Statistics and probability
Statistics assists the researcher to be definite and exact in his
CHAPTER 1
Meaning of statistics
 Statistics is defined in three ways namely, singular, plural, and
general.
 Statistics in singular sense refers to the branch of
mathematics which deals with the systematic collection,
tabulation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data which are collected in methodical manner
without bias.
 Statistics in its plural sense denotes a set of quantitative data or
facts.
 In its general sense, statistics is divided into statistical methods
and statistical theory, or mathematical statistics.
 Statistical methods involve procedures and techniques used in
the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data.
 On the other hand, statistical theory or mathematical statistics
deals with the development and exposition of theories which
constitutes the bases of the statistical methods.
Qualities of a good statistician
 Scientific. A good statistician is systematic or precise in using the
appropriate statistical tools to arrive at exact analysis and
interpretation of the results of study or research.
 Talented. A good statistician is brilliant or gifted with a well
rounded personality.
 Active. A good statistician is energetic in all fields of endeavor.
 Tenacious. A good statistician has retentive memory that can
easily recall formulas of the different statistical tools.
 Inventive. A good statistician is also a good researcher because
statistics and research are inseparable subjects. They are like
faces of the same coin, one face is statistics and the other face is
research. Also statistics is the language of research hence he
invents or discovers new researchers.
 Skillful. Another quality of a good statistician is proficiency in
computing the different statistical data with and without the use
of computer.
 Terrific. A good statistician has extraordinary abilities to arrive at
extraordinary achievements.
 Innovative. A good statistician is updated with the latest trends
and always finds new and better ways of doing things.
 Creative. A good statistician is resourceful and uses his own
ideas and abilities to arrive at productive results.
 Interpretative. A good statistician knows how to interpret
logically the statistical results to arrive at scientific analysis and
interpretation.
 Accurate. A good statistician is accurate and careful in
computing the data of different statistical tools.
 Noble. A good statistician is dignified and decent in his
profession.
Scope of statistics
 Statistics is the heart of scientific researchers and it is used in all
fields of endeavors, i.e., fisheries, agriculture, commerce, trade
and industry, education, biology, economics, psychology,
sociology, chemistry, physics engineering, computer, and food
technology.
Functions of statistics
1. Statistics provides researches the means to scientifically
measure the conditions that may be involve in a given research
question and evaluating the way in which these conditions are
related.
2. Statistics shows the laws underlying facts and events that cannot
be determined by individual observation.
3. Statistics reveals the relations of cause and effect that otherwise
may remain unknown.
4. Statistics observe trends and behavior in related conditions
which otherwise remain unclear.
Importance of statistics to research
1. Statistics permits the most exact kind of description.
2.
procedures and in his thinking.
3. Statistics enables the researcher to summarize results in a
meaningful and convenient form.
4. Statistics enables the researcher to draw general conclusions.
The process of extracting conclusions is carried out according to
accepted rules.
5. Statistics enables the researcher to predict “how much” of a
thing will happen under conditions he knows and has measured.
Objectives of researcher in studying statistics
1. To comprehend the logic of statistics.
2. To determine where to apply appropriate statistical tools in
different research question and where not to apply them.
3. To interpret statistical results correctly and vividly.
4. To determine the basic mathematics in statistics.
5. To master the language of statistics.
Population
 Population refers to the entire group or set of individuals or
items to which the researchers would like to generalize the
results of the study.
 The population will be used by the researchers in order to
determine the scientific output of the research.
 A population is further distinguished by its role in the study
Classification of population
 Target population refers to the entire set of individuals about
which we require information, e.g., all 20-year old in Camarines
Norte.
 The accessible population is the basic finite set of individuals
from which a sample is drawn. This may be a more limited
population, e.g., all 20-year old in Daet, Camarines Norte.
Example Problem 1
Consider the research problem “The effects of Multimedia
Instruction on the Mathematical Achievement of First Year High School
Students in the Division of Camarines Norte.”
Determine the target population and the accessible population?
Answer:
a. Target population
All first-year high school students enrolled in the
Division of Camarines Norte.
b. Accessible population
All first-year high school students enrolled in the pilot
high schools, Division of Camarines Norte.
Sample size
 A sample is a group of individuals in a research study on which
information of generalization about the population is drawn.
 Sample determination is essential in any study or research
paper, thus the researchers must describe it in adequate detail
so that others can verify the applicability of the results to their
own situations.
Example:
Ten percent (10%) of the first-year high school students enrolled
in the pilot high school, Division of Camarines Norte.
 Formula Involving Sample
SLOVIN’S FORMULAS – the most common formula used in determining the
sufficient sample size
N
n= 2
1+ N e
where: n=sample size
N=population size
e=desired margin of error (usually 0.05 or
5%)
 Formula Involving Sample
LYNCH’S FORMULA – can also be used to determine the size of the
population
2
N Z ∗P( 1−P)
n=
N d 2 + Z 2∗P(1−P)
 where: n= sample size N 2475
N= population size n= =
1+ N e 1+(2475)¿ ¿
2
z= normal variable for reliability level of
0.95 or 95% (usually 1.96) n=3 44.35 ≈ 344
P= largest possible proportion (usually
0.50)
 Stratified Random Sampling:
d= sampling error ( usually 0.05)

