Niches and Competition

Key points:
- In interspecies competition, two species use the same limited resource.
Competition has a negative effect on both species (-/- interaction).
- A species’ niche is basically its ecological role, which is defined by the set of
conditions, resources, and interactions it needs (or can make use of).
- The competitive exclusion principle says that two species can’t coexist if they
occupy exactly the same niche (competing for identical resources).
- Two species whose niches overlap may evolve by natural selection to have more
distinct niches, resulting in resource partitioning.

Introduction:
Humans compete with other humans all the time - for jobs, athletic prizes, dates, you
name it. But do we compete with other species? If you’ve ever gone camping and had a
little taste of interspecific competition - competition between members of different
species that use overlapping, limited resources.

Resources are often limited in a habitat, and many species may compete to get a hold of
them. For instance, plants in a garden may compete with each other for soil nutrients,
water, and light. The overall effect of interspecific competition is negative for both
species that participate (a -/- interaction). That is, each species would do better if the
other species weren’t there.

In this article, we’ll look at the concept of an ecological niche and see how species
having similar niches can lead to competition. We’ll also see how species can evolve by
natural selection to occupy more different niches, thus divvying up resources and
minimizing competition.
The niche concepts
A species' niche is its ecological role or "way of life," which is defined by the full set of
conditions, resources, and interactions it needs (or can make use of). Each species fits
into an ecological community in its own special way and has its own tolerable ranges for
many environmental factors. For example, a fish species' niche might be defined partly
by ranges of salinity (saltiness), pH (acidity), and temperature it can tolerate, as well as
the types of food it can eat.

As we'll see, two organisms with exactly the same niche can't survive in the same
habitat (because they compete for exactly the same resources, so one will drive the
other to extinction). However, species whose niches only partly overlap may be able to
coexist. Also, over long periods of time, they may evolve to make use of more different,
or less overlapping, sets of resources.

Competitive exclusion principle

The competitive exclusion principle tells us that two species can't have exactly the
same niche in a habitat and stably coexist. That's because species with identical niches
also have identical needs, which means they would compete for precisely the same
resources.

A famous example of the competitive exclusion principle is shown in the figure below,
which features two types of single-celled microorganisms, Paramecium aurelia and
Paramecium causatum. When grown individually in the lab, both species thrive. But
when they are grown in the same test tube (habitat) with a fixed amount of nutrients,
both grow more poorly and P. aurelia eventually outcompetes P. causatum for food,
leading to P. causatum’s extinction.

In nature, it's rarely the case that two species occupy exactly identical niches. However,
the greater the extent to which two species' niches overlap, the stronger the
competition between them will tend to be.
Resource partitioning
Competitive exclusion may be avoided if one or both of the competing species evolves
to use a different resource, occupy a different area of the habitat, or feed during a
different time of day. The result of this kind of evolution is that two similar species use
largely non-overlapping resources and thus have different niches. This is called resource
partitioning, and it helps the species coexist because there is less direct competition
between them.

The anole lizards found on the island of Puerto Rico are a good example of resource
partitioning. In this group, natural selection has led to the evolution of different species
that make use of different resources. The figure below shows resource partitioning
among 11 species of anole lizards. Each species lives in its own preferred habitat, which
is defined by type and height of vegetation (trees, shrubs, cactus, etc.), sunlight, and
moisture, among other factors.
Task #1 (Your niche)
What’s your niche? This would include things like:
1. Where you live (Airdrie, AB, Canada)
2. The school you go to (W.H Croxford)
3. Places you go to (Camping)
4. The foods you eat (Junk Food)
5. Extra curricular activities you take part in (Basketball and softball team)
6. What temperatures you feel comfortable in (nothing lower than -5)
7. Your impact on the people around you
8. Your impact on your community

Symbiosis
Relationships are where two or more organisms’ lives are closely connected. The
survival of at least one species depends on that connection.
There are 3 types of symbiotic relationships:
- Commensalism (is a type of symbiotic relationship between two organisms in
which one benefits without affecting the other one in any way.)
- Mutualism (is a biological interaction between two species where in both the
species benefit from each other.)
- Parasitism (a relationship where one organism depends on the other’s
contributions, and it harms the other organism in some way. {But does not “eat”
it or intentionally kill it})

Task #2
Your task it to tell me which symbiotic relationship best defines; a bird makes a nest in a
tree.
The symbiotic relationship that would best describe this scenario is commensalism
because only the bird benefits from this relationship and it doesn’t hurt the tree in any
way shape or form.

