1

History
SECTION C

Q 1. Why was objective resolution criticized? [7]

Ans There were several reasons why Objective resolution was criticized.
Firstly, East Pakistan's leaders and people opposed the idea of the two houses of the
federal parliament having equal status because it could prevent a significant number of
their population from having any real political power. East Pakistan also believed that it
was barred to declare Bengali as its national language due to its lack of power thus Urdu
was to be recognized as the national language. The Bengalis were upset over this.
Therefore, it is possible to view these two elements as the main causes of the criticism
leveled at the objective resolution.

Second of all, the political leaders protested strongly to the powers granted to the head
of state since there was no safeguard in the constitution against their abuse. Pakistanis
also desired democratic power-sharing norms so that political institutions wouldn't have
unchecked power. Due to the obstruction of provincial autonomy, East Pakistan also felt
resentment. Therefore, one major reason why objective resolution was criticized was
the amount of power granted to the head of state.

Last but not least, the first draft constitution or objective resolution was criticized by the
Ulemah as not being sufficiently Islamic. The clauses given in the objective resolution
needed more clarity on the basis of the Quran and Sunnah as sources of law for the new
constitution. The government decided against considering the recommendations
because of the widespread resistance. Therefore, it was one of the reasons against the
objective resolution.
Explain why there was a constitutional crisis in 1958. 7
 2

Planning
Develop the following reasons
There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1956 and 1958 and it reached a stage
where Ayub Khan felt the army should take control until stability had been restored.
• Previous governments endured a number of problems that hampered development such as
food shortages and a drought, which led to demonstrations of discontent. As successive
governments found difficulty in dealing with these matters, there were many personnel
changes to try to find a solution. As a result, little constitutional development could take
place.
• Iskander Mirza lost the support of many of the leading politicians and was alarmed at a
plan by Prime Minister Suhrawardy to unite the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab
against him.

Explain why martial law was implemented in 1958.[7]

Planning
Develop the following reasons
• There were multiple Prime Ministers from 1956 to 1958 which had caused uncertainty •
the country lost confidence in its leaders • many of the politicians at the time were
inexperienced • the army wanted to stabilise the country • to manage the aftermath of the
floods and famine in East Pakistan.
Explain why there were changes of government between 1951 and 1958.[7]
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan had died • the remaining politicians were
inexperienced • In 1953 there was a severe drought causing food shortages • there was
some discontent amongst the people who were suffering hardship leading to riots • East
Pakistan had faced severe floods causing food shortages in 1955
Explain why Ayub Khan came to power in 1958.[7] Target: AO1, AO2 Mark according to the
level of response descriptors in Table 1. Indicative content • there were many prime
ministers between 1956–1958 • there was a famine/floods • East Pakistan’s politicians
wanted more participation in government • the country needed greater stability at that
time • Iskander Mirza had lost the support of many of the leading politicians
 3

Q2: Which of the following was the most successful leader of Pakistan? [14]
i)Liaquat Ali khan
ii. Ghulam Muhammad
iii. Iskander Mirza

Explain with reference to all three of the above

Liaquat Ali Khan came to office in Jinnah’s ministry and later continued as prime minister under
the government of Khawaja Nazimuddin. Liaquat Ali khan set up a basic principle committee
which put forward the objective resolution that contained the salient points such as the future
constitution of Pakistan would be modeled on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam rather
than entirely on a European pattern. This was a success as the objective resolution provided a
framework on the basis of which future constitution were presented later in 1956, 1962 and

1973.L3/7
However, objective resolution created suspicion in the minds of the non-Muslims members of
the constituent assembly as they vehemently opposed it. According to the minorities, there was
a need to protect non-muslims constitutionally because Jinnah decaled that he would

constitute himself as the Protector-General of the minorities living in Pakistan. L3/8