 Example Problem 2 800

Compute the sufficient sample size of a target population Grade 7= ∗344=111.19 ( round off ) =111
consisting of 1,524 sixth graders in a given school district using Sloven’s 2475
Formula. 650
Given: N=1,524 e= 0.05 Grade 8= ∗344=90.34 ( round off )=90
Solution:
2475
N 1524
n= = 725
1+ N e 1+1524 ¿¿
2
Grade 9= ∗344=100.77 ( round off )=101
≈ 317 2475

 Example Problem 3 300

Compute the sufficient sample size in example 2 using the Grade 10= ∗344=42.70 ( round off )=42
Lynch’s Formula. 2475
Given: N= 1524, Z= 1.96, P=0.50, Total sample size = 344
d= 0.05
Solution:  WITH THE AID OF COMPUTER
2 Step 1: Open an excel spreadsheet by clicking on the excel icon.
2
N Z ∗P( 1−P) 1524 (1.96 )∗(0.50)(1−0.50) Step 2: Double click on the specific cell to activate it. Enter the given
n= =
2 2
(
N d + Z ∗P(1−P) 1524 0.052 +1.96 2∗( 0.50)(1−0.50) )
information.
Step 3: Entering a mathematical formula in the cell.
Step 4: Filling the total sample size calculation.

1524(3.84)∗(0.50)(0.50) CHAPTER 2
¿ The Frequency Distribution
1524 ( 0.0025 ) +(3.84)(0.50)(0.50) Ungrouped and grouped data
5852.16(0.25)  For ungrouped data distribution, a
¿ researcher may adopt the usual method of
3.81+(3.84)(0.25)
listing the respondents in alphabetical
1463.04 1463.04 manner. However, the scores are difficult
¿ = =306.72
3.81+ 0.96 4.77 to interpret. A more convenient way to
interpret the data is using the array
≈ 307
method – arranging the scores in
Stratified random sampling descending or ascending order of
 Stratified random sampling is a process of subdividing the
population into subgroups or strata and drawing members at
magnitude, i.e., 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, and
random from each subgroup or stratum in the same proportion 18 or 18 ,18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23.
as they exist in the population.
 The steps in identifying the sample size from the given
 For grouped data distribution, an array
population are as follows: may help make the overall pattern of data
1. Determine the total population size per stratum;
2. Compute the sample size by applying Sloven’s
apparent. However, if the number of
Formula; scores is large, construction of the array
3. Compute the sample size per stratum by dividing the
population of the first stratum by the total population
may have to be done on a computer. Thus,
multiplied by the sample population size applying if the researcher wanted to represent the
Sloven’s formula;
4. Compute the total population size by adding the
data clearly he can adopt a frequency
sample size per stratum; and distribution – tabular presentation that
5. See to it that the total sample size per stratum is
equal to the result utilizing Sloven’s formula.
shows number of data items that fall in
each of several distinct classes.
 Example Problem 4
Determine the sample size for each year level given in the table Frequency distribution
below (Raw Data)
Computation of Sample Sizes According to Year Level  The following are the procedures in
Manual Computation construction of frequency distribution:
Solution:
Using Slovin 1. Find the range (R). The range is the
difference between the smallest
 and largest value in a frequency
distribution. The mathematical K=1+ [ 3.322 (logN ) ] =1+ [ 3.322( log 50) ] =1+¿
expression for the range is shown in ¿ 1+5.64=6.64
equation below. = 6.64 ≈ 7 (Note: round-off to the
R=HS−LS next integer.)
where: R = range Step 3: Determine the value of C using its
HS = Highest Score equation.
LS = Lowest Score R 23
C= = =3.29 ≈ 4
2. Determine the tentative number of K 7
classes (K). Equation below shows Step 4: Write the class intervals with the
the mathematical formula for the lowest score. Stop when the class already includes
determination of number of classes the highest score thus,
(K) value. 26 – 29
K=1+ [ 3.322 (logN ) ] 22 – 25
where: K = number of classes 18 – 21
N = number of participants 14 – 17
3. Determine the tentative size of the 10 – 13
class interval (C). Class interval is any of the intervals 6–9
into which adjacent discrete values of a variable are Step 5: Determine the class frequency for each
divided. Equation below shows the mathematical class interval by referring to the tally column and
formula to the determination of class interval. present the result in tabular form.
R
C=  MANUAL COMPUTATION
K
where: C = class interval Solution:
R = range Frequency: 29 + 219 + 37
K = number of = 285
classes 15 y/o & below:
29
4. Write the class interval starting ∗100=10.175 ( round off )=10.18 %
with the lowest score. Stop when the class already 285
includes the highest score. 16 – 17 y/o:
219
5. Determine the class frequency for ∗100=76.842 ( round off ) =76.84 %
285
each class interval by referring to the tally column
18 y/o & above:
and present the results in a tabular form.
37
∗100=12.982 ( round off ) =12.98 %
285
 Example Problem 1:
Total Percentage: 10.18% +
Construct a frequency distribution of the
76.84% + 12.98% = 100.00%
scores of 50 students in the Science II midterm
exam. The scores are as follows: 29, 25, 23, 20, 18, CHAPTER 3
17, 15, 13, 10, 9, 28, 24, 21, 20, 18, 16, 15, 12, 10, The Measures of Central Tendency
9, 27, 24, 20, 19, 18, 16, 15, 12, 9, 8, 26, 23, 20, 19, (Mean)
17, 16, 14, 10, 9, 8, 26, 23, 20, 19, 17, 16, 14, 10, 9, Definition: Central Tendency
6.  Central tendency refers to a central
Solution: reference value which is usually close to the
Step 1: Determine the value of R point of greatest concentration of the
using its formula. measurements and may in some sense be
R=HS−LS=29−6=23 thought to typify the whole set. It is the
Step 2: Determine the value of K most suitable measure found to be helpful
using its own formula. in describing a distribution of observation.
In educational research the three most
 useful central tendency are the mean, Use equation 3.1 to get the mean score of
median, and mode. Kyle,