Variation
Variation
Any difference between the individuals in a species or groups of organisms of any species, are laded out
in these categories:
Continuous: Marked by uninterrupted extension in space, time, or sequence. (Characteristics with a
range in form. {Ex. Height, Body temperature})
Discrete: Separate or divided (characteristic with a defined form - either or {Ex. Hair and Eye color})

QUIZ 1 STUDY GUIDE (Biodiversity)

A1 Investigate and interpret diversity among species and within species, and describe
how
diversity contributes to species survival

You must know the following vocabulary words / concepts:

Species: (A group of organisms that have the same structure and can reproduce with
one another)

Biological diversity: (All the different types of organisms on Earth. This includes diversity
between ecosystems, diversity within ecosystems and diversity within species)

Population: (Members of a species that live in a specific area and share the same
resources)

Community:(Populations of different species live in the same area)

Symbiosis:(Relationships are where two or more organisms’ lives are closely connected.
The survival of at least one species depends on that connection.)

Commensalism: (Is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms in which one

benefits without affecting the other one in any way)

Mutualism: (Is a biological interaction between two species wherein both the species
benefit from each other)

Parasitism: (a relationship where ONE organism depends on them other’s contributions,

and it harms the other organism in some way (but does not “eat” it or intentionally kill
it).

Niche: (A niche is the role that an organism plays within an ecosystem.)

Interspecies competition: (is the competition between individuals of different species)

Resource Partitioning: (When different organisms within one ecosystem split up an area
so that they will not compete for the same resources and when those organisms have a
special adaptation.)

Variability: (The tendency of individual genetic characteristics in a population to vary

from one another)

Discrete Variations: (Characteristics with a defined form – “either or” (cleft chin,
dimples)

Continuous Variations: (Characteristics with a range in form (height, body temp)

Natural Selection:(The process through which populations of living organisms adapt and
change)

Abiotic: (Non-living things. Things that never had and never will be alive)

Biotic: (Living things. Includes things that are dormant or were alive but are now dead)

Reproduction
Sextual reproduction in general:

Sexual reproduction usually involves two individuals. Most species of animals and flowering plants
reproduce sextually. The offspring of a sextual reproduction will have a mix of both individuals, ensuring
that there is always a mix of each characteristic of each generation. You might think that sextual
reproduction always involves a male and a female, as it doses in humans and other mammals. However,
sexual reproduction also occurs in species that we may not think of as having males and females, such as
flowering plants and coral. These species have specialized forms of sexual reproduction. Sextual
reproduction in plants or animals relies on the union of two specialized cells known as gametes. A
gamete is a cell that has one role only, which is to join with another gamete during reproduction.
Sextual reproduction in animals:

Almost all animal species, form fungi to protists, from salmon to dragonflies to bears, reproduce
sexually. Although the details may vary, the important events in animal reproduction are the same.
Sextual reproduction involves specialized cells known as gametes (sex cells). The male gametes are
called sperm cells, and the female gametes are known as egg cells (ova). The union of the sperm cell
and the egg cell occurs during mating and is called fertilization (figure 2.10). The cell created by the
joining of the two gametes is known as a zygote. The zygote is the first cell of a new individual. The
zygote then divides into two cells. The same division are repeated during a process called cleavage.
Continued cell division results in a new multicellular life form referred to as an embryo. Depending on
the species, the development of the embryo my occur inside the female parent, which happens in most
other types of animals. The new individual will show some characteristics of its female parent and some
of its male parent. Although the new individual may resemble one parent more than the other, it will
not be identical to either parent. Figure 2.10
Sextual reproduction in plants:

As in animals, sexual reproduction in plants requires the joining of a male gamete with a female gamete
to produce a zygote and an embryo. Most plants produce both male and female gametes. However,
some only produce only female gametes and others only male. Figure 2.11 shows the parts of a flower
that are involved in reproduction. Most flowers have all of these parts, although the shapes and sizes of
each flower vary. Some flowers are large and showy. Others are hardly noticeable (Figure 2.12). Pollen
contains the male gametes of a plant. Pollen is found on the stamen, or male part, of the plant. Ovules
contain the female gametes of a plant. Ovules are found in the pistil, or female part of the plant.

Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12

Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil.
Fertilization occurs when the male and female gametes unite. Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen
of one plant is carried to the stigma of another by wind, water, or animals, such as bees or butterflies.
Cross-fertilization occurs when a grain of this pollen produces a long tube that eventually grows down
the style into the ovary that contains the ovules. (Pollen grains and ovules are sacs that contain sex
cells.) A gamete in the pollen grain and a gamete in an ovule join and, as in animals, a zygote is formed.
The zygote then begins a series of divisions to produce an embryo. The embryo will eventually develop
into a new individual. In most plants, the embryo is produced inside the seed. The seed protects the
embryo and stores food for the embryo to use when it begins to grow into a new individual. Unlike
animals, the new embryo may not begin to grow for some time, but stays dormant within the seed until
it has suitable growing conditions. Plants that are produced from cross-fertilization will show some of
the characteristics from the parent that donated female gametes and some form the parent that
donated male gametes. It will not be identical to either parent.

Cell division
Asexual reproduction
- If its DNA molecules were divided between the two organisms, each new individual would have
only half the DNA of the parent cell.
- The parent cell first makes an exact copy of its DNA, and each chromosome doubles.
 - For a short time, the parent cell has twice the amount of DNA it usually has.
- When the cell eventually divides, each new cell gets one complete copy of the DNA.
Mitosis
- In multicellular organisms, the process that produced two new cells with the same number of
chromosomes is called mitosis
- Mitosis occurs in the body cells of multicellular organisms and is responsible of the growth
meiosis
- Meiosis occurs in the gametes of sexually reproducing organisms.
- During sexual reproduction, the specialized sex cells unite to form a zygote, which then devolves
into a new organism.
- Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces cells with only half the DNA of a normal cell
- A gamete must contain only one copy of each different chromosome. (To do this the cells must
divide twice)

Chemistry
What is Matter?
All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms can have different properties, and
can combine together in different ways to form molecules. This is way we have so many
different types of matter. Each type of matter behaves in different ways based on their chemical
composition. (Alkali metals are extremely reactive and Noble Gases are not reactive at all.)

States of Matter
The particle model explains why matter exists in different states:
- In solids, particles are very close together (strong attractive forces). Particles do not
move around very much became they don’t have a lot of energy. Solids thus maintain
their shape in a given container.
- In liquids, particles are able to move past one another because they have some energy.
Liquids thus take the shape of the container they are in.
- In gases, particles are very far apart (weak attractive forces). Particles move freely
because they have a lot of energy. Gases thus expand until they fill the container, they
are in.
States of Matter & Energy Change
- Matter may exist three states (solid, liquid, gas) depending on how much energy its
particle contain.
- The grain or loss of energy results in a change in phase, or state of matter.
- Phase changes are not indicative of chemical reaction.

How Do We Organize Matter?

What Is a property?
- A property is a characteristic or trait people use to identify matter.
- The properties of matter aloe us to identify different substances.
- The properties of matter fall into two categories:
● Physical properties
● Chemical properties

Physical Property Chemical Property

Shape / Color Change in odor

State (solid, liquid, or gas at room Color change

temperature)

How hard it is Behaviour in air (rust)

Melting / boiling point Flammability

Is it magnetic Reaction with acids

How dense is it Reaction with water

Does it conduct electricity (conductivity) Reaction to heat

Ability to dissolve (solubility)

How Can Matter Change?

- Every day, matter undergoes changes
- These changes can be classified as either physical or chemical changes.

What are Chemical Changes?

Chemical changes are caused by chemical reactions. Chemical changes produce matter that is
different from the original matter. At lest one new substance is formed.
- Burning, cooking, rusting and rotting are examples of chemical changes.
- A browning banana is a good example of a chemical change.

