CE286

Construction Materials
Prof. Dr. A. Samet ARSLAN
Gazi University,
Faculty of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department
 Objective
The main purpose of this course is to develop the
student’s knowledge of the behaviour, performance
and limitations of construction materials, and to assist
him/her evaluate alternative materials in terms of their
basic properties, behaviour and economy.

The course is designed to provide engineering students

with an appreciation of the properties and design
implications of construction materials.
 Contents
The course is intended to be both an introductory and a practical
course in construction materials.

When designing a structure, first and foremost the most important

item on which the designer has to decide on is the material to be
used for the construction of the structure in question.

The contents of this course are therefore designed to cover as many

of the most popular and useful construction materials as possible.

The laboratory work is designed to give the students a first hand

experience in the properties and usage of construction materials.
 BRIEF COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course is a continuation of the basics introduced in the Materials and
Testing subject with an emphasis on construction materials.

It covers the behaviour and performance of the most widely used

construction materials such as concrete, steel, masonry, and timber.

Particular emphasis is placed upon concrete technology, as specified by

Turkish Standards, and its on-site practical applications.

Attention is also given to recognising construction materials and their

selection in various situations.

Assessment is by tutorial spot tests, laboratory report, assignment and

examinations.
 Teaching Strategy
The lectures will provide theoretical and practical understandings of
the content areas.

There are approximately 30 laboratory experiments. Each student will

attent to a lab group and prepare all materials for the specified
experiment.

The laboratory sessions, with a group size of approximately 25 to 30,

will provide students with the opportunity to clarify their own ideas on
the content material, to develop teamwork and necessary problem
solving skills, and to develop written communication skills.

In addition the sessions will assist students to develop competency in

material testing skills and to interpret results of these laboratory
exercises.
 Assessment

2 Mid-
Laboratory Final
semester Essays
report Examination
exam
 Recommended Readings/References

Neville, A.M. & Brooks, J.J., Concrete

Technology, Longman.

Sidney Mindess, J. Francis Young,

Concrete, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Akman, Süheyl, Yapı Malzemeleri, İTÜ

yayınları.
Contents of Course
Gypsum
Lime
Cement
Aggregates
Concrete
Timber
Polymers
 Contents of Course
• Components of concrete.
• Calcium based materials; gypsum, lime, and cement.
• Portland cement; its manufacturing process, hydration products,
blended cements.
• Aggregates.
• Mixing water.
• Chemical admixtures and mineral additives.
• Production of concrete.
• Properties of fresh concrete.
• Tests on fresh concrete.
• Properties of hardened concrete.
• Strength of concrete,
• Factors affecting the strength of concrete.
• Determination of the strength of concrete.
• The mechanical behavior of concrete under external loading.
• Concrete mix design procedure and mix design examples.
 Why Concrete ?
Low cost
Look alike to
Almost readily
historical
available
homes (caves)
constituents
!...

Plastic
behaviour to Strong
shape it

Fast and Easy

Durable
to produce
 Concrete
Concrete is an example of a large particulate reinforced
composite material.

It is an important structural material that, is used more

than steel in Turkey.

Concrete is basically an aggregate composite material that

is composed of fine and coarse aggregates (60–80%)
embedded in a hard matrix of a cement paste and water.

The compositions can vary considerably.

 Advantages vs Disadvantages
• High compressive strength (~10-15 times greater
than its tensile strength)
• Economic
Advantages of • Durable
concrete
• Fire resistant
• Ability to be fabricated and cast on site
• Aesthetic appearance

• Low tensile strength (TS can be 10-15x lower than CS)

Disadvantages • Low ductility
of concrete • Some shrinkage
• Thermal stresses occur with temperature changes
 S P
R T L V E N I
E R E S E V A N
CONCRETE
Y N T I S R U X
C G I E A Y R P
L F N T W A E
A U C I H L N
B L E L E S
L E R I
E E V
E
Historical Timeline of Concrete
Historical Timeline of Concrete
Historical Timeline of Concrete
Portland cement concrete is composed
of three basic components

Portland Air entraining

Aggregates agents,
cement
Accelerators,
Additives:
Decelerators,
Carbon black, Fly
ash, Puzzolans,
Additives,
silica fume, water-
(to obtain reducing agents,
Water
special superplasticizers
properties)
Aggregate + Water + Cement

+ Additives
Concrete Mixture
Concrete

A dense packing with good

interfacial contact is desired, so
it needs to be mixed well in
order that all particulate
surfaces are covered.

Water is needed for the

bonding reactions of the
cement, however, too much
water will weaken the final
product.
“
In this two-dimensional
schematic we see that
filing the volume of
concrete with aggregate
is aided by a wide
particle-size distribution.

The smaller particles fill

spaces between larger
ones.
Portland Cement
Manufacturing
Properties
 Portland Cement-I
Hydraulic cements, namely portland and natural, along
with limes are the principal cementing materials used in
structures.

They become plastic by the addition of water and then

the mix hardens.

The earliest cement known was pozzolan cement which

was first used by the Romans more than 2000 years ago.

It was produced by mixing lime with a volcanic ash called

pozzolana which is found near the town of Pozzuoli, Italy.
 Portland Cement-II
Natural cement in more recent times was produced
by burning a limestone high in clay and magnesia to
drive off the carbonic acid and then grinding the
clinker to a fine powder.

In comparison to portland cement, natural cement

possesses lower tensile strength, gains strength more
slowly, and is less uniform.

Portland cement was first made in Portland, England

from which it derived its name by Joseph Aspdin in
1824.
 Portland Cement-III
Portland cement is very commonly used in the concrete
industry and has a wide variety of compositions that include
various forms and percentages of different calcium
aluminosilicates.

Hardening of Portland cement is accomplished by reactions

with water, which are called hydration reactions.
These reactions are complex and not completely understood.

The extents to which the hydration reactions are completed

determine the strength and durability of the concrete.
 Portland Cement-IV
It is important that the concrete retains water during the early
curing period and that evaporation (drying) is prevented.

Portland cement is a hydraulic cement because water is

involved in the reactions.

A nonhydraulic cement employs other compounds in the

hardening reactions. For example lime employs CO2.

Water that is left over and trapped in the cement will tend to
weaken the concrete.
 Portland Cement-V
A water-to-cement ratio above 0.4 decreases the
compressive strength of concrete significantly.

However there is a limit to how low the water-to-cement

ratio can be since less water makes it more difficult to work
the concrete and have it completely fill the forms.

Entrained air will provide workability to cement allowing

the water content to be less. Entrained air will also increase
the cement’s resistance to freezing and thawing.
 Portland Cement-VI
The properties of concrete will depend on the
proportioning of its ingredients: cement, fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates, water and air.
Turkish Standards Instutition sets the methods of
proportioning concrete mixtures.

The design of • Workability

concrete mixtures • Strength and
should include
• durability
consideration of the
• Economy of production
following factors:
 Portland Cement Production
Portland
Cement • In the wet method
can be the raw materials are
blended and ground in a
produced slurry condition.
by either • In the dry process operations
a wet or are carried out with the
a dry materials in a dry state.
process.
 Portland Cement Production

• calcinations - grind and mix

The clay and lime bearing minerals
process • heat to obtain a material called
to make clinker
portland • grind this to a powder
cement • add gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) to
retard setting process
 PRODUCTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Raw materials
1. LIMESTONE 2. CLAY/SHALE

QUARRYING PROCESS

CRUSHING PROCESS

CRUSHED LIMESTONE + CLAY/SHALE

ARE MIXED AND GROUND TOGETHER

MIXTURE IS HEATED IN A KILN

CLINKER

GYPSUM IS ADDED AND THE MIXTURE IS

GROUND TO A POWDER RESULTING IN
PORTLAND CEMENT
 Portland Cement Production

Adjustments to the constituents are made by the addition

of clay or stone of known characteristics.

Portland cement is obtained from finely pulverizing clinker

produced by calcining to incipient fusion properly
proportioned argillaceous and calcareous materials.