MEAN
x=
∑ x = 58+60+ 67+84 +93+ 98+100 = 560 =80
 The mean of a distribution is commonly n 7 7
understood as the arithmetic average. It is
computed by adding the values of all the Thus, Kyle’s grade will be B.
entries, i.e., scores, and dividing the sum by
the number of entries. There are two
equations that can be used in an
educational research, see equation 3.1 and
3.2 below.
CHAPTER 4
Equation 3.1 Measures of Spread of Dispersion
x=
∑x (Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation)
n
Where: x = mean Learning outcomes
∑x =  Manifest knowledge and skills on the
summation of x or sum of scores in principles and concepts of measures of
distribution spread.
n = number of  Solve problems involving mean absolute
scores deviation, variance, and standard deviation.

Equation 3.2 Definition: Central Tendency

x=
∑ fx  Measures of central tendency describe
n location along as ordered scale. There are
Where: characteristics that call for additional types
x = mean of statistical analysis. There are instances
that the results of mean and median of two
∑❑ = different groups with different respondents
summation
f = frequency are identical. The table below shows the
x = class mark scores of two groups of students in Physics.
or midpoint As shown in the table scores of the
n = number of respondents in group 1 is different from the
scores scores of the group 2 respondents however
the computed mean and median of group 1
and group 2 is the same, i.e., 80.
 Example Problem 1:
Kyle needs at least a B in English in order to Scores of Two Groups of Students in Physics
avail a scholarship grant. She did not do too Group 1 Group 2
well on her first three tests. However, she Student Scor Grad Students Scor Grad
did quite well on the last four. Here are the s e e e e
scores: 58, 60, 67, 84, 93, 98, and 100. John 99 A Erica 84 C+
Calculate the mean and determine if Kyle’s Francis 90 B Jherriema 83 C+
grade will be a B (80 – 89) or a C (70 – 79). e
Clarisse 80 C+ Marites 80 C+
Solution: Anne 75 C Angie 77 C
Given: n = 7 Aida 56 F Lalaine 76 C
∑ x =400 n = 5 ∑ x =400 n = 5 numbers in a sample, equal to the square of the

x=
∑ x = 400 =80 x=
∑ x = 400 =80 standard deviation. The variance ( s2 ) for
n 5 n 5 ungrouped data can be computed using eq. 4.2. On
Md = 80 Md = 80 the other hand the variance for grouped data can
be determined using eq. 4.3.
Apparently, the performance result in the
table above does not fully describe the differences
in achievement between two groups. To contrast
their performance, it is necessary to use a measure
of score spread or dispersion. The measures of
central tendency and dispersion taken together
give a better picture of a data set than the measure
of central tendency alone.

Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)

The mean absolute deviation (MAD)
considers the variation of the individual scores in a
distribution. The mean absolute deviation can be
determined using equation 4.1. As shown in
equation 4.1, the mean absolute deviation is equal
to the summation of the absolute value of the
difference between each score and the mean
divided by the number of scores.

Equation 4.1:
MAD=
∑|x −x|
n
Where: n = number of scores
MAD = mean
absolute deviation
x = mean score
x = score

Example Problem 1
A team sales representative from a leading
car dealer in the Philippines was audited by their
managers. The gross sales made by the three sales
representatives from a team during the first four
months of 2013 was revealed and tabulated as
shown below. Determine the MAD of each sales
representative.

VARIANCE
The variance is a measure of variability that
considers the position of each observation relative
to the mean of the set of scores. It is a statistical
measure of the spread or variation of a group of