Furthermore East Pakistan also resented having to accept Urdu as their national language at the
expense of Bengali. They also wanted proportional representation in the national assembly
because they were ten million more in population than the West Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan
made a wise decision and sent the proposals for further consideration to cater for the rights of

minorities as well as East Pakistan. L3/9

Liaquat Ali khan also developed PARODA which was meant to end the corruption through
disqualification of those officers/ politicians found guilty of it. He also signed a “Liaquat–Nehru
Pact” (or the Delhi Pact) which was a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan which allowed
refugees to return to dispose of their own property. The agreement mandated the restoration
of looted property, prohibited forced conversions, and protected the rights of minorities on
 4

both sides of the border. Additionally, it established a visa system for refugees, thereby

restricting their movement along the borders successfully. L3/10

Ghulam Muhammad was the third governor general of Pakistan and stayed in power during
1951-52. Under his government, A planning committee was established under his rule to
regulate Pakistan's economic growth. It introduced a six-year plan for Pakistan in 1951 that
included initiatives for social uplift, industry and mining, fuel and power, transportation and
agriculture. These plans were somewhat successful because a sizable jute processing factory
was completed in 1952 at Naryanganj in East Pakistan and the massive natural gas deposits at

Sui, Baluchistan. These changes accelerated Pakistan's economic progress. L4/11

However, Ghulam Muhammad started viceregal politics in Pakistan, and his ambition to keep
his position as governor general led to numerous parliamentary disputes that had a negative
impact on Pakistan's advancement and economic development. For instance, after assuming
the position, Ghulam Mohammad started to control the affairs of the country and attempted to
restrict the Prime Minister's authority. Therefore, Khawaja Nazimuddin and his government
attempted to challenge Ghulam Muhammad's undefined ruling authority, but Ghulam
Muhammad removed Khawaja Nazimuddin using non-mandatory powers under the temporary

constitution. L4/+
Moreover, in 1954, the Constituent Assembly made legislative attempts to try changing the
1935 act to establish checks and balances on the Governor-General's powers but Ghulam
Muhammad reacted and dismissed the Constituent Assembly, an action that was challenged in
the Sindh High Court by the speaker Maulvi Tamizimuddin. Despite the fact that the Ghulam
Muhammad Act was deemed invalid by the court, the Federal Court of Pakistan reversed the

verdict in a split decision.. L4/+

The fourth governor general with a military background was Iskander Mirza. During his
administration, Pakistan made progress in its industrialization and rural development, which
boosted the economy. The telephone system was expanded and the Karachi airport was
completed. Moreover, the formation of Pakistan's first constitution in 1956 was counted as his
success because the constitution proclaimed the country as the Islamic Republic and formed a
 5

parliamentary system of government with the Prime Minister as the head of state . L4/12
However, East Pakistan had to make certain compromises such as maintaining 300 members in
the national Assembly who were equally distributed between East and West Pakistan. But
because of the underlying unrest between East and West Pakistan, such a compromise turned
out to be extremely risky and contributed to the unrest in the country. Additionally, the first
general elections were planned for early 1959, but due to the issue of floor crossing and the
lack of a legislation regulating Political Parties, political instability persisted which was fuelled by
Iskander Mirza’ desire to control the nation's political landscape. Thus he destabilized the
country by ousting five prime ministers in less than a year. He is also criticized for abrogating
the constitution and selecting General Ayub Khan as the chief martial law administrator and

allowed the first martial law in Pakistan. ( L4/+)

However, there were certain compromises which the East Pakistan had to make in this
constitution such as the National Assembly comprising 300 Members divided equally between
East and West Pakistan. But such a compromise proved very dangerous as it was contributory
in the disintegration of Pakistan due to inherent malaise between the East and West Pakistan.
Moreover, the first general elections were scheduled for early 1959, but in the absence of any
law to control the Political Parties and the problem of floor crossing, political instability
perpetually ensued. Infact, Iskander Mirza also wanted to dominate the political scene of the
country and dismissed five prime ministers underneath the excuse of their inefficiency in less
than a year which destabilized the country. He is also criticized for facilitating the first martial
law in Pakistan by abrogating the constitution and appointing General Ayub Khan as the chief

martial law administrator. L4/13

L5: Given the burden of proof, it can be concluded that various issues relating to the Partition
were settled by Jinnah in consultation with Liaquat Ali Khan who really served as his ‘right hand’
man. His role in filling in the vacuum created by Jinnah's death is seen as decisive in tackling
critical problem of refugees during Pakistan's fledgling years and in devising measures for the
consolidation of Pakistan. He also preserved the ideology of Pakistan by a milestone resolution
 6

for determining the objectives of Pakistan termed as “Objectives Resolution”. His legacy was
built up as a man who was the "martyr for democracy" in the newly-founded country.