The final constituents and properties of portland cement

are very carefully controlled during the manufacture.
Examples of raw materials for portland
cement manufacture
Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron
Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand Fly ash Mill scale
Aluminum ore
Aragonite Shale Shale
refuse
Blast furnace
Shale Fly ash
dust
Sea Shells Rice hull ash
Cement kiln
Slag
dust
Manufacturing Portland Cement
Manufacturing Portland Cement
Manufacturing Portland Cement
 Manufacturing Portland Cement
Roraty Kiln
Raw
Materials

free water
clay decomposes
limestone decomposes
formation of initial compounds
initial formation of dicalcium silicate
formation of
tricalcium silicate

dehydration
zone

calcination zone heat

clinkering
zone
cooling zone
gas temp.
ÞC 450 800 1200 1350 1550
clinker

Schematic outline of conditions and reactions in a typical cement

rotary kiln (dry process)
 Rotary Kiln-I
Dehydration
• This is simply the evaporation and removal of the
zone (up to ~
free water.
450˚C):

• The term calcination refers to the process of

decomposing a solid material so that one of its
constituents is driven off as a gas.
Calcination • At about 600˚C the bound water is driven out of the
zone (450˚C clays, and by 900˚C the calcium carbonate is
– 900˚C): decomposed, releasing carbon dioxide.
• By the end of the calcination zone, the mix consists
of oxides of the four main elements which are ready
to undergo further reaction into cement minerals.
 Rotary Kiln-II
Solid-state reaction zone (900˚ - 1300˚C):

This zone slightly overlaps, and is sometimes included with, the

calcination zone. As the temperature continues to increase above ~
900˚C there is still no melting, but solid-state reactions begin to
occur. CaO and reactive silica combine to form small crystals of C2S
(dicalcium silicate), one of the four main cement minerals. In
addition, intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite
compounds form. These play an important role in the clinkering
process as fluxing agents, in that they melt at a relatively low
temperature of ~ 1300˚C, allowing a significant increase in the rate
of reaction. The final aluminum- and iron-containing cement
minerals (C3A and C4AF) in a portland cement contribute little to the
final properties.
 Rotary Kiln-III
Clinkering zone (1300˚C – 1550˚C):

This is the hottest zone where the formation of the most important
cement mineral, C3S (alite), occurs. The zone begins as soon as the
intermediate calcium aluminate and ferrite phases melt. The presence
of the melt phase causes the mix to agglomerate into relatively large
nodules about the size of marbles consisting of many small solid
particles bound together by a thin layer of liquid. Inside the liquid
phase, C3S forms by reaction between C2S crystals and CaO. Crystals of
solid C3S grow within the liquid, while crystals of belite formed earlier
decrease in number but grow in size. The clinkering process is
complete when all of silica is in the C3S and C2S crystals and the
amount of free lime (CaO) is reduced to a minimal level (<1%).
 Rotary Kiln-IV
Cooling zone:

As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature
drops rapidly and the liquid phase solidifies, forming the other two
cement minerals C3A (aluminate) and C4AF (ferrite). In addition, alkalis
(primarily K) and sulfate dissolved in the liquid combine to form K2SO4
and Na2SO4. The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are now hard,
and the resulting product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling
from the maximum temperature down to about 1100˚C is important,
with rapid cooling giving a more reactive cement. This occurs because
in this temperature range the C3S can decompose back into C2S and
CaO, among other reasons. It is thus typical to blow air or spray water
onto the clinker to cool it more rapidly as it exits the kiln.
Cement chemistry notation based on
oxides
Oxide form Notation
CaO C
SiO2 S
Al2O3 A
Fe2O3 F
SO3
H2O H
 Chemical Composition of Portland
Cement
Tricalcium silicate: 3CaO SiO2 (abbreviated: C3S)

Dicalcium silicate: 2CaO SiO2 (abbreviated: C2S)

Tricalcium aluminate: 3CaO Al2O3 (abbreviated: C3A)

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3

(abbreviated: C4AF)
 Cement Minerals and Products.
Chemical Name Chemical Oxide Formula Cement Mineral
Formula Notation Name
Tricalcium Silicate Ca3SiO5 3CaO.SiO2 C3S Alite
Dicalcium Silicate Ca2SiO4 2CaO.SiO2 C2S Belite
Tricalcium Aluminate Ca3Al2O6 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Aluminate
Tetracalcium Ca2AlFeO5 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2 C4AF Ferrite
Aluminoferrite O3
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 CaO.H2O CH Portlandite
Calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O CaO.SO3.2H2O C H2 Gypsum
dihydrate
Calcium oxide CaO CaO C Lime
 Belite, C2S

Alite, C3S

Width of the picture is 0.31 mm

Physical Properties of Cementitious
Materials
 Properties of the Major Cement
Minerals -I
About 90-95% of a Portland cement is comprised of the four main
cement minerals, which are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, with the
remainder consisting of calcium sulfate, alkali sulfates, unreacted
(free) CaO, MgO, and other minor constituents left over from the
clinkering and grinding steps.

The four cement minerals play very different roles in the hydration
process that converts the dry cement into hardened cement paste.

The C3S and the C2S contribute virtually all of the beneficial
properties by generating the main hydration product, C-S-H gel.
 Properties of the Major Cement
Minerals
However, the C3S hydrates much more quickly than the C2S and
thus is responsible for the early strength development.

The C3A and C4AF minerals also hydrate, but the products that are
formed contribute little to the properties of the cement paste.

These minerals are present because pure calcium silicate cements

would be virtually impossible to produce economically.

The crystal structures of the cement minerals are quite complex,

and since these structures do not play an important role in the
properties of cement past.
 Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
C3S is the most abundant mineral in portland cement,
occupying 40–70 wt% of the cement, and it is also the most
important.

The hydration of C3S gives cement paste most of its strength,

particularly at early times.

Pure C3S can form with three different crystal structures. At

temperatures below 980˚C the equilibrium structure is
triclinic. At temperatures between 980˚C – 1070˚C the
structure is monoclinic, and above 1070˚C it is rhombohedral.
C3S is highly reactive.
 Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
As with C3S, C2S can form with a variety of different
structures. There is a high temperature a structure with
three polymorphs.

An important aspect of C2S is that C2S has a very stable

crystal structure that is completely unreactive in water.

The C2S in cement contains slightly higher levels of

impurities than C3S. The overall substitution of oxides is
4-6%, with significant amounts of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and K2O.
 Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) comprises anywhere from zero to
14% of a portland cement.

Like C3S, it is highly reactive, releasing a significant amount of

exothermic heat during the early hydration period.

Unfortunately, the hydration products of formed from C3A

contribute little to the strength or other engineering properties
of cement paste.

In certain environmental conditions (i.e., the presence of sulfate

ions), C3A and its products can actually harm the concrete by
participating in expansive reactions that lead to stress and
cracking.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)
A stable compound with any composition between C2A and
C2F can be formed, and the cement mineral termed C4AF is
an approximation that simply the represents the midpoint
of this compositional series.

The actual composition of C4AF in cement clinker is

generally higher in aluminum than in iron, and there is
considerable substitution of SiO2 and MgO.

Typical composition to be Ca2AlFe0.6Mg0.2Si0.15Ti0.5O5.

However, the composition will vary somewhat depending
on the overall composition of the cement clinker.
Oxide composition of a Portland cement
Range Cement #135
Oxide
(wt%) (wt%)
CaO 60.2 – 66.3 63.81
SiO2 18.6 – 23.4 21.45
Al2O3 2.4 – 6.3 4.45
Fe2O3 1.3 – 6.1 3.07
MgO 0.6 – 4.8 2.42
P2O5 -- 0.11
TiO2 -- 0.22
Na2O 0.20
0.05 – 1.20
K2O (Na2O equiv) 0.83

SO3 1.7 – 4.6 2.46

Loss on Ignition -- 0.81

Insoluble residue -- 0.16

Free CaO -- 0.64

 Bogue Composition
A simple estimate of the phase composition of a portland cement
can be obtained from the oxide composition if one assumes that
the four main cement minerals occur in their pure form.

This method is named after the cement chemist R.H. Bogue. While
this method is simple, it is not very accurate.

C3S = 4.071C – 7.600S – 6.718A – 1.430F – 2.852

C2S = 2.867S – 0.7544C3S
C3A = 2.650A – 1.692F
C4AF = 3.043F
 Typical Composition
C S A F
C3S 71.6 (73.7) 25.2 (26.3) 1.0 (0) 0.7 (0)
C2S 63.5 (65.1) 31.5 (34.9) 2.1 (0) 0.9 (0)
C3A 56.6 (62.3) 3.7 (0) 31.3 (37.7) 5.1 (0)
C4AF 47.5 (46.2) 3.6 (0) 21.9 (21.0) 21.4 (32.9)

Typical compositions of the cement minerals as

found in portland cement clinker and cement, and
The numbers in parentheses are the values for the
pure minerals. All values are weight%.
Bogue Composition (verification)
0.716C3S + 0.635C2S + 0.566C3A + 0.475C4AF = 62.52 (C)
0.252C3S + 0.315C2S + 0.037C3A + 0.036C4AF = 21.34 (S)
0.010C3S + 0.021C2S + 0.313C3A + 0.219C4AF = 4.40 (A)
0.007C3S + 0.009C2S + 0.051C3A + 0.214C4AF = 3.07 (F)

Standard Modified
Mineral SEM/X-ray
Bogue Bogue
C3S 55.4 64.7 62.1
C2S 19.7 14.4 16.4
C3A 6.6 3.47 6.2
C4AF 9.3 10.8 8.6
Total 91.0 93.3 93.3
 Hydration of Cement
The concrete (or specifically, the cement in it) needs
moisture to hydrate and cure (harden). When
concrete dries, it actually stops getting stronger.

