Mace S7M - Amndt 2023

Course: B Tech in Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, MACE
Semester: VII
Subject: MET413 Advanced Methods in Non-destructive Testing Vision
(Programme Elective)
Mentoring to ensure excellence
Mission
To facilitate comprehensive and integrated
development of students by providing quality
education that encourages sustainable practices
Dr. Kora T Sunny

Assistant Professor To mould disciplined and socially committed
Department of Mechanical Engineering engineers capable of assuming professional
Mar Athanasius College of Engineering leadership upholding National integrity
Kothamangalam – 686 666, Kerala.
Dept. of Mech. Engg., MACE.
23 November 2023 2
Module 1 Module 4
Visual Testing -Liquid Penetrant Testing-Magnetic Particle Testing- Magnetic Phased Array Techniques- Principles of phased array inspection –
Particle Testing Equipment- Eddy Current Testing – Selection of testing phased array probes and their characteristics – Phased array wedges –
methods- Codes, Standards and Specifications. Focal law– Beam shaping, steering –Scanning with phased array
Module 2 probes- linear, sectorial, C scan. Time of Flight Diffraction Theory and
Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Waves-- Snell’s law and critical angles – Fresnel principles of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)–Data acquisition and
and Fraunhofer effects– wave propagation in other engineering materials. interpretation– TOFD techniques – selection of probe angle– calibration
Generation of ultrasonic waves– contact testing, immersion testing. and optimization, optimizing angles– flaw location and sizing– codes
Ultrasonic Guided Waves- Basics of guided waves– Generation of guided and standards–interpretation, evaluation, applications. Introduction to
waves–Introduction to Electro –Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT - Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT). Structural Health
Optical methods in Ultrasonics- Laser Ultrasonics –optical detection of Monitoring (SHM)-methods- strain gauging- genetic algorithm.
ultrasound – measurement of in plane displacement and velocity – Laser Module 5
shearography – Applications. Acoustic emission inspection-Leak Testing - -Thermographic NDE-
Module 3 Contact and non contact thermal inspection methods– Heat sensitive
Basic Principles of Radiography -Film Radiography –Radiographic Image paints – Heat sensitive papers –Inspection methods – Infrared radiation
Quality and Radiographic Techniques -Radiation Detectors and Safety - and infrared detectors–thermo mechanical behavior of materials– IR
Principle of radiation- Special Radiographic Techniques and Interpretation of imaging in aerospace applications-Digital Radiography and Computed
radiographs of Fluoroscopy-Real-time radioscopy – Principle of neutron Tomography (CT) -computed radiography(CR) and direct radiography
radiography - – Principle and application of in motion and flash radiography- (DR) -industrial CT.
Interpretation of radiographs:- (ASME, ASTM, AWS, BS, IBR etc.)
23 November 2023 3 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 4
Dept. of Mech. Engg., MACE. Engg., MACE.
Course outcomes
MODULE 1
Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 5 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 6

Engg., MACE. Engg., MACE.
Destructive Testing
Vs Destructive Testing
Non Destructive Testing
Destructive testing comprises of various test • Advantages
methods where the specimen is destroyed/ 1. Measurements are direct and reliable
damaged/ broken to determine the physical and 2. Usually quantitative measurements
mechanical properties. 3. Correlation between test measurements and
Non-destructive testing (NDT) involves wide material properties are direct
range of techniques for determining the
characteristics of materials and to locate the defect