Q 2. Constitution reforms were the most important of Ayub khan’s domestic policies
during the decade of development between 1958 and 1969. Do you agree? Give
reasons to explain your answer. [14]

Ans. Ayub khan introduced a system of controlled democracy under constitutional reforms
called basic democracies in which people elected their local committees which were
given the title of basic democrats. The union councils were then elected which in turn
elected the sub district council and then elected the divisional council. These newly
elected BDs were given a chance to vote on referendum which allowed Ayub Khan to
remain in power. In this way Ayub khan enjoyed the backing of the people of Pakistan.
Additionally, this appeared to be Ayub Khan's impactful policy because it permitted
political participation from the general populace at large and allowed him to move
forward with the drafting of a constitution that would reflect the demands of the
populace in exercising their democratic rights. However, the common people believed
that their power to choose the president and parliament was taken away from them
when only 80000 Basic Democrats participated for the election of the president.
Ayub khan introduced the 1962 constitution in which it was said that both Urdu and
Bengali would be the national languages. This pleased the people of East Pakistan as
their language to which they had cultural attachment was being given significance at the
national level. Moreover, Pakistan was proclaimed as the Republic of Pakistan. This was
heavily criticized by Ulama for removing the word Islamic as they were opposed to
secular Pakistan and wanted Islam to be the state religion. Though, Ayub Khan believed
that Pakistan would eventually transform into the modern country that Jinnah had
envisioned rather than a theocratic one.
Nevertheless, there were other domestic policies of Ayub khan as well.
 7

Industrialization and rural development through constructing modern national

freeways are considered his greatest achievements. the private sector was encouraged
to establish medium and small-scale industries in Pakistan Ayub khan established an oil
refinery at Karachi. This boosted the economy of Pakistan and saved foreign exchange
as importing crude oil and then refinery it is cheaper than importing refined oil. Several
hydroelectric projects were completed, including the Mangla Dam (one of the world's
largest dams), several small dams and water reservoirs in West Pakistan, and one dam in
East Pakistan, the Kaptai Dam. During 1960–66, under Ayub khan, the annual GDP
growth was recorded at 6.8%.
Ayub khan introduced agricultural reforms which successfully brought Green
Revolution. The reforms increased the size of the farm i.e 12.5 acres and allowed the
government to take lands from the landlords which were above the sealing 500 acres
irrigated and 1000 acres unirrigated. So the acquired land was redistributed among
small farmers for cultivation. The food production was enhanced by introducing the use
of High Yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers, use of modern machines and modern
irrigation methods. However, the beneficiaries of the green revolution were the big
landlords who could afford the mechanization.

Ayub khan wanted to see Pakistan as a united and modern nation and education was
the main source to achieve this objectives. began an extensive litracy program and
introduced new curricula and textbooks for universities and schools. Many public-sector
universities and schools were built during his era. Though literacy and vocational
education increased in the country but national integration remained fragile and
conflicts deepened each year with inter provincial struggles over resources such as
water.
There was also an attempt to deal with refugees and shelterless people. Ayub khan
appointed General Azam Khan as the Minster of Rehabilitation. He settled about 75000
people in Karachi who previous lived in temporary barracks. This was a success for his
 8

rule as now the refugees had been permanently settled keeping in view Jinnah’s worries
that this was a ‘Grave’ problem.
Ayub khan made Islamabad the capital of Pakistan. As it was a modern and well –
planned city, it improved the image of Pakistan international that it was developing
rapidly. The name Islamabad meaning “City of Islam,” or “City of Peace” was chosen to
reflect the country’s ideology. However, Islamabad was being built from scratch and a
lot of resources were being used. As Pakistan was a developer country with meager
resources. It put a burden on Pakistan’s economy as the construction of Islamabad cost
a lot of money.
In my opinion, Ayub khan’s agricultural reforms were most important because
Pakistan’s economy grew by 7%, which was one of the highest in the world. His
economic reforms led to 15% GNP growth of the country that was three times greater
than that of India. As Pakistan was an agro-based country, this increases in growth
positively impacted Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves.