Concrete with too little water may be dry but is not

fully reacted. The properties of such a concrete
would be less than that of a wet concrete.

The reaction of water with the cement in concrete is

extremely important to its properties and reactions
may continue for many years.
 Hydration of Cement

When water is added to cement, each of the

compounds undergoes hydration and
contributes to the final concrete product.

Only the calcium silicates contribute to

strength.
 Approximate Hydration Reactions

C-S-H Calcium Silicate Hydrate = Tobermorite Gel

The numbers in the square brackets corresponding masses.
 Tricalcium Silicate Reaction
Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the early strength
(first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly,
contributes only to the strength at later times.

Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to

release calcium ions, hydroxide ions, and a large amount of heat.
The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of alkaline
hydroxide (OH-) ions.

Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate+Calcium hydroxide + heat

2 Ca3 SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO. 2SiO2. 4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
 Dicalcium Silicate Reaction
Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through
its hydration. Dicalcium silicate reacts with water in a similar
manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more slowly.

The heat released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium

silicate because the dicalcium silicate is much less reactive. The
products from the hydration of dicalcium silicate are the same as
those for tricalcium silicate.

Dicalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat

2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ
 Tricalcium aluminate and
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
The other major components of portland cement, tricalcium
aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite also react with
water.

The reaction of pure C3A with water is very rapid and would
lead to a flash set, which is prevented by the addition of
gypsum to cement clinker.

Their hydration chemistry is more complicated as they involve

reactions with the gypsum as well. Because these reactions
do not contribute significantly to strength, they will be
neglected.
 In general, the rates of hydration
during the first few days ranked from
fastest to slowest are:

tricalcium tricalcium tetracalcium dicalcium

aluminate silicate aluminoferrite silicate.
Schematic illustration of the pores in calcium
silicate through different stages of hydration.
Hydration of Portland Cement
Hydrated Cement Paste
SEM image of a mature cement paste
Air Voids in Concrete
Air-voids - Thin-section
photomicrograph of a concrete
showing small, spherical,
entrained air voids in paste,
one large rounded gravel
coarse aggregate particle (left)
and numerous small, angular,
fine aggregate particles. The air
voids are highlighted by blue
dye mixed epoxy, which was
used in impregnating the
concrete prior to thin-section
preparation.
Schematic
representation of the
formation and
hydration of Portland
cement
Reactions and products
Cement model reactions - numbers below
reactions indicate volume stoichiometries.
 Heat of Hydration
The hydration of cement compounds
is exothermic.

About one-half of the total heat is

liberated between 1 and 3 days,
about three-quarters in 7 days, and
nearly 90 percent in 6 months.

The heat of hydration depends on

the chemical compositions of the
cement.
 Heat of Hydration
By reducing the proportions of C3A and C3S, the
heat of hydration (and its rate) of cement can be
reduced.

Fineness fo cement affects the rate of heat

development but not the total amount of heat
liberated.

There is no relation between the heat of hydration

and the cementing properties of the individual
compounds.
Two compounds primarily
responsable for the strength of
Strength
hydrated cement are C3S
and C2S.

C3S contributes most to strength

development during the first four
weeks and C2S influences the
later gain in strength.

At the age of about one year, the

two compounds, mass for mass,
contribute approximately equally
to the strength of hydrated
cement.
 Tests on Cement
• Fineness of Cement
• Specific Gravity of Cement
• Consistence of Standard Paste
• Initial Setting Time
• Final setting Time
• Soundness
• Strength
 Fineness of Cement
• rate of hydration
• rate of setting
Fineness • rate of hardening
of cement • durability (ASR)
is also • rate of carbonation during
important; storage
it affects: • cost
• rate of gypsum addition
• bleeding
 Fineness of Cement
Since hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the
total surface area of cement that represents the material available for
hydration.

Thus, the rate of hydration depends on the fineness of cement

particles and for a rapid development of strength a fineness is
necessary.

The fineness of cement is defined as the specific surface ( in m2/kg).

A direct approach is to measure the particle size distribution by

sedimentation or elutriation; these methods are based on Stoke’s Law,
giving the terminal velocity of fall under under gravity of a spherical
particle in a fluid medium.
 Fineness of Cement

The specific surface of cement can be detemined by air

permeability method (Lea and Nurse).

It measures the pressure drop when dry air flows at a

constant velocity through a bed of cement of known
porosity and thickness.

From this, the surface area per unit mass of the bed can
be related to the permeability of of the bed. Blaine is the
modification of this method.
 Fineness of Cement
In Blaine test, the air does not pass through the bed at a
constant rate, but a known volume of air passes at a
prescribed average pressure, the rate of flow diminishing
steadily; the time taken for the flow to take place is measured,
and for a given apparatus and standard porosity, the specific
surface can be calculated.
 Blain Air Permeability Test
The Blaine air permeability apparatus is used to
express the fineness as a total surface area in square
centimeters per gram.

• Blaine air permeability apparatus

• Medium retentive filter paper having the
EQUIPMENT same diameter as the inside of the cell.
AND • Light grade of mineral oil for the
MATERIALS manometer
• Timer accurate to 0.5 sec.
• Sample of Portland cement.
Blain’s Air
Permeability
Apparatus
 Fineness

Typical partical
size distribution
and cumulative
surface area by
particles up to any
size for 1 gram of
cement.
 Progressive Surface Adsorption

Immediately after water addition (left) the cement and silica particles
are suspended in water and bind little water physically. Next, cement
hydration begins, increasing the surface area and the amount of
physically bound water (middle). Finally, the pozzolanic particles react
with calcium hydroxide from the cement reactions and the cement
hydration continues, both increasing the physical binding of water
(right).
 Consistence of Standard Paste

For the determination of the initial setting time, the final setting
time, and for Le Chatelier soundness tests, neat cement paste of a
standard consistence has to be used. It is necessary to determine
the water content for any given cement.

Consistence is determined by the Vicat Apparatus, which measures

the depth of penetration of a 10 mm diameter plunger under its
own weigth. (5mm to 7 mm from the bottom of Vicat's mould).

When the depth of penetration reaches a certain value, the water

content required gives the standard consistence of between 26 and
33 (percentage by mass of dry cement).
Vicat Apparatus
Consistence of Standard Paste
 Setting Time
Setting time is the term used to describe the stiffening
of the cement paste.
Setting refers to a change from fluid to a rigid state.
Setting is mainly caused by a selective hydration of C3S
and C3A and is accompanied by temperature rises in
cement paste.

Initial set corresponds to a rapid rise and final set

corresponds to the peak temperture.

Initial and final sets should be distinguished from false

set.
 Setting Time

The purpose of this test is to determine the time of

setting of hydraulic cement by the Vicat needle.

• Vicat apparatus with plunger and mould

APPARATUS • Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1 gr,
AND non-porous plate, tray, stopwatch,
MATERIALS • Trowel, enamel trough and spatula, etc.
• Cement sample and water.
 Setting Time
To determine initial setting and final setting time of cement.

• 1. Vicat's apparatus with initial setting time

needle and final setting time needle.
• 2. Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1gm.
APPARATUS • 3. Non porous plate (Glass or Metal)
AND • 4. Stop watch
MATERIALS • 5. Spatula.
• 6. Trowel of about 210gm weight .
• 7. Measuring cylinder. 250ml capacity
• 8. Enamel trough.
 Determination of initial setting time
Place this mould together with the non-porous plate under the
rod bearing the initial setting time needle. Adjust the needle so
that it touches the surface of test block .

Release needle quickly allowing it to sink in the cement paste in

the mould. Note down the penetration of the needle in the
paste.

Repeat this procedure after every 2 minutes until the needle fails
to penetrate the block up to about 33 to 35mm from the top of
block.

Note the time shown by the stop watch at this instant, as Initial
setting time.
Determination of final setting time
Replace the needle of Vicat's apparatus by the needle
with an annular attachment .

