Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology Hamirpur

EE-213: Electrical and Electronic Measurements

Ravinder Nath
 Class (2nd year students)

Time Table

• Lecture
Tuesday 09.00am ~10.00am
Wednesday 12.00am ~01.00pm
Friday 10.00am ~11.00am
 Evaluation

• Continuous Evaluation during the semester 50%

(Mid sem Exam, Assignments, and Class Tests)

• End Semester Exam 50%

 Syllabus
UNIT-1 Introduction to Measurement Systems

UNIT-2 Electrical and Magnetic Measurements

UNIT-3 Resistance Measurements

UNIT-4 Inductance and Capacitance Measurements

UNIT-5 Measurements of Power Factor and Frequency

UNIT-6 Potentiometers

UNIT-7 Instrument Transformers

 UNIT-1:
Introduction to Measurement Systems
• Static error, Static calibration, Error calibration
curve, Limiting errors, Relative limiting errors,
Types of errors: Gross Errors, Systematic
Errors, Random Errors; Propagation of Errors,
Static sensitivity, Linearity, Hysteresis,
Threshold, Dead Time, Resolution of
instrument, loading effects, Introduction to
measurement standards, Expression of
uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision index
 UNIT-2:
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements
• Introduction, D’Arsonval galvanometer,
moving iron and moving coil instruments,
Electrodynamometer, Electrostatic
Instruments, Induction type energy
meter, wattmeter. Determination of B-H
curve and Hysteresis loop.
 UNIT-3:
Resistance Measurements
• Methods of measurement of low, medium
and high resistance, measurement of earth
resistance, localization of cable faults by
Murray and Varley loop test.
 UNIT-4:
Inductance and Capacitance Measurements
• Measurement of inductance and capacitance
by A.C. Bridge methods, Q-factor and
dissipation factor. Sources of errors in bridge
circuits, shielding of bridge elements,
Wagner Earthing Device.
 UNIT-5:
Measurements of Power Factor and Frequency
• Single phase and three phase
electrodynamometer type power factor meter.
Moving iron power factor meters, types of
frequency meter, mechanical resonance type,
electrical resonance type, Ratio meter type.
 UNIT-6:
Potentiometers
• Basic D.C. potentiometer circuit, Modern
form of D.C. potentiometer, measurement of
voltage, current, Resistance and calibration
of voltmeter and ammeter using D.C.
potentiometer, volt ratio box, A.C.
potentiometers and their applications
 UNIT-7:
Instrument Transformers
• Introduction, use of instrument
transformers, ratios, basic constructional
features of C.T. and P.T., ratio and phase
angle errors, reduction of errors.
 Text
1. A.K. Sawhney and P. Sawhney. “A Course in Electrical
and Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation”,
Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) Ltd., 2010

References
1. W.D Cooper and A.D Helfrick. “Electronic
Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques”,
Prentice-Hall India.
2. EW Golding and FC Widdis.”Electrical Measurement
and Measuring Instruments", Wheeler Publishing
 Introduction to Measurement

• Measurements
 Measurement (also called metrology) is the
science of determining values of physical
variables.
 A method to obtain information regarding the
physical values of the variable.
 Measurement of a given quantity is essentially
an act or result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and
predetermined or predefined standards.

Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values.

Introduction to Measurement
• Basic Requirements of Measurements
i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be
accurately defined & should be commonly accepted.
ii) The apparatus used & the method adopted must be
provable.

• Significance of Measurements
i) The advancement of Science and Technology is
dependent upon a parallel progress in
measurements.
ii) The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of
a hypothesis but also add to its understanding
iii) The measurements is required in both design of
equipments and processes as well as proper
operation and maintenance of equipments and
processes
Introduction to Measurement
• Why Do We Measure?

In the case of process industries and industrial manufacturing

 –To improve the quality of the product

 –To improve the efficiency of production
 –To maintain the proper operation
 History of Measurement
• Units of measurement based on the human body

image credit: Jerry Lipka et al

Diagram of Yup’ik (Alaska Diagram of Egyptian definitions
Native) units of length of cubit and palm
 History of Measurement
• With trade and taxation came the need for standardized units

photo credit:
Andrew Robinson

Standardized weights from the Indus river valley

photo credit:
John Hill creative commons

A bronze ruler from the Han dynasty in China

 Metric System
Metric System for Length

 The first improved unit was the unit of length (the meter) defined
as 10-7 times the polar quadrant of the earth.

 In 19th century, a platinum bar made to this length was established

as the standard of length. However this was shorter than the
previous meter so that he circumference of the Earth through the
poles is then 40,007,863 m.

 In 1960, a standard meter was redefined in terms of 1.65076373 x

106 wavelength of the radiation from krypton-86 in space.

