered in determining the
sample size include
(1) the importance of the decision,
(2) the nature of the research,
(3) the number of variables,
(4) the nature of the analysis,
(5) sample sizes used in similar studies,
(6) incidence rates,
(7) completion rates, and
(8) resource constraints.

Execute the Sampling Process

Execution of the sampling process requires a detailed specification of how the
sampling design decisions with respect to the population, sampling frame,
sampling unit, sampling technique, and sample size are to be implemented. If
households are the sampling unit, an operational definition of a household is
needed. Procedures should be specified for vacant housing units and for
callbacks in case no one is at home. Detailed information must be provided for
all sampling design decisions.

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data
collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types
of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are
collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the
statistical process.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an
experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and
perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain
primary data either through observation or through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.
that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys
and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
(i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through questionnaires, (iv)
through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical
devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content
analysis.

Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but
this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a
scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded
and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
The main advantage of this method is
 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
 Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is
currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or
future intentions or attitudes.
 Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies
which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
Observation method has various limitations.
 Firstly, it is an expensive method.
 Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
 Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used
through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
 Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person
known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face
contact to the other person or persons. (At times the interviewee may also
ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually
the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.)
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually
carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured
interviews. Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions
and of highly standardised techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a
structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed. As against it, the unstructured interviews are
characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning. Unstructured
interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised
techniques of recording information.
We may as well talk about focussed interview, clinical interview and the non-
directive interview.
Focussed interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide
the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also
the freedom to explore reasons and motives.
The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience.
non-directive interview, the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the
respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning.
The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect
sample of the general population.
 (iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers
to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty
of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so
desired, group discussions may also be held.

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists

in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used
method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; call backs are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method;
the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be
contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’
own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more
dependable and reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-
response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the
approach once questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form:
So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be
structured or unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those
questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined
questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in
the same order to all respondents.

2. Question sequence:
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the
replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence
in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions reduces
considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood.
3. Question formulation and wording:
With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that
each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do
irreparable harm to a survey.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators
along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the
space meant for the same in the proforma. In certain situations, schedules
may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in
recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules
UNIT 6
REPORTING RESEARCH

Characteristics of a Research Report:

1. Information collected in the report must be relevant and focused to derive
desired results. Pictorial and graphical presentation of data and related
information help to understand the details easily. There is a possibility that
the collected data in the report needs to be represented at many places in
different formats to fulfill the report goals. The ultimate goal is to determine
all the issue and make suitable strategies to cope up with these issue or
problems.
2. Report should follow the exact predefined goals and objectives. If there
is any sort of divergence of related information which does not match the
goals then the results are of no use. In fact there is a probability of landing
up in making negative or out of focus strategies, which will be very
dangerous.
3. The report should always contain the executive summary of the work.
This is generally kept before the actual report starts as it shows the summary
of the desired business plan.
4. Apart from the actual analysis the report should also depict the reasons of
making this report and what advantages and profit it can provide after
successful implementation of business plans described inside the report.
5. It should also contain the methodology of the research which shows the
overall process adopted to create the report.
6. It is important that the report contains the possibility of errors in any of
the module or process so that immediate measures could be taken to cope up
with these errors.
7. The report should contain the description of the questionnaires used in
analysis and the way it has been prepared.
8. The methodology used in the interviews should also be elaborated and
what was achieved in this should also be described.
9. If the information show that some aspects needs to predict the future
trends then the reports should depict that prediction. This prediction should
have scale of success so that the accuracy could be judged efficaciously. The
report should also define each and every variable and element used in
creating these predictive analyses.
10. The report should be flexible enough to be changed accordingly. The
analytical information described inside the report should be maintained in
such a way that there is no extra effort labored if any strategy or process it to
be changed in future. It should necessarily mould the changes without
changing the structure of the report

Types of Research Reports

1) Journal Articles
2) Peer review
3) Blind review
4) Primary vs. secondary source
5) Presentations at conferences
6) Theses and Dissertations
7) Books

Content of Research Journal Article

1) Abstract – 100 to 200 words max
2) Introduction
3) Variables under study
4) Purpose
5) Research questions/ or hypotheses
6) Literature review
7) Theoretical framework
8) Significance
9) Methodology
 Sample
 Research design
 Measurement tools
 Data collection
 Procedures
10) Results-findings
 Statistical tests
 Value of calculated statistic
 Significance (statistical) .05 or .01 usual