Q 3. Why was Ayub Khan made to resign? OR Why did the political unrest grow during Ayub
era?[7]

Ans. Firstly, Ayub’s repressive policies led towards his downfall. All political parties had
grown dissatisfied with Ayub’s absolute control over the government. He was accused of
vote-rigging and intimidating his political opponents. He laid a ban on all political parties
and imprisoned many political leaders including Z. A. Bhutto. He was also a target of a
failed assassination attempt during a visit in Peshawar. So his inability to hold his basic
Democrats to their posts and his failure to negotiate with the political parties led to him
to resign.

Secondly, his economic policies also paved way to his downfall though his reforms
promoted both wings of the country but he could not give solutions to the regional
socio economic and political disparities and class inequalities. The masses were
disappointed for his reforms allowed 22 families of the West Pakistan to accumulate the
wealth of Pakistan in their own hands. This realization turned the people hostile towards
Ayub Khan.

Thirdly, His social and educational reforms were meant for the national integration,
socio-economic development and betterment of the standard of living however the
failure to achieve the objectives led to severe criticism. His family planning program also
 9

stirred the whole nation which began to regard it as un-Islamic. The central role played
by the students and labour union against Ayub khan was a reflection of how dissatisfied
and discontented were the people regarding his reforms. This led to eventual loss of
power by Ayub khan.

Q 4 : Do you agree that Pakistan lost the 1971 civil war because of Indian
intervention? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Ans. On 31st of March, 1971, India declared support for the East Bengali insurgency quite
openly. In August 1971, India obtained military aid from USSR through the agreement of
“Peace, Friendship, and Commerce”. Therefore Indian army raised its military strength to a level
unmatched by Pakistan. Additionally, India established training camps for a rebelled force called
Mukti Bahini in Bengal and trained them in guerrilla tactics of fighting. Mukti Bahini drove
out Pakistani army from the majority of East Pakistan with the aid of the East Pakistanis and
Indian army. As a result of failing to defeat Mukti Bahini and failing to prevent Indian support
for them, Pakistan lost the civil war in East Pakistan.
Furthermore the Mukti Bahini also called itself the “Bangladeshi Forces,” cementing the idea of
Bangladesh in the minds of East Pakistanis. This further compelled them to oppose the
Pakistan’s government at all cost ultimately led to fall of Dhaka.
However, there were other reasons as well.
One of the primary reasons Pakistan lost was a lack of aid from its allies, the US and China.
Whilst India had the support of the Soviet Union in terms of military and funding, Pakistan’s
foreign allies did not feel like helping unless it benefited them. CENTO is the testament of this
fact. Even the UN failed to prevent India from interfering in the internal affairs of Pakistan. A
slow response of UN made it obvious that they had no interest in suppressing Bangladesh’s
freedom. So, under pressure, Bhutto constantly warned Yahya to step down.
The Pakistani soldiers did not believe in the fighting cause either. They did not want to attack
and kill their fellow Muslims for the whims of politicians like Bhutto and Yahya Khan, who
wished to maintain their power over East Pakistan. The lack of fighting spirit and morale within
the Pakistani forces greatly hindered their enactment in the civil war and contributed to their
defeat.
 10

The Indians also meddled in the relations between the East and West Pakistan. India actively
promoted anti-Pakistan sentiment among East Pakistanis, encouraged hostilities and stoked riots
to foster the conditions that allowed East Pakistan to be discreetly persuaded to call for the
country's breakup from Pakistan. Additionally, after expressing support for the "Sovereign
People's Republic of Bangladesh," they forced the closure of the Indian and Pakistani High
Commissions in Dhaka and Calcutta. This convinced the Bengalis that it was the Indians, not the
Pakistanis, who want their advantage. This was further proven by the Indian assistance provided
to Bengalese in the wake of the aftermath of the devastating tropical cyclone in 1970 whereas
East Pakistani rebels prevented the Pakistani government from providing aid to the victims.
Yahya Khan’s “Operation Searchlight” was made to cripple the intellectual and scientific
community of East Pakistan. Ironically, it had the opposite effect: the massacre of thousands of
Bengalis did not throw them into fear and submission but instead fuelled the desire for freedom
from West Pakistan worsened by rebel activities from the Mukti Bahini and Indian propaganda.