Apply the needle gently to the surface of the test block.

Repeat this procedure, until the needle makes an
impression while the attachment fails to do so.

Note the time shown by the stop watch at this instant,

as Final setting time . final
setting time(min)= 90 + 1.2 (initial setting time)
 Soundness

Once cement paste has set, it should not undergo a large

change in volume.

There must be no appreciable expansion, which under

conditions of restraint could result in disruption of the
hardened cement paste.

Such expansion may occur due to reactions of free lime,

magnesia and calcium sulphate, and cements exhibiting this
type of expansion are classified as unsound.
 Soundness

Free lime is present in the clinker and its intercrystallized with

other compounds; consequantly, it hydrates very slowly
occupying a larger volume than the original free calcium oxide.

Magnesia reacts with water in a manner similar to CaO, but only

the crystalline form is deleteriously reactive so that unsoundness
occurs.

Calcium Sulphate is the third compound liable to cause

expansion through the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite) from excess gypsum.
 Soundness
To determine soundness of cement by Le-Chatelier's
apparatus

• Le-Chatelier apparatus
• Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1gm
• Water bath with electric heating arrangement
APPARATUS • Measuring cylinder
AND • Glass plates
MATERIALS • Stop watch
• Trowel
• Tray
• Materials: Cement sample, Water
 Unsoundness (abnormal
expansion) caused by
hard-burned CaO or MgO
CaO + H2O→Ca(OH)2
MgO + H2O→Mg(OH)2
 Test Procedure
Prepare a cement paste formed by gauging cement with 0.78 times water
required to give a paste of standard consistency.

Oil the inner surface of the mould. Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it
with cement paste, taking care to keep the edges of the mould gently
together. Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet and peace a small
weight on this covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole
assembly in water at a temperature of 27°C and keep it for 24 hours.

Take out the assembly from water after 24 hrs. Measure the distance between
the indicator points and record it.

Submerge the mould again in water and bring the water to boiling in 25 to 30
minutes and keep it boiling for three hours.

Remove the mould from the water. Allow it to cool and measure the distance
between the indicator points and record it.
 Autoclave Test for Soundness
Magnesia is rarely present in large quantities in the raw
materials. ASTM C151-84 spacifies the autoclave test which is
sensitive to both free magnesia and free lime.

A neat cement paste specimen of known length is cured in

humid air for 24h and then heated by high pressure steam ( 2
MPa) for about 1h so that temperature and pressure for a
further 3h, the autoclave cooled so that the pressure falls within
1.5h and the specimen is cooled in water to 23oC in 15 min. After
a further 15 min, the length of the specimen is measured; the
expansion due to autoclaving must not exceed 0.8 per cent of
the original length.
Autoclave Test for Soundness
 Strength

Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because

of difficulties in obtaining good specimens and in testing
with a consequent large variability of test results.

Cement-Sand mortar and, some cases, concrete of

prescibed proportions, made with spacific materials under
strictly controlled conditions, are used for the purpose of
determining the strength of cement.

There are several forms of strength tests; direct tension,

compression and flexure.
 Strength
In mortar test, 1:3 cement-sand mortar is used, with the
mass of water in the mix being 10 per cent of the mass of
the dry materials. The sand is a standard material of
nealy on size. (Ottowa sand or RILEM Cembureau sand)
 Compressive Strength Test
• Cube mould of size 7.07x 7.07 x 7.07cm with base
APPARATUS plates, Weighting balance accurate up to 0.1gm,
and • Motored cube vibration machine , Measuring
MATERIALS cylinder , Trowel and tray etc.
• Cement sample, water and standard sand.
 Tensile Strength Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the tensile strength of
hydraulic cement mortars using briquet specimens.

• 2 kg scale accurate to 0.1 g

• Briquet molds.
• Small steel trowels.
• Clips for holding the test specimens.
APPARATUS
AND • Testing machine capable of applying the load at a
MATERIALS rate of 2.67 ±0.11 (600 ± 25 lb/ft2)/min.
• Ottawa Sand with at least 85% passing the 850 μm
(No. 20) sieve and not more than 5% passing the 600
μm (No. 30) sieve
• Portland cement
Briquet gang
mold and
specimen.
 DENSITY OF
HYDRAULIC CEMENT
The purpose of this test is to determine
the density of a hydraulic cement in
connection with the design of portland
cement concrete mixtures.

• Standard Le Chatelier flask

• Heavy rubber pad about 12 ×
12 in.
• Lead-ring weight to fit around
APPARATUS stem of the flask.
AND
MATERIALS • Funnel
• Thermometer
• Portland Cement or other
mineral filler
• Kerosene
Flexural Strength Test
• Flexural strength (actually a measure of tensile strength in bending) is
carried out on a 40 x 40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam. The beam is
then loaded at its center point until failure.
Specific Gravity Test
• Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning
calculations. The specific gravity of portland cement is generally
around 3.15 while the specific gravity of portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90.

Loss on Ignition
• Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample to 900 -
1000°C (1650 - 1830°F) until a constant weight is obtained. The
weight loss of the sample due to heating is then determined. A high
loss on ignition can indicate prehydration and carbonation, which
may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or adulteration
during transport or transfer.
Main Types of Portland Cements
 General features of the main types of portland
cement
Classification Characteristics Applications
Type I General purpose Fairly high C3S content for General construction (most
good early strength buildings, bridges,
development pavements, precast units,
etc)
Type II Moderate sulfate Low C3A content (<8%) Structures exposed to soil or
resistance water containing sulfate ions

Type III High early strength Ground more finely, may Rapid construction, cold
have slightly more C3S weather concreting

Type IV Low heat of hydration Low content of C3S (<50%) Massive structures such as
(slow reacting) and C3A dams. Now rare.

Type V High sulfate resistance Very low C3A content (<5%) Structures exposed to high
levels of sulfate ions

White White color No C4AF, low MgO Decorative (otherwise has

properties similar to Type I)
 Different amounts of compounds give
different types of Portland Cement
Type I General purpose such as sidewalks, buildings, bridges, culverts and
tanks, and reservoirs.

Type II Used where moderate sulfate attack is expected such as in drainage

structures or in hot weather since this type has a moderate hear of hydration.

Type III Early-strength type; develops high strength in an early period.

Type IV A low-heat-of-hydration portland cement used when the rate and

amount of heat must be minimized.

Type V Sulfate-resisting cement used when the concrete is exposed to severe

sulfate attack.

Type xxA the A means that air entraining agents have been added.
Strength
development of
concretes
containing 335 kg of
cement per cubic
metre, and made
with Portland
Cements of
different types.
 Ordinary Portland (Type I) Cement
Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where
the special properties of other types are not required.

It is used where cement or concrete is not subject to specific

exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an
objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by hydration.

Its uses include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete

buildings, bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts,
sewers, water pipes and masonry units.

Lime saturation factor is limited between 0.66 – 1.02. Where each

term in brackets denotes the percentage by mass of the given
compound present in the cement.
 Rapid-hardening Portland
(Type III) Cement
Type III is a high-early strength portland cement that provides high
strengths at an early period, usually a week or less.

It is used when forms are to be removed as soon as possible, or

when the structure must be put into service quickly.

In cold weather, its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing

period.

It should not be used in mass concrete construction or in large

structural sections because of its higher rate of heat development.
 Special Rapid-hardening Portland
Cements

These are specially manufactured cements which are

highly rapid-hardening.

The early strength is achieved by a higher fineness (700

to 900 m2/kg) and a higher gypsum content, but this
does not affect long-term soundness.

Typical uses are early prestressing and urgent repairs.

 Low-heat Portland (Type IV) Cement
Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the
rate and amount of heat generated must be minimized.

It develops strength at a slower rate than Type I cement. It

has lower content of C3S and C3A.

Type IV portland cement is intended for use in massive

concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the
temperature rise resulting from heat generated during
curing is a critical factor.
 Modified (Type II) Cement
Type II portland cement is used where precaution against moderate
sulfate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulfate
concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not
unusually severe.

Type II cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than
Type I.

With this moderate heat of hydration (an optional requirement),

Type II cement can be used in structures of considerable mass, such
as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls.

Its use will reduce temperature rise -- especially important when

the concrete is placed in warm weather.
 Sulphate-Resisting (Type V) Cement
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in concrete
exposed to severe sulfate action -- principally where soils or
groundwaters have a high sulfate content.

This cement has low Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content,

generally 5% or less, is required when high sulfate
resistance is needed.