To Summarize

Physical Change Chemical Change

Particles stay the same No new substance Particles change a NEW substance is formed
Can be reversed difficult / impossible to reverse

Evidence of change: Evidence of change:

- Change of state (solid to liquid, etc.) - Change in color
- Change of size (breaking, cutting, - Change of temperature
dissolving) - Production of an odor
- Change of shape (bending, stretching, - Production of a gas (like bubbles)
moulding) - Sound produced

Example: Example:
- Ripping paper - Lighting a match
- Melting butter - Baking a cake
- Breaking a pencil - Frying an egg

Chemical Equations
Any chemical reaction can be represented with an equation:
- The substance that combines to produce a chemical reaction are always written to the
 elect of the arrow, and are referred to as reactants.
- The new substance that is produced as a result of the reaction is referred to as the
product, and is always written to the right of the arrow

Example:
What is actually happening when we combine baking soda and vinegar?
HC2H3O2 (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) → NaC2H3O2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2
Vinegar + Baking soda → Sodium acetate + Water + Carbon dioxide
In this reaction, the chemical binds of reactants are broken and rearranged to produce
new substances.

Endothermic vs Exothermic
(All chemical reactions involve changes in energy: that is energy is either absorbed or released.)
- Chemical reactions that release heat or energy are referred to as exothermic.
● E.g., an explosion is an exothermic reaction
● Energy is released when new chemical bonds from
- Chemical reactions that absorb heat or energy are referred to as endothermic.
● E.g., cold - packs rely on an endothermic reaction
● Energy is taken in to break chemical bonds

Endothermic Reactions in Nature

Photosynthesis is one chemical reaction that occurs in nature. During photosynthesis, water,
carbon dioxide, and energy from the sun are converted into glucose (chemical energy) and
oxygen: (Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight → Glucose + Oxygen)
- Because photosynthesis is taking in energy from the sun and storing it in the bonds of
glucose (sugar), it is considered to be an endothermic reaction.
- Notice that the energy is written as a reactant (left of arrow)

Exothermic Reactions in Nature

Cellular respiration is another chemical react in that occurs in nature. Cellular respiration
converts oxygen in the from of “ATP” (usable energy):
(Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP)
- Because cellular respiration involves taking chemical energy from glucose and breaking
it down to release energy in the from of ATP, it is considered to be an exothermic
 reaction
- Notice that energy is written as a product (right of arrow)

Conserving Mass in Chemical Reactions

- Law of Conservation of Mass: In any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the
reactants equals the total mass of the products.
- During a chemical reaction, the atoms rearrange themselves to from products.
- Therefore, all atoms that exist on the reactant side of the erection exist on the product
side of the reaction.

Balanced Equations
Word equation: Hydrogen + oxygen → water
Unbalanced equation: H2 + O2 → H2O
Balanced equation: NaCl + LiF → LiCl + NaF

Types of Chemical Reactions

We will study four different types of chemical reactions:
1. Formation
2. Corrosion
3. Replacement
4. Combustion

1. Formation Reactions
Two or more elements combine to from a compound: (2Mg + O2 → 2MgO)

2. Corrosion Reactions
4Na + O2 → 2NaO
- Metals react with oxygen and form metal oxides
- Corrosion happens when a metal continues to oxidise
- The metal become weaker over time, and eventually all of it may become metal oxide

3. Replacement Reactions
- Single replacement: Ina reaction between a compound and a lone element, one element
in the compound is replaced by the lone element
- Double replacement: In a reaction between two compounds, one element in each
 compound is “swapped” with another element in the other compound.
CuCl2 + Zn → ZnCl2 + Cu HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

4. Combustion Reactions
A carbon - hydrogen compound (fuel) reacts with oxygen to produce water vapour and carbon
dioxide.

Reactivity
- Groups in the periodic table contain elements with similar chemical properties.
- Reactivity increases down the group.

Reaction Rate
- Chemical fractions can occur at different speeds. Rusting, for example, takes place over
long periods of time, whereas other combustion reactions occur instantly when ignited.
- Reaction rate is a measure of how fast a reaction occurs. Reaction rate is typically
determined by assessing the number of products released over a given period of time.