Because of the injustice done to them, Bengalis were determined not to remain under the rule of
West Pakistan, even if they were defeated and retaken by Pakistan. For instance, the
unwillingness of west-wing politicians to allow East Pakistan to have 50% representation in the
Parliament Houses despite the fact East Pakistan had a higher population than all of West
Pakistan by about 10 million. Moreover, only 20% of civil service and military officers in East
Pakistan were actually Bengalis.
Furthermore, resources from East Pakistan such as agricultural and industrial products, as well as
80% profits from foreign trade, were mostly used on defence and development in West Pakistan.
This created a sense of welfare disparity in the East Pakistanis because the average East
Pakistani earned 40% less than the average West Pakistani by 1970. In essence, the people were
aware that West Pakistan could not help them and that Bangladesh was, in their eyes, a necessary
measure for their welfare.
L5:
While it is true that Indian support was what won the 1971 civil war for East Pakistan and
allowed it to create Bangladesh, the Pakistanis would never have won either way. Their soldiers
did not want to fight against their own brothers and their allies did not want to give aid. Even if
Bengal was brought under submission, East Pakistan would never submit to the west Pakistan’s
 11

political dominance, neglect and injustices and class inequalities. The continual tension and
mistrust between the two wings weakened the relations and chance for reconciliation highly
unlikely.

Q 5: To what extent did Pakistan achieve a new constitution between 1949 and 1973? Explain
your answer. /14

The Objectives Resolution was passed in 1949. It stated that Muslims would be able to live their
lives according to Islamic principles, so they tried to bring Islam into the daily lives of Muslims
which would unite them. It also worked on justice towards the poor by stating that they would
be protected from the social injustice because Pakistan did not want a civil war in the country
to weaken it even more after the partition. The Objectives Resolution proved that the step
towards a draft constitution was effective.

Khwaja Nazimuddin represented a revised Report of the Basic Principles Committee in which he
tried to create unity among the people of West and East Pakistan. It stated that the House of
Units should have 60 members from East Pakistan and 60 members from West Pakistan. It
further said that the House of People should have 400 members in which 200 were elected
from each wing. He tried to create unity by making the representatives of both the wings equal.
The increased unity was testament of the fact that constitution would likely to be based on the
auspices of the people of Pakistan.

The Constitution in 1956 declared Pakistan as Islamic republic and that Urdu and Bengali would
be the official language of Pakistan. The East Pakistanis had demanded to make Bengali the
national language because they had a population of 10 million more people that West Pakistan
and it had now been accepted as the official language. This conciliation attempt was successful
in gathering some support from both West and East Pakistanis for a unified constitution.
However, the Awami League's compromise to give up its opposition to equal representation in
 12

the assembly and to abandon its demand for provincial autonomy in exchange for Bengali as
the nation's official language proved to be extremely risky because it contributed to Pakistan's
disintegration because of an underlying tension between East and West Pakistan.

The Basic Democracies Order was introduced in 1959. It was a four-tier system in which
ordinary people elected the members of the union council. The members of the union council
elected the members of district and divisional councils. These councils were crucial because it
appeared that the general populace had taken part in the election, martial law had been lifted,
and Pakistan had a leader to steer them. However, 1973 constitution was quite democratic and
revived the power of national assembly through proper party based elections.
However there are certain problems in achieving the new and unanimous constitution.
The Objectives Resolution said that the representatives in the National Assembly would be
equal from both wings of Pakistan. East Pakistanis did not like the idea of equal representation
since it would be unfair for them because their population was 10 million more than West
Pakistan. The principle of equality which was mentioned in the Objectives Resolution was not
fulfilled and East Pakistanis started resenting the resolution. The death of Liaquat ali khan
meant that constitutional change had to wait until a new leader would be found and had time
to settle in.

The revised Report of the Basic Principles Committee of Khawaja Nazimuddin did not settle the
official language issue and it started facing criticism from the East Pakistanis. Political change
meant that constitutional change had to wait until a new leader was elected and introduced the
new constitution. The East Pakistanis did not want to wait for a long time and they were willing
to oppose Urdu. They resented the report and it created disunity among the people of East and
West Pakistan.