So as to avoid sulphate attack from outside the concrete;

otherwise the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate and
gypsum would cause disruption of the concrete due to an
increased volume of the resultant compounds.
Portland blast-furnice (Type IS) cement

This type of cement is made by intergrinding or blending

Portland cement clinker with granulated blast-furnice slag, which
is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron; thus there is a
lower energy consumption in the manufacture of cement. Slag
contains lime, silica and alumina but not in the same proportions
as in Portland cement.

Sometimes referred as slag cement.

The amount of slag sholud be between 25 and 70 per cent of the

mass of the mixture.

Minimum fineness is 275 m2/kg.

White and Coloured Portland cements
White portland cement differs from the usual gray cement chiefly in
colour. The manufacturing process is controlled so that the finished
product will be white.

It is made of selected raw materials such as china clay which

containing negligible amounts of iron and magnesium oxides, the
substances that give cement its gray colour.

White portland cement is used primarily for architectural purposes,

such as precast curtain walls and facing panels, terrazzo surfaces,
stucco, cement paint, tile grout and decorative concrete.

Pastel colours can be obtained by painting or by adding pigments to

the mixer, provided there is no adverse affect on strength.
 Portland-puzzolan (Types IP, P and I)
cements
These cements are made by intergrinding or blending puzzolans with
Portland Cement.

Puzzolan is siliceous or siliceous and aluminos material which in itself

possesses little or no cemetitious value but will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with lime at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds possessing cemetitious properties.

Portland-puzzolan cements gain strength slowly and therefore require

curing over a comparatively long period.

Type IP for general construction and Type P for use when high
strengths at early ages are not required.
 Portland-puzzolan (Types IP, P and I)
cements
The puzzolan content is limited to between 15 and 40 per cent of
the total mass of the cemetitious material.

The pulverized fly ash which is a common type of puzzolan as

between 25 and 40 per cent by mass. The use of PFA improves
sulphate resistance. PFA can be used with low-heat, portland blast-
furnice or low-heat portland balst-furnice cements.

Puzzolans may often be cheaper than portland cement that they

replace but their chief advantage lies in slow hydration and
therefore low rate of heat development. Hence, portland-puzzolan
cement or a partial replacement of portland cement by the
puzzolan is used in mass concrete construction.
 Expansive (or expanding) cements
A cement which when mixed with water forms a paste that tends to
increase in volume, after setting, to a significantly greater degree than
portland cement paste does; used to compensate for volume decrease
due to shrinkage or to induce tensile stress in reinforcement.

For many purposes, it would be advantageous to use a cement which does

not change its volume due to drying shrinkage (and thus to avoid cracking)
or, in special cases, even expands on hardening.

Concrete containing such a cement expands in the first few days of its life,
and a form of prestress is obtained by restraining this expansion with steel
reinforcement: steel is put in tension and concrete in compression.

All types of expansive cements produce calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate

(ettringite) which causes expansion of the paste.
 Puzzolans

• volcanic ash (the original

Typical puzzolan),
• pumicite,
materials • opaline shales and cherts,
of this • calcined diatomaceous earth,
• burnt clay, and
type • fly ash (PFA).
 Puzzolans
For the assessment of puzzolanic activity with cement, the
puzzolanic activity index (PAI) shoul be measured.

PAI is the ratio of compressive strength of the mixture with

specified replacement of cement by puzzolan to the strength of a
mix without replacement.

Puzzolanic activity index with lime (total activity) compares the

quantity of Ca(OH)2 present in a liquid phase in contact with the
hydrated puzzolanic cement with the quantity of Ca(OH)2 capable of
saturating a medium of the same alkalinity. If the concentration of
Ca(OH)2 in the solution is lower than that of the saturated medium,
the cement satisfies the test for puzzolanicity.
 Puzzolans
The most common artificial puzzolan is fly ash, or pulverized fly
ash (PFA), which is obtained by electrostatic or mechanical
means from the flue gases fo furnices in coal-fired power
stations.

The fly ash particles are spherical and of at least the same
fineness as cement so that silica is readily available for reaction.

Uniformity of properties is important, and EN standard specifies

the fineness, expressed as the mass proportion of the fly ash
retained on a 45 mm mesh test sieve, to be at most 12.5 per
cent.
 High-Alumina cement (HAC)
High Alumina cement was
developed to resist sulphate
attack but it soon became
used as a very rapid-hardening
cement.

HAC is manufacture from

limestone or chalk and
bauxite, the latter consisting
of hydrated alumina, oxides of
iron and titanium, with small
amounts of silica.
 Workability Tests

• Slump Test
• Compacting Factor Test
Workability
• VeBe Test
Tests
• Flow Table Test
• Ball Penetration Test
 Workability
The slump test is the most universally used test due to its
simplicity. The slump is measured as the decrease in height
of a frustum of cone mold.

The compacting factor test measures the ratio of the density

of the partially compacted concrete to that of the fully
compacted concrete.

VeBe test measures the time required to remold the

concrete, from the conical to the cylindrical shape
(workability is measured in Vebe seconds). This test is a good
laboratory test particularity for very dry mixes.
 Slump Test
Apparatus:
1. Slump mold: It’s in the form of the frustum of
cone with the following dimensions:
– Bottom diameter 200 mm.
– Top diameter 100 mm.
– Height 300 mm.
2. Tamping rod.
3. Trowel.
 Slump: Test Procedure
1. Clean the internal surface of the mold.
2. Place the mold on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-
absorbent surface and hold it firmly in place while it is
being filled.
3. Fill it with concrete in three layers, each layer is tamped 25
times with the standard tamping rod.
4. After tamping the top layer, the mold shall be filled and the
concrete struck off and finished level with the throwel.
5. Remove the mold slowly and vertically.
6. Measure the slump (the difference in height between the
mold and the highest point of the specimen).
7. Any slump specimen which collapses or shears off laterally
will give an incorrect results and if this occurs the test shall
be repeated with another sample. If it happens again take
the results.
 slump cone

rod

concrete
 Ruler

Slump
Slump Test
Slump: True, Shear, Collapse
 • The slump test is the most widely used device
worldwide. In fact, the test is so well known that
often the terms workability and slump are used
interchangeably, even though they have different
meanings.
• Specifications are typically written in terms of
slump.
Advantages
• The slump test is simple, rugged, and inexpensive to
of Slump
perform. Results are obtained immediately.
Test
• The results of the slump test can be converted to
yield stress in fundamental units based on various
analytical treatments and experimental studies of
the slump test.
• Compared to other commonly used concrete tests,
such as for air content and compressive strength,
the slump test provides acceptable precision.
 • The slump test does not give an
indication of plastic viscosity.
• The slump test is a static, not
dynamic, test; therefore, results are
influenced by concrete thixotropy.
The test does not provide an
Disadvantages
indication of the ease with which
of Slump Test
concrete can be moved under
dynamic placing conditions, such as
vibration.
• The slump test is less relevant for
newer advanced concrete mixes
than for more conventional mixes.
Workability for different purposes
 Compacting factor test:
1. The compacting factor apparatus: It consists
essentially of two conical hoppers fitted with
doors at the base and placed one above the
other, and a 150x300 mm cylinder placed below
the hoppers.
2. Two plasterer’s trowels.
3. Scoop.
4. Tamping rod.
5. Balance.
6. Compacting rod.
Compacting Factor: Test Procedure
1. Clean the hoppers and the cylinder.
2. Gently fill the upper hopper using a scoop.
3. Open the upper hopper’s door.
4. Open the lower hopper’s door to fill the cylinder.
5. Remove the excess concrete from the cylinder
using the trowel and then weigh it (to obtain the
weight of partially compacted concrete).
6. Re-fill the cylinder with concrete in 6 layers, each
layer should be rammed heavily with the
compacting rod. Then weigh it (to obtain the
weight of fully compacted concrete).
 Compacting factor test Calculations:
Example
1. Weight of empty cylinder (A) = 3931 g.
2. Weight of cylinder plus partially compacted
concrete (B) = 13539 g.
3. Weight of cylinder plus fully compacted concrete
(C) = 14965 g.
4. Weight of partially compacted concrete (B-A) =
9608 g.
5. Weight of fully compacted concrete (C-A) =
11034 g.
6. Compacting factor = (B-A)/(C-A)= 0.87
 • The compaction factor test gives more information (that is,
Advantages of about compactability) than the slump test.
Compacting
Factor Test: • The test is a dynamic test and thus is more appropriate than
static tests for highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.