Changing Reaction Rate

How can we speed up or slow down the rate of a chemical reaction?
- Stirring: Increased stirring speed up reaction rate
- Temperature: Higher temperatures speed up reaction rate
- Reactant Concentrations: Higher concentration speed up reaction rate
- Surface Area: Reactants with a greater surface area exposed will speed up reaction rate

Catalysts
- Substances known as catalysts can also be added to some chemical reactions to speed
up their reaction rate.
- A catalyst is not consumed or changed during the reaction, nor does it change the
amount of product that results; a catalyst simply increases the speed of the reaction.
- Catalysts that speed up biological processes are referred to as enzymes (ex. your saliva
 contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that helps break down carbohydrates into
simple sugars)

Introduction to the Periodic Table

- In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleev reorganized the 62 known elements (at the time) into a table
based on atomic masses.
- His organization was so precise that he predicted the existence of element that had not
even been discovered yet!
- Mendeleev not only predicted the existence of these elements, but also their Chemical
Properties based on where they must occur on the Periodic Table.

Basic Organization
- The Periodic Table organizes all of the 118 known elements into periods and groups
based on their similar characteristics.
- There are 7 periods arranged horizontally and 18 groups arranged vertically.
- The elements are arranged from left to right in order of their ATOMIC NUMBER.
- They are also in order from MOST REACTIVE on the left, to LEAST REACTIVE on the
right.

Classifying Elements
Metals Metalloids / Semi - Metals Non - Metals

To the LEFT of the staircase ON the staircase To the RIGHT of the

staircase

Shiny / Lustrous Properties of metals and non Dull

- metals

Solid (except Hg) Solid, liquid, or gas

High conductivity of heat and Poor conductors of heat and

electricity electricity (insulators)

Ductile (formed into wires) Brittle

and Malleable (bendable and
can be beaten into sheets)

Groups to Know
Group 1 - Alkali Metals:
- Very soft, don’t occur freely in nature
- Very reactive
- easily give an electron to form a compound
- need special storage
- lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, francium
Group 2 - Alkaline Earth Metals
- Very reactive (not as reactive as group 1)
- Not found freely in nature (radium, calcium)

Group 17 - Halogens
- Non - metallic elements
- Most reactive non - metals (unpaired electron)
- Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine

Group 18 - Noble Gasses

- Maximum number of electrons possible in their outer shell making them stable
- Are non-reactive
- Helium, Neon, Krypton

Element Cards show the following information

(Atomic Mass is also the number of Protons AND Neutrons in one atom of this element.)

Three important things about the Element Card

1. The Atomic Mass is the average mass of 1 atom of this element, and also the number of
protons + neutrons.
2. The Atomic Number is the number of protons in 1 atom (there are the same number of
electrons in stable elements).
3. The Element Symbol and Name might not be the same as the English name.

Ag is an abbreviation of
the Latin word for silver,
“Argentum”.
The Atom
Although atoms are the building blocks of matter, they can be further broken down into three
types of subatomic particles…
- Protons (positively charged particles found in the nucleus)
- Neutrons (neutral particles found in the nucleus)
- Electrons (negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus)

A Brief History of Atomic Models

(THOMSON’S “PLUM PUDDING” MODEL)

Atomic theory has been revised many times throughout history. Each past atomic model was
developed based on a set of observations, and eventually disproved and altered to fit a new set
of observations. You’ll notice that newer models are simply small improvements on old ideas…
- Thomson thought that since atoms do not have a charge, they must consist of a
positively charged mass embedded with negatively charged particles, which he called
electrons
- The positive and negative components balanced each other out

(RUTHERFORD’S “PLANETARY” MODEL)

- Rutherford suggested that almost all of an atom’s mass was located in its centre, which
he named the nucleus.
- The nucleus was composed of positively charged particles called protons.
- The rest of the atom was mostly empty space, occupied only by very small electrons
which rotated around the nucleus at random.

(BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL)

- Bohr also pictured the atom like a miniature solar system; however, he hypothesized that
electrons rotated around the nucleus in fixed pathways called electron shells.
- Although the exact pathway of electrons could not be calculated, their energy level could
be
- He also determined that the nucleus must consist of both protons and neutrons
(ELECTRON CLOUD MODEL)
- Scientists like Schrodinger and Louis de Broglie realized that although electrons do have
distinct energy levels, they behave more like waves than particles
- Their electron cloud model is based on a series of mathematical equations allowing us to
predict where electrons are most likely to be found

Ions
During a chemical reaction, atoms gain or lose electrons to form chemical bonds with other
atoms, thereby becoming more stable. The gain or loss of electrons (which have a negative
charge) produces an ion, or an atom that is no longer neutral.
- If an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is referred to as an anion
- If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged and is referred to as a cation

Compounds vs. Molecules

- A compound consists of two or more different elements bonded together.
- A molecule consists of any two elements bonded together; elements can be the same,
or they can be different.
- For example: CO2 and O2 are both considered to be molecules, but only CO2 is
considered to be a compound.
- Elements which always bond together in their pure form are called diatomic elements
(O2 and H2 are both examples).

Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas tell us which elements are present in a compound, how many of each
element is present, and what state of matter the compound is at room temperature.
- Letters tell you which elements are in the compound
- Subscript numbers after each letter tell you if there are more than one atom of that
element present (no subscript indicates only one atom of that element is present)
- Subscript letters tell you the state of matter

Chemical Bonds
What holds elements together when they form compounds? Elements are held together by
chemical bonds, which form when elements share, gain, or lose electrons. There are two types
of chemical bonds:
- Ionic: Electrons are transferred between a metal and a non-metal
- Molecular/Covalent: Electrons are shared between two non-metals
Properties of Molecular Compounds
Weak bonds form between two non-metals when they share electrons to complete their
valence shell:
- Molecular compounds have no unpaired electrons, so they do not form ions
- Do not typically dissolve in water or conduct electricity
- Can be a solid, liquid or gas at room temperature

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Strong bonds form between a metal and a non-metal when they gain or lose electrons to
complete or get rid of a lone pair:
- Results in the formation of ions which dissociate in solution
- When dissolved in water, charged particles can conduct electricity
- Always solids at room temp

Naming Compounds

- Chemical compounds often have common names. E.g., we call H2O “water”, and NaCl
“salt”.
- However, compounds also have a scientific name that corresponds to the IUPAC
naming system.
- This allows scientists to name compounds in a consistent manner.
- A number of specific rules must be followed when giving the IUPAC names of ionic and
molecular compounds…

Naming Molecular Compounds

The names of binary molecular compounds (compounds made up of two different elements)
follow these rules:
1. Write the name of the first element listed in the chemical formula.

2. Write the name of the second element listed in the chemical formula. 1 = mono 6 = hexa
Change the ending of its name to “-ide” (e.g., chlorine becomes 2 = di 7 = hepta
chloride) 3 = tri 8 = octa
3. Use a prefix to indicate how many atoms of each element are present: 4 = tetra 9 = nona
* Note that the prefix “mono” is only used if referring to the second 5 = penta 10 = deca
element!

Writing Chemical Formulas: Molecular Compounds

Based on these rules, we are also able to write the chemical formula for any molecular
compound if given its name. For example…

→ “methane” = carbon tetrahydride = CH4

(Common name) (IUPAC name) (Chemical formula)
Naming Ionic Compounds
The names of ionic compounds follow these rules:
- The name includes both elements in the compound, with the name of the metallic
element listed first
- The non-metallic element is listed second, and its ending is changed to “-ide”
- Subscript numbers of the chemical formula that are used to indicate the ratio of ions in
the compound are NOT included in the name (no prefixes necessary)

Writing Chemical Formulas: Ionic Compounds

Based on these rules, we are also able to write the chemical formula for any ionic compound if
given its name. However, because there are no prefixes to tell us how many of each atom is
required, we must instead add subscript numbers to balance the charge formed by each
element as an ion.

Environmental Chemistry
Elements Required For life
- 25 of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential for life!!
- The most biologically important ones are known as … SPONCH

On Average What Percentage of SPONCH Is in Living Things?