Ayub Khan’s 1962 Constitution increased the powers of the ruling elite because the major
landlords dominated the elections to the Basic Democracies and often used coercion and
bribery to influence the results according to their desires. Since the power was with the ruling
 13

elite of West Pakistan, East Pakistanis became upset and felt that they would have little part in
governing Pakistan. The discontent amongst East Pakistanis was furthered because the
president held sweeping power to intervene or even suspend the assembly.
The 1973 constitution provided parliamentary democracy, Islamic character of the state and
federalism. The provinces like NWFP and Baluchistan opposed the aspect of federalism. They
also demanded the adoption of a non-majoritarian framework of constitution making
process and wanted equal representation of all the province because alone Punjab had 60% of
Pakistan’s population. So, the non-accommodation of these demands led to National Awami
Party (NAP)’s boycott of the constitution making proceedings. However majority from NAP
signed the final draft of the constitution under the threat of persecution.

L5: In my opinion, Pakistan was not successful in achieving a new constitution until Ayub khan’s
times. East Pakistanis had grievances against West Pakistanis because of the disagreements
over official language, the representation in the National Assembly, and the power sharing in
which West Pakistan always came on top. They felt alienated because ruling elites were mainly
elected from West Pakistan and constitution favoured them and eventually it led to separation
of east Pakistan. The 1973 constitution was twice suspended by military coups of General Zia-
ul-Haq (1977-1985) and General Musharraf (1999-2002), and at the time of its ‘restoration’,
both in 1985 and 2002, the military regimes amended it in ways that fundamentally changed its
Islamic and federal character.

Que. Why was the Capital shifted to Islamabad? [7]

Ans. Firstly, Ayub decided to move the capital from Karachi to Islamabad as a result of the
poorly planned expansion of Karachi and the rise in population. Security and law and
order difficulties were likely to arise as a result of the high population growth rate
brought on by migration from other regions of the country. Ayub moved the capital
from Karachi to Islamabad in order to ensure that the city was well-planned and secure.

Secondly, the federal government was thought to be secure in the state’s new location.
People in other provinces could perceive that the central government is prone to make
 14

decisions that are more advantageous to the province in which the capital city is
located. Ayub khan suggested that moving the capital to a newly founded city that was
independent of any province would prevent the emergence of these notions or
mindsets.

Thirdly, Karachi, a port city, functioned as Pakistan's main trading and commercial hub.
Over a period of time, economic activity was thriving, federal and provincial
administration had grown, and a city's rapidly expanding trade was likely to cause more
issues for the management authorities of the city. Ayub decided to move the capital
from Karachi to Islamabad in an effort to avoid such administrative issues and guarantee
effective operations in the aforementioned domains.
Q.a Describe the Security of Tenure scheme.
One mark for each relevant point. Additional mark for supporting detail.
Indicative content pick 4 points
• Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced this scheme [1]• he wanted tenant farmers to have
security of tenure • he gave tenant farmers the first right of purchase of the land they
worked[1] • landowners could not sell the land to a third party [1] who might then evict
the tenant farmers [1] • tenant farmers were encouraged to make improvements on their
land [1] as they knew they would not be evicted [1] • many landowners circumvented the
scheme [1] to evict their tenant farmers [1] • landowners had too much power and
influence to make the scheme work

Explain why Zulfikar Ali Bhutto reformed education between 1971 and 1977.
Planning
Develop the following reasons
• to increase literacy levels in Pakistan • to increase the numbers of children in school
(approximately half of all children attended school in 1970) • to provide education for all,
including women • to redress historic underinvestment in education and on schools • to
 15

raise aspirations through education • to create a ‘Pakistani’ culture and identity • to

develop a common school curriculum that was ‘fit for purpose’

Part c: Assess the effectiveness of the domestic policies introduced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
between 1971 and 1977. Explain your answer.
May agree that Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s domestic policies between 1971 and 1977 were effective:
all L3
 the new constitution in 1973 safeguarded minority interests  health policy aimed to improve
infant mortality and life expectancy rates
 education policy introduced free primary education for all children
 profits from nationalized companies were used to improve public services such as hospitals
and schools
 industrial reform led to inflation falling from 25% (1972) to 6% (1976)
 introduction of security of tenure for agricultural tenants and a ceiling on land ownership

counter-arguments might include: all L4

 the new constitution placed all political power with Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
 the reform of the armed forces was opposed
 health policy inadvertently led to chemists’ profits falling
 education reforms led to overcrowding in schools
 many of these policies would take decades to become fully effective
 the newly nationalised industries became overly bureaucratic
 landowners were often able to circumvent the land reforms