• The large and bulky nature of the device reduces its

usefulness in the field. Further, the test method requires a
balance to measure the mass of the concrete in the cylinder.
• The amount of work applied to the concrete being tested is a
Disadvantages: function of the friction between the concrete and the
hoppers, which may not reflect field conditions.
• The test method does not use vibration, the main
compaction method used in the field.
• Although the test is commercially available, it is used
infrequently.
 VeBe test
1. The VeBe apparatus: It consists of a vibrating
table, a cylindrical pan, a standard slump cone
and a glass or plastic disk attached to a free-
moving rod, which serves as a reference end
point.
2. Trowel.
3. Tamping rod.
4. Stop watch.
Vebe Test Apparatus
 Vebe: Test Procedure
1. Clean the apparatus.
2. Place the apparatus on a rigid base.
3. Place the mold in the container and fit the funnel over it.
4. Fill the concrete with four layers, each layer should be
tamped 25 times with the standard tamping rod.
5. The top of the concrete shall be struck off level using the
trowel.
6. Remove the mold slowly and vertically.
7. Swing the disk to its position and lower it until it’s just
touches the concrete.
8. Measure the slump.
9. Start the stop watch at the instant you turn on the vibrating
table.
10. Stop it at the instant the concrete is completely remolded
in the cylindrical shape.
 • The VeBe consistometer is a dynamic test and can be used
on concretes that are too dry for the slump test.
Advantages of
• The test device is standardized in ASTM in its guide for
Vebe Test:
proportioning low slump concrete.
• Test results are obtained directly.

• Due to the need to ensure that all vibration is kept within

the test device, the size of the test device makes the VeBe
consistometer generally unsuitable for field use.
• The test device only works for low slump concretes.
Disadvantages:
• No analytical treatment of the test method has been
developed. Such treatment would be complex because
the shear rate declines during the duration of the test as
the concrete specimen changes shape.
 Flow Table Test
The flow table test measures the horizontal spread of a
concrete cone specimen after being subjected to jolting.
It is particularly efficient to use on highly fluid concretes.
 Flow Table Test
• The apparatus consists of a 700 mm square
wooden top plate lined with a thin metal sheet.
• The plate is hinged on one end to a base, while
on the other end, clips allow the plate to be lifted
a vertical distance of 40 mm.
• Etched into the metal sheet are two
perpendicular lines that cross in the center of the
plate and a 200 mm circle concentric with the
center of the plate.
• The frustum of a cone used to mold the concrete
is shorter than the slump cone, with a top
diameter of 130 mm and with a bottom diameter
and height of 200 mm.
 Flow Table Test
To perform the test, the cone mold is placed in the center
of the plate and filled in two layers, each of which is
compacted with a tamping rod.

The plate is lifted with the attached handle a distance of

40 mm and then dropped a total of 15 times.

The horizontal spread of the concrete is measured. A value

of 400 indicates a medium workability, and 500 a high
workability.
Flow Table Test
 • The test is simple and can be used in the field.
Advantages of • The test quickly provides a direct result.
Flow Table Test: • The test is dynamic, making it especially appropriate for
highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.

• The test procedure does not represent actual

placement conditions—concrete is typically vibrated,
not jolted.
• The test results tend to converge as the number of
Disadvantages: drops is increased. Near the end of the test, the
properties of the thin layer of concrete do reflect the
bulk properties of the concrete.
• The results are not given in terms of fundamental units.
An analytical treatment of the test would be difficult.
 Ball Penetration Test
The Kelly ball test was developed in the 1950s as a fast
alternative to the slump test. The simple and inexpensive
test can be quickly performed on in-place concrete and the
results can be correlated to slump.

The test apparatus consists of a 152 mm diameter, 14 kg ball

attached to a stem. The stem, which is graduated in 5 mm
increments, slides through a frame that rests on the fresh
concrete.

To perform the test, the concrete to be tested is stuck off

level. The ball is released and the depth of penetration is
measured to the nearest 5 mm. At least three measurements
must be made for each sample.
Ball Penetration Test
 Advantages • The test is faster than the slump test and can be
preformed on in-place concrete to obtain a direct
of Ball result quickly.
Penetration • It has been claimed that the Kelly ball test provides
test: more accurate results than the slump test.

• Like the slump test, the Kelly ball test is a static test.
• The test must be performed on a level concrete
Disadvantages:
surface.
• The test is no longer widely used.
• Large aggregate can influence the results.
Relation
between
workability
tests for mixes
of varying
aggregate/
cement ratios.
 CE286
Construction Materials
Properties of Hardened Concrete-1
Prof. Dr. A. Samet ARSLAN
Gazi University,
Faculty of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department
Concrete is the second largest material
consumed by human beings after food
and water as per WHO !..
 Properties of Concrete
It is obtained by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water in required proportions.

The mixture when placed in forms and allowed to cure

becomes hard like stone. The hardening is caused by
chemical action between water and the cement due to
which concrete grows stronger with age.

The strength, durability and other characteristics of

concrete depend upon the properties of its ingredients,
proportion of the mix, the method of compaction and
other controls during placing, compaction and curing.
 Properties of Concrete
Concrete is an artificial conglomerate stone made essentially of;
• Portland cement
• Water
• Aggregates
When first mixed the water and cement constitute a paste which
surrounds all the individual pieces of aggregate to make a plastic
mixture.

A chemical reaction called hydration takes place between the

water and cement, and concrete normally changes from a plastic
to a solid state in about 2 hours. Thereafter the concrete
continues to gain strength as it cures.
 Properties of Concrete
The 28-day strength is taken as a reference point, and
specifications often refer to compression tests of cylinders of
concrete which are crushed 28 days after they are made.

During the first week to 10 days of curing it is important that

the concrete not be permitted to freeze or dry out because
either of these, occurrences would be very detrimental to the
strength development of the concrete.

Theoretically, if kept in a moist environment, concrete will

gain strength forever, however, in practical terms, about 90%
of its strength is gained in the first 28 days.
Properties of Concrete
Typical strength gain curve
 Properties of Concrete
Concrete has very low tensile strength comparing to its compressive
strength (usually measured to be about 10 to 15% of its
compressive strength),

For this reason concrete is almost never used without reinforcing.

Its compressive strength depends upon many factors, including the

quality and proportions of the ingredients and the curing
environment.

The single most important indicator of strength is the ratio of the

water used compared to the amount of cement.
 Properties of Concrete
Basically, the lower this ratio is, the higher the final
concrete strength will be.

A minimum w/c ratio (water-to-cement ratio) of about

0.3 by weight is necessary to ensure that the water
comes into contact with all cement particles (thus
assuring complete hydration).

In practical terms, typical values are in the 0.4 to 0.5

range in order to achieve a workable consistency so that
fresh concrete can be placed in the forms and around
closely spaced reinforcing bars.
 Properties of Concrete
Most concretes have f'c values in the 20 to 40 N/mm2 range.
(Structural concrete C20-C40)

However, lower-story columns of high-rise buildings will

sometimes utilize concretes of 85 or 105 MPa to reduce the
column dimensions which would otherwise be inordinately large.

Even though the maximum strain that concrete can sustain

before it crushes varies inversely with strength, a value of 0.003
is usually taken (as a simplifying measure) for use in the
development of design equations.
 Stress-Strain Curves of Concrete
Typical stress-strain curves for various concrete strengths
• Peak load at ecu_0.003 (correct the figure)
• Modulus of Elasticity
• Ecu_0.003
• Brittleness ductile*brittle
• Resilience
• Toughess
Concrete Mix Proportion Relationships

Low water-to-cement ratio is needed to achieve strong

concrete. It would seem therefore that by merely keeping
the cement content high one could use enough water for
good workability and still have a low w/c ratio.
 Properties of Concrete
As concrete cures it shrinks because the water not used for
hydration gradually evaporates from the hardened mix.

For large continuous elements such shrinkage can result in the

development of excess tensile stress, particularly if a high
water content brings about a large shrinkage.

Concrete, like all materials, also undergoes volume changes

due to thermal effects, and in hot weather the heat from the
exothermic hydration process adds to this problem.