* SPONCH elements are known as Macronutrients, because they are needed in large
amounts.
* Other elements are known as Micronutrients, because they are only needed in trace
amounts.
Sulfur Trace (<1%)
Phosphorus 1%
Oxygen 65%
Nitrogen 3.3%
Carbon 18.5%
Hydrogen 3.0%
SPONCH Elements
Building blocks of organic compounds
- Come for living things
- Contain carbon and hydrogen
- Come in 4 types
● Carbohydrates
● Proteins
● Lipids
● Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates
- Simple carbohydrates: sugars that break down quickly to give fast energy
- Complex carbohydrates: starches that supply longer lasting energy

Lipids
- The body’s second source of energy
- Very energy dense (twice as much energy as carbs)

Proteins
- Only used as energy as a last resort
- Responsible for building tissues, growth, enzymes (speed up chemical reactions),
fighting disease, regulation

Nucleic Acid
- Not a source of energy
- Includes DNA and genetic material

Inorganic Compounds
- Do not contain both hydrogen and carbon
- Known as minerals
- Used to create enzymes and minerals in the body

What Are Acids and How Do They Taste Like?

- Sodas, salad dressing, some fruits, etc.
- Sour, tart, and tangy
What Are Bases and How Do They Taste Like?
- Baking soda, soap, etc.
- Bitter, feel slippery

pH scale

- Is a number scale from measuring how acidic or basic something is?

● It goes from 0 to 14
● No units
- Acids: Solutions that have a pH from 0-7 (Not including 7)
- Bases: Solutions that have a pH from 7-14 (Not including 7)
- Neutral Solutions: Produce solutions where pH 7

pH Indicators
Litmus Paper
- Litmus paper comes in two forms, red and blue.
- When blue litmus is placed in a solution that is acidic (below pH 7), the blue litmus
paper turns red.
- When red litmus paper is placed into a solution that is basic (above pH 7), the red
litmus paper changes to blue.
- If blue litmus stays blue = NEUTRAL SOLUTION
- If red litmus stays red = NEUTRAL SOLUTION

pH Paper
Paper that turns different color depending on the acidity/basicity of the solution

Digital pH meter
The most accurate
Universal Indicator
A liquid that turns different color when you add acid or base to it (i.e., when the acidity or
basicity changes)

Production of Ions
Bases (Produce OH-)
● NaOH
● Ca (OH)2
● KOH
● NH4OH
- Low pH = very little OH- = low concentration of OH-
- High pH = lot of OH- = high concentration of OH-

Acids (Produce H+)

● HCl
● H2SO4
● HF
● HNO3
- Low pH = lot of H+ = high concentration of H+
- High pH = very little H+ = low concentration of H+

Neutralization = balance of H+ and OH-

When acids (containing H+) combine with bases (containing OH-), they form water = NEUTRAL
SOLUTION
- H+ + OH- → HOH
- H+ + OH- → H2O

Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are burned in order to power our vehicles’ and heat up our homes. This process
releases large amounts of chemicals into the atmosphere, which has two major consequences
for our environment:
- Climate change: Extreme weather events related to a rapid increase in global
temperature.
- Acid precipitation: The production of rain and snow with a lower-than-normal ph.
Acid precipitation
Acid precipitation, commonly known as acid rain, occurs when sulfates & nitrates combine with
moisture in the air to produce rain with a lower-than-normal ph.
- Manufacturing processes and vehicle emissions release sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxide
into the atmosphere, which returns to the ground as acid precipitation.

Little Moose Lake – 1977

- Precipitation with a pH lower that 5.5 is considered acid rain / snow.
- Spring acid shock – snow melts and flows into aquatic systems causing serious harm to
the eggs and young offspring of fish.

What’s the Big Deal?

- Leads to the acidification of lakes and oceans, disrupting the chemical equilibrium
organisms need to survive.
- Destroys the tissues of plants, leading to the destruction of entire forests and reducing
crop productivity
- Erodes man – made buildings, monuments, and natural rock formations.
- Increases acidity of soil, making it more difficult for plants to grow
*Most organisms cannot survive with a pH lower than 4.5

Using Chemistry to Control Acid Effects

Recall that by combining an acid & a base, we can produce a neutral substance. This concept
of neutralization has many applications…
- By adding a basic substance (ex. Calcium carbonate) to an acidified body of water, we
can help restore the pH to a more neutral level, thereby improving the health of the
ecosystem
- This process is known as liming (calcium carbonate is a compensate of limestone)