 Since 1983, the meter has been defined as the distance that light
travels in 1/299,792,458th of a second
 Metric System
• Metric System for Weight

photo credit:
Harry Turner,
National
Research
Council of
Canada

The Canadian Standard Kilogram.

The kilogram is the only unit in the metric A cube of water with sides
system defined by an actual object. each 1 cm has a mass of 1 gram
 Standards in Metric System
• International standards: Defined by international agreements

• Primary standards:
i) Maintained at institutions around the world
ii) Main function is checking accuracy of
secondary standards

• Examples of Standard Bodies

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Standards Council of Canada ( SCC)
 British Standards (BS)
 Institute of Turkish Standards (TSE)
Introduction to Measurement
• Methods of Measurements

i) Direct Method: The unknown quantity (also called

measurand) is directly compared against a standard.
The result is expressed as a numerical number and a
unit. Examples: length, mass and time

ii) Indirect Methods: Measurements by direct methods

are not always possible, feasible and practicable. Also
the direct methods are less sensitive as well as have
poor accuracy due to human factors. Hence require
indirect methods which involve the instruments or
measurement systems to enhance the capability of
human being
 Instruments and Measurement Systems

• Measuring Instruments or Measurement Systems

i) Instrument is a device or mechanism used to determine the

present value or magnitude of a quantity under measurement.

ii) Instruments serves as an extension of human faculties and

enable the human being to determine the unknown quantity
accurately.
 History of Development of Instruments

• Mechanical Instruments:
 Reliable for static and stable conditions
 Unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions

• Electrical Instruments:
 Electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device
 These are rapid in comparison with mechanical instrument

• Electronic Instruments:
 Higher degree of reliability, higher sensitivity, greater flexibility, faster response
Lower weight, lower power consumption in comparison with Elect. Inst.
Classification of Measuring Instruments
Absolute Instruments: Tangent galvanometer

Secondary Instruments: Voltmeter, thermometer

Deflection Type: Voltmeter

Null Type: Potentiometer

Analog Mode:

Digital Mode:
Indicating type:
Recording type:
Integrating type:
 Classification of Measuring Instruments
• Absolute Instruments: • Secondary Instruments:
 Absolute instruments show the  Secondary instruments are
quantity to be measured in those which gives the value of
terms of instruments constant. the quantity on its scale or its
 They require no comparison display unit directly by a
with any other standard pointer.
instruments.  The scale is calibrated by
comparison with absolute
 Tangent Galvanometer,
instruments.”.
Raleigh’s Current Balance and
 The ordinary Voltmeter,
Absolute electro-meter are
Ammeter, Energy meter are
examples of absolute
examples for Secondary
instruments.
instruments
 They are mostly used in  Most of the measuring
laboratories as standardising instruments, which are
instruments. generally used are of
“Secondary Type”
 Classification of Measuring Instruments
• Deflection type • Null Type:
 Only one source of input is  Require two inputs; the
required. measurand and balance input.

 Must have feedback operation

 Output reading is based on the
(iterative balancing) that compare
deflection from the initial
the measurand with the standard
condition of the instrument.
value.

 The measured value of the  More accurate and sensitive than

quantity depends on the deflection type instrument
calibration of the instrument.

 Example: In PMMC ammeter the

deflection of the moving coil is
proportional to the current (I) the
quantity under measurement.
 Classification of Measuring Instruments
• Analog type • Digital Type:

 Produce the signals that  Produce the signals that

vary in continuous way. vary in discrete steps.

 Finite different values in a

 Infinite number of values in
given range.
any given range.
 Classification of Measuring Instruments
• Indicating type • Recording Type:
• Recording instruments are those • Integrating type
• Indicating instruments • These instruments
which not only read the
are those which measures and
instantaneous value but also make
indicate the magnitude registers the total
a record continuously.
of the instantaneous quantity of
• The magnitude of the quantity is
value being measured electricity in a
recorded on a paper for certain
by means of a pointer circuit over a
period of time.
over a calibrated scale. specified time.
• In such instruments, the moving
• The indication of system carries an inked pen which • It gives cumulative
pointer also change touches slightly a sheet of paper value of electrical
with respect to time wrapped around over a uniformly quantity.
giving no scope to rotating drum. • Ampere-hour,
know the previous • These instruments are generally meter, Energy
value. used in power houses and factory meter.
• Ammeter, Voltmeter, where continuous information is
Wattmeter, Frequency required about the changes in
meter, Power factor magnitude of the electrical
meter etc quantity to keep them within well
specified limits
Performance Characteristic of Measurement System
Performance Characteristics of Instruments

Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics

Accuracy
Precision Speed of response

Sensitivity
Linearity Measuring lag
Reproducibility
Repeatability
Fidelity
Resolution
Threshold
Dynamic Error
Drift
Stability
Dead Zone
Range or Span
Static Error
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary
with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.
Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of
the quantity to be measured. Conformity to truth

Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision
is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. Clearly
or sharply defined.

Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a

change in the value of the quantity to be measured.

Sensitivity=Δqo/Δqi
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Linearity: The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically & linearly.

% non-linear=

Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.

Repeatability: Repeatability measures the variation in measurements taken by a single

instrument or person under the same conditions,

Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum
value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be
found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is
exceeded. This increment is called resolution.
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to
slippage, permanent set, or due to undue warming
up of electronic tube circuits

Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is

specified operating life.
Dead-zone: Largest change of input quantity for which
there is no output of the measurement.
Dead-time: Time required by an instrument to begin to
respond to a change in measurand.

Range or Span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure is called its range or span.

Static Error: Difference between the measured value (Am) and the true value (At) of the
quantity i.e. δA=Am-At=εo

Relative static Error=εr=εo/At also At=Am/(1+εr)=Am(1- εr) when εr <<1

 Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which changes rapidly with
time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to changes in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the

response of a measurement system
to changes in the measured quantity.

Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in

the measurand quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time
& the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is
assumed. It is also called measurement error.
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

Error Error Error

Inherent Misuse of Loading

shortcomings Instruments Effects
of Instruments
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Gross Error
 The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a
human begin

 These errors cannot be treated mathematically

These errors are also called personal errors.

Ways to minimize gross errors: The complete elimination of gross errors

is not possible but one can minimize them by the following ways:
• Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading &
calculating the result
• Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more readings
must be taken preferably by different persons.
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Systematic Error
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a
Systematic error.

Instrumental Errors: These errors can be mainly due to Inherent Shortcomings of

Instruments, Misuse of Instruments and Loading Effects

Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments: These are because of the mechanical

structure of the instruments. Friction in the bearings of
various moving parts; irregular spring tensions etc.
Ways to minimize this error: Selecting a proper instrument and planning the
proper procedure for the measurement recognizing the effect of such errors and
applying the proper correction factors calibrating the instrument carefully against a
standard
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Systematic Error
Instrumental Errors:
Misuse of Instruments: A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives
misleading results. Poor initial adjustment, Improper zero setting, using leads of
high resistance etc., are the examples of misusing a good instrument. Such things
do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments but definitely cause the
serious errors.

Loading Effects: Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument
cause the serious errors. The best example of such loading effect error is
connecting a well calibrated volt meter across the two points of high resistance
circuit. The same volt meter connected in a low resistance circuit gives accurate
reading.
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Systematic Error
Environmental Error: These errors are due to the conditions external to the
measuring instrument. The various factors resulting these environmental errors
are temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal emf, ageing of equipment
and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:
i) Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument
ii) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions Constant
iii) Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically
sealing the components in the instruments
iv) The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or
electro static shields or screens
v) Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
 Types of Errors in Measurements

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

Systematic Error
Observational Error: These are the errors
introduced by the observer. These are many
sources of observational errors such as parallax
error while reading a meter, wrong scale
selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error: To eliminate
such errors one should use the instruments with
mirrors, knife edged pointers, and remove the
parallax while taking observation etc.,

Random Error: As the name suggests, is random in nature and

very difficult to predict. It occurs because there are a very large
number of parameters beyond the control of the experimenter
that may interfere with the results of the experiment.
 Errors in Measurements

The limited deviation of the measured value from the true value is
known as the limiting error or guarantee error.
The magnitude of the limiting error depends on the design, material
and the workmanship used for the construction of the instrument.

Limiting values are : A=Aδ±δA =Aδ±εr Aδ = Aδ(1±εr)

 Errors in Measurements

The voltage being measured between the limits of:

250(1±εr)=250(1±0.048)=250±12 Volt
The voltage being measured between 238 to 262 Volts
Measurements Errors Combination
Measurements Errors Combination
Measurements Errors Combination
 Measurements Errors Combination
Power of a factor
Let y  u n , Then loge y  n loge u
Differentiating above with respect to y, we have:
 n u1  n du
1 du dy
y dy
or y u

y
Hence relaticve limiting error in y is:
y
  n uu
Similarly for the composite factor y  u n vm , Then loge y  n loge u  m loge v
Differentiating above with respect to y, we have:
  n du 
dy
1
y
n u1 du
dy
dv
+m 1v dy or y u
m dv
v

Hence relaticve limiting error in y is:

y
y 
  n uu  m vv 
It is clear from above that the relative limiting error in the result for
such case got magnified n and m times
Error Calibration Curve
Loading Effects
Loading Effects due to shunt connected load
Any Question

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