Since concrete is weak in tension, it will often develop cracks

due to such shrinkage and temperature changes.
 Properties of Concrete
• For example, when a freshly placed concrete slab-on-
grade expands due to temperature change, it develops
internal compressive stresses as it overcomes the
friction between it and the ground surface.
• Later when the concrete cools land shrinks as it
hardens) and tries to contract, it is not strong enough
in tension to resist the same frictional forces.
• For this reason contraction joints are often used to
control the location of cracks that inevitably occur and
so-called temperature and shrinkage reinforcement is
placed in directions where reinforcing has not already
been specified for other reasons.
• The purpose of reinforcing is to accommodate the
resulting tensile stresses and to minimize the width of
cracks that do develop.
 Properties of Concrete
• In addition to strains caused by shrinkage and thermal
effects, concrete also deforms due to creep.
• Creep is Increasing deformation that takes place when
a material sustains a high stress level over a long time
period.
• Whenever constantly applied loads (such as dead
loads) cause significant compressive stresses to occur,
creep will result.
• In a beam, for example, the additional longterm
deflection due to creep can be as much as two times
the initial elastic deflection The way to avoid this
increased deformation is to keep the stresses due to
sustained loads at a low level. This is usually done by
adding compression steel.
 Concrete

The four •WORKABILITY

main &COHESIVENESS
properties
of •STRENGTH and
concrete •DURABILITY
 Concrete
Concrete has three
different states:
• PLASTIC
• SETTING
• HARDENING
In each state it has
different properties.
 Concrete
Plastic State:
• It is soft and can be worked or moulded into
different shapes.
• In this state concrete is called PLASTIC.
Concrete is plastic during placing and
compaction.
• The most important properties of plastic
concrete are workability and cohesiveness.
 Concrete
• Setting State: Concrete then begins to stiffen.
• The stiffening of concrete, when it is no longer
soft, is called SETTING.
• Setting takes place after compaction and during
finishing.
• Concrete that is sloppy or wet may be easy to
place but will be more difficult to finish
• Hardening State: After concrete has set it begins
to gain strength and harden.
• The properties of hardened concrete are strength
and durability.
The world volume of application of concrete has
reached 2 billion m3.
Advantages of concrete are an unlimited:
• raw-material base,
• rather low cost,
• environmental acceptance,
• Application possibility in various performance
conditions,
• Achievements of high architectonic-building
expressiveness,
• Availability of technology,
• Possibility of maintenance of
• High level of mechanization,
• Automation of production processes.
Properties of Hardened Concrete

• Strength
Properties • compressive,
of • tension and flexure
Hardened • shear
Concrete • Modulus of elasticity,
Dependent • Durability,
on • Creep and
• Shrinkage
Definition of
Strength

Depends on mode of stress

and definition of failure

Different types of strength:

compressive, tensile,
flexural, shear, torsion

In concrete design,
compressive strength is
usually of most concern.
Compression Test on Concrete
Multi-phase material – implies strain incompatibilities
and progressive micro-cracking
Compressive Strength
Concrete under compressive stress
• Thus – concrete ‘fails’ under compressive stress
by a complex, system of internal microcracking
and microstructural breakdown with extensive
cracking:
• ‘bond’ cracking between aggregate and matrix
• ‘cleavage’ cracking in the matrix itself.
This cracking is largely tensile or shear/tensile in
nature.
As ultimate failure is approached, ‘cleavage’
cracking predominates leading to final rupture
Deformations and matrix changes under
short-term stress application.
 Strength
• Compressive strength: Determined using 150
mm diameter cylinders having twice the diameter
in height (300 mm)
• can be as high as 100 MPa for normal concrete.
• Dependent on amount of cement, curing, days
after casting, fineness modulus of mixed
aggregate, water-cement ratio and temperature
• Tensile strength: Obtained using split cylinder
tests
• Flexural strength: Determined by third point
loading - Modulus of rupture
 Compressive Strength
Specified by 28 Day Compressive Strength
Compressive strength measured in Newton per square mm(MPa)
Primarily Determined By:
– Amount of Cement
– Water-Cement Ratio
– Other influencing factors:
• Admixture(s)
• Aggregate Selection & Gradation
Strength Ranges: 16 - 160+ MPa
• If a low water cement ratio is desirable for quality concrete,
why would one ever want to add excess water?
• Concrete with high W/C ratio is easier to place.
• Workability, with desired qualities, often accomplished with
admixtures
• New terminology for concrete Strength !
• Mention Cylinder and Cube strengths together
• C12/15 - C16/20
• C20/25 – C25/30 – C30/35 – C35/40 – C40/C45
 Stress and
Strain Curves
for Concrete
 Compressive Strength

• Amount and the properties Mix

water
Factor
• Type and amount of cement
Affecting
• Compacity of Concrete
Compressive • External effects (curing conditions)
Strength of • Environmental conditions during
Concrete the experiment
• Size and shape of the specimens
Factors influencing compressive strength
 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
As per ASTM
s2 = stress at 40% of ultimate load with a strain of ε2
s1 = stress at ε1 equal to 0.00005

It is also dependent on compressive strength, and

density of concrete
E = 0.043 w1.5 [f ’c]0.5 (in MPa=)
w = density of concrete
f ’c = compressive strength of concrete
 Curing of Concrete
• Process of maintaining enough moisture in concrete to
maintain the rate of hydration during its early stages - The
most important single step in developing concrete strength,
after proper mix design - If not properly carried out, affects
its strength, water tightness and durability –
Methods of curing:
• Ponding or immersion;
• Spraying or fogging ;
• Wet coverings (with burlap, cotton mats or tugs);
• Impervious paper (two sheets of Kraft paper cemented
together by bituminous adhesive with fiber
reinforcements);
• Plastic sheets (Polyethyelene films 0.10 mm thick);
• Membrane-forming curing compound;
• Steam curing
 Concrete Curing

Must be kept Moist

Moisture Needed
for: Hydration
(Development of
Strength)
Maturity of Concrete
Maturity of Concrete
Size & Shape effect
 Durability of Concrete:
Dependent on;
– Alkali-aggregate reaction,
– freeze-thaw degradation and
– sulphate attack
Alkali-aggregate reaction: Certain aggregates
react with the alkali of Portland cement (released
during hydration), in the presence of water,
producing swelling - Form map-like cracks - Use
low alkali cement to prevent this effect - Use of
fly ash minimizes
 Durability of Concrete

Freeze-thaw process: Water stored in voids of concrete

expands as a result of freezing - Generates stresses that
tend to crack the concrete after a number of cycles - Air
entrainment improves resistance to freezing-thaw
cracking

Sulphate attack: Sulphates in soil and seawater react

with aluminates in cement to produce compounds that
increase in volume - Leads to cracking - Use low alumina
cement - Fly ash reduces sulphate attack
 Durability of Concrete
Carbonation of concrete: Carbon-di-oxide from the air
penetrates the concrete and reacts with Ca(OH)2 to
form carbonates; this increases shrinkage during drying
(thus promoting crack development) and lowers the
alkalinity of concrete, which leads to corrosion of steel
reinforcement.
Creep: is the time dependent increase in strain and
deformation due to an applied constant load -
Reversible creep and irreversible creep.
Shrinkage is made up of plastic shrinkage and drying
shrinkage - Plastic shrinkage occurs when the concrete
is plastic and is dependent on type of cement, w/c
ratio, quantity and size of aggregates, mix consistency
etc. - Drying shrinkage occurs when water is lost from
cement gel - Smaller than 1500 x 10-06 (strain)
 Mix Proportions
• The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned
by weight or volume.
• The goal: to provide the desired strength and
workability at minimum expense.
• Sometimes there are special requirements such
as abrasion resistance, durability in harsh
climates, or water impermeability, but these
properties are usually related to strength.
• Sometimes concretes of higher strength are
specified even though a lower f'c value would
have met all structural requirements.
Mix Proportions
 Mix Proportions
Design of concrete mixes involves determination of the
proportions of the given constituents namely, cement,
water, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate with
admixtures if any.

Workability is specified as the important property of

concrete in the fresh state.

For hardened state compressive strength and durability

will be considered.
 Methods of concrete mix design
The mix design methods being followed in different
countries are mostly based on empirical
relationships, charts and graphs developed from
extensive experimental investigations.