Preventative Solutions to Acid Rain

Since it is impractical to neutralize all of the acid precipitation caused by human activities, the
only other option is to reduce or eliminate the oxides (pollutants) that are being released into the
atmosphere. There are a few different technologies which allow us to do this…
- Catalytic converters: Installed in vehicles to catalyze the combustion reaction, thereby
ensuring that carbon dioxide and water are produced (complete combustion) rather than
carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion).
- Scrubbers: Reduces the emission of sulfur gas by industrial manufacturing plants by
absorbing or capturing oxides with a lime slurry.
Water System Health / What Effects it?
When it comes to the health of a water system, there are many factors that go into it. The
balance between physical, chemical and biological variables determines the health of a water
system.
*These variables are subject to change from both natural and man – made forces.
Physical Chemical Biological
- Temperature - Dissolved oxygen (+ - Fish
other gases)
- Turbidity - pH - Algae
- Water movement - Nitrates - Insects
- Salinity - Plants

Monitoring Water Quality

- Monitoring: Keeping track of something for a specific purpose.
- Water quality is determined by what water is used for. It is regulated by technicians.
- There are five categories of water use:
 Human drinking water
 Recreation such as swimming
 Livestock drinking water
 Irrigation
 Protection of aquatic life

Biological Indicators
- Scientist use organisms that live in the water to help determine water quality.

Microbiological Indicators
Small samples of water are examined to determine the number and types of harmful
microscopic organisms present.

Waterborne Bacteria
Symptoms usually are explosive emissions from either end of the digestive tract.
- Bacteria that can be found:
 Escherichia coli
 Campylobacter

Aquatic Invertebrates
Invertebrates are also used for monitoring water quality. Different invertebrates can tolerate
different living conditions.
- Group 1 / These benthic macroinvertebrates need good quality water.
- They are generally pollution intolerant.
 Mayfly
 Water Penny
 Stonefly
 Caddisfly
- Group 2 / These are benthic macroinvertebrates who can live in a wide range of water
quality conditions.
- They can tolerate moderately polluted water.
 Damselfly
 Dragon Fly Larvae
 Crayfish
 Scud
 Sow Bug
- Group 3 / These benthic macroinvertebrates can tolerate pollution and survive in poor
water quality.
- They can be found in all types of water.
 Blackfly Larvae
 Blood Worms
 Midge Fly Larvae
 Cranefly Larvae
 Leech

Dissolved Oxygen Part 1

Most organisms need at lest 5 ppm of oxygen in order to survive. Therefore, dissolved oxygen is
essential for the health of aquatic life.
Dissolved Oxygen Level (ppm or mg / L)
Dissolved O2 8 Excellent
Dissolved O2 6 Good
Dissolved O2 4 Low
Dissolved O2 2 Very Low
Dissolved O2 0 Critical
Consequences
Large variety of invertebrates (insect larvae,
beetles, worms) Many species of fish and
other desirable organisms.
Few mayfly larvae, some stonefly larvae,
some beetles, many midge larvae, many
worms including leeches.
Freshwater shrimp, many midge larvae,
many worms including leeches. Some
species have difficulty living in critical levels.
Many midge larvae, some worms including
leeches.
No species of game fish exist, some midge
larvae, some worms

Chemical Indicators
Scientists’ use the concentrations of different organic and inorganic compounds to determine
water quality.
- The following are monitored as indicators of water quality:
 Dissolved Oxygen
 Acidity
 Heavy Metals
 Plant Nutrients (Such as nitrogen and phosphorus)
 Pesticides
 Salts (Such as sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate)

Parts Per Million

Most dissolved substances found in water are measured in parts per million (ppm). One part per
million (1ppm) means that one unit of a substance can be found in one million units of water.
- 1 ppm is about the same as 1 drop of food colouring in a half-filled bath tub.
- 1 ppb is about the same as 1 drop of food colouring in a swimming pool.
- 1 ppt is about the same as 1 drop of food colouring in 1000 swimming pools.
*ppm = (amount of chemical divided by the amount of water) x 1000000

Dissolved oxygen Part 2