Following methods are in practice

• ACI Mix design method

• EN Mix design method
• British Mix design method
• Mix design method according to Turkish standard
Factors to be considered in Mix design
The design of concrete mix will be based on the following
factors.
(a) Grade of concrete: This gives the characteristic
strength requirements of concrete. Depending upon
the level of quality control available at the site, the
concrete mix has to be designed for a target mean
strength which is higher than the characteristic
strength.
(b) Type of cement: The type of cement is important
mainly through its influence on the rate of
development of compressive strength of concrete as
well as durability under aggressive environments
ordinary Portland cement(OPC) and Portland Puzzolan
cement (PPC) are permitted to use in reinforced
concrete construction.
Factors to be considered in Mix design
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate: It is found
that larger the size of aggregate, smaller is the
cement requirement for a particular water
cement ratio. Aggregates having a maximum
nominal size of 20mm or smaller are generally
considered satisfactory.
d) Minimum water cement ratio: The minimum
w/c ratio for a specified strength depends on the
type of cement.
e) Workability: The workability of concrete for
satisfactory placing and compaction is related to
the size and shape of the section to be concreted.
 Outline of mix design procedure
(a) Arrive at the target mean strength from the
characteristic strength required.
(b) Choose the water cement ratio for target mean
strength.
(c) Arrive at the water content for the workability
required
(d) Calculate the cement content
(e) Choose the relative proportion of the fine and
coarse aggregate
(f) Arrive at the concrete mix proportions
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
The American Concrete Institute mix design
method
• The methods suggested by the ACI Committee
211 [1969] are widely used in the USA.
• One method is based on the estimated weight of
the concrete per unit volume.
• The other method is based on calculation of the
absolute volume occupied by concrete
ingredients.
• The ACI methods take into consideration the
requirements for workability, consistency,
strength and durability.
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
(a) The W/C ratios selected from curve for the target
mean strength.
(b) The water content is selected from table 4 for the
desired workability and maximum size of aggregate
(c) The cement content is calculated from the water
content and W/C ratio
(d) The coarse aggregate content is estimated from the
table 5 for the maximum size of aggregate and fineness
modulus of sand.
(e) The fine aggregate content is determined by
subtracting the sum of the absolute volume of coarse
aggregate, cement, water and air content from the unit
volume of concrete.
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
Step 1
Determine the slump depending on the degree of
workability and placing condition. A concrete of the stiffest
consistency (lowest slump) that can be placed efficiently
should be used.
Step 2
Determine the maximum size of coarse aggregate that is
economically available and consistent with dimensions of
the structure.
Step 3
Determine the amount of mixing water for the given slump
and maximum size of coarse aggregate from the table. This
table also indicates approximate amount of entrapped air.
Step 4
Determine the minimum water-cement ratio from the
curve.
Slump Ranges for Specific Applications
Slump
Type of Construction
(mm) (inches)

Reinforced foundation walls and 25 - 75 1-3

footings

Plain footings, caissons and 25 - 75 1-3

substructure walls

Beams and reinforced walls 25 - 100 1-4

Building columns 25 - 100 1-4

Pavements and slabs 25 - 75 1-3

Mass concrete 25 - 50 1-2

Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements
for Different Slumps and Maximum Aggregate Sizes
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3

12.5 37.5
Slump 9.5 mm
mm
19 mm 25 mm
mm
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm

Non-Air-Entrained PCC
25 – 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 – 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 – 175 243 228 216 202 190 178 160 -

Typical entrapped
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
air (percent)

Air-Entrained PCC

25 – 50 181 175 168 160 148 142 122 107

133
75 – 100 202 193 184 175 165 157 119

150 – 175 216 205 197 184 174 166 154 -

Recommended Air Content (percent)
Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate Exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
Step 5
Determine the amount of cement per unit
volume of concrete from steps 3 and 4. This
cement content should not be less than the
cement content required based on durability or
some other criterion.
Step 6
Determine the amount of coarse aggregate
required for a unit volume of concrete from
related Table. The value thus obtained is
multiplied by the dry rodded unit weight if the
aggregate to get the required dry weight.
Bulk volume of coarse aggregate

Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus

Nominal Maximum
Aggregate Size
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

9.5 mm 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44

12.5 mm 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53

19 mm 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60

25 mm 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65

37.5 mm 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69

50 mm 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72

 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
Step 7
Determine the amount of fine aggregate. At
completion of step 6, all ingredients of the
concrete have been estimated except the fine
aggregate. If the weight of concrete per unit
volume is assumed, the required weight of fine
aggregate is simply the difference between the
weight of fresh concrete and the total weight of
all other ingredients. An estimate of weight of
fresh concrete can be made either by using
following Equation or next Table.
ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
First estimate of weight of fresh concrete
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
Wm = 10ρA(lOO-A)+γc(1- ρA/ ρC) -γw(ρA - 1)

Where;
Wm = weight of fresh concrete, kg/m3
ρA = weighted average specific gravity of combined
fine and coarse aggregate
ρC = specific gravity of cement (= 3.15)
γc = cement requirement, kg/m3
γw = mixing water requirement, kg/m3
A = air content, percent
 ACI METHOD OF MIX DESIGN
Step 8
Adjust the mixing water quantity based on the
moisture content in the aggregate.
Step 9
Check the calculated mix proportions by
means of trial batches prepared and tested in
accordance with the relevant IS specifications
and make another trial, if necessary.
QUALITY CONTROL and Acceptance of
Concrete Quality
• At the construction site, concrete compressive
strength should be determined by conducting
quality tests on specimens cured in accordance
with TS 3351.
• The tests are conducted on 150mmX300mm
standard cylinders.
• In compelling situations, cube specimens may be
employed.
• For evaluation, groups each consisting of three
cylindrical or cubic specimens should be
considered.
 Sampling of Concrete
Specimens should be taken, cured and prepared in
accordance with
✓ TS 2940,
✓ TS 3068 and
✓ TS 3351 and tests should be carried out in
accordance with TS 3114.
• Average of each party fcm  fck + 1.0 MPa
• Minimum group average in each party
fcmin  fck - 3.0 MPa
 Concrete Characteristic Strength
• Concrete characteristic strength is the
strength value obtained from statistical data
by which the concrete grade is specified.
• The probability of obtaining a strength value
lower than the characteristic strength is
specified (generally 10 percent).
• fck= fcm-zxs
• z= 1.28 for 10%
• z= 1.64 for 5%
Normal dağılım eğrisi
altında z=0 dan z=z
arasındaki alan
Sayısal Örnek:1
Sayısal Örnek:2
Sayısal Örnek:3
 Distribution of Aggregates

d :size of particles of the given fraction of aggregate

D :maximum particle-size of aggregate;
A :Coefficient equal 8-12 depending on the kind of
aggregate and plasticity of concrete mixtures;
n :index of degree equal in mixtures on a crushed stone
0,2...0,4, on the gravel 0,3...0,5
(in Gummel's formula index of degree equal 0,1 to 1).
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Water requirement for saturation of aggregates.
Water requirement according to Bolomey formula

W : amount of water
d1 and d2: maximum and minimum sieve sizes in mm
q : the amount of aggregates between those
sieves in kg
N : coefficient depending on the consistency
of concrete and aggregate type.
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Consistency of Round Crushed Stone
Concrete Aggregate
Dry 0.08 0.095
Plastic 0.09 - 0.105 0.100 – 0.110
Flow 0.100 – 0.110 0.120 – 0.130
N Values

•Higher amount of sand requires higher saturation water.

•Crushed stone aggregate requires higher amount of
saturation water
In practical applications; the saturation water requirement for
coarse aggregates are about 1% - 2%, and for sands are about
5% - 9%.
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Fineness modulus- Water formula for determination
of amount of saturation water
W= α(10-k)
W: amount of water,
k: fineness modulus, α: coefficient,
α coefficients
Consistency Natural Natural Sea Sand and
of Concrete Aggregates and Aggregates Coarse
Pebble (Gravel) and Coarse Aggregate
Aggregates
Dry 28 – 30 33 37
Plastic 31 – 33 37 40
Flow 36 – 40 43 47
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas

Minimum cement requirement

Cmin=

Cmin: Minimum cement requirement

D: Maximum aggregate size in mm

Example: Minimum Amount of cement

Cmin= 278 kg/m3 for D=31.5 mm aggregate
Minimum Amount of cement
Cmin= 313 kg/m3 for D=16 mm aggregate.
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Amount of void in the bulk aggregate

I=

I: Amount of void
k: a coefficient depending on the shape and the surface
texture of the aggregates. (rounded, angular, glassy, rough)
Bigger size of maximum aggregate results lower void
ratio.Cement is a function of aggregate void ratio. Lower
the void ratio, lower the minimum cement requirement.
Higher the maximum aggregate size, lower the minimum
cement requirement.
 Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Compacity
• c + s + ca + w + a = 1 m3
• c: cement
• s: sand
• ca: coarse aggregate
• w: water
• a: air
• compacity = c + s + ca = 1- (w + a)
• Compacity should be higher than 0.80 for a good
concrete.
• Higher compacity results higher compressive strength
Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Mix Design with Empirical Formulas
Mix Design Example with Empirical
Formulas
Mix Design Example with Empirical
Formulas
Mix Design Example with Empirical
Formulas
Mix Design Example with Empirical
Formulas
Mix Design Example with Empirical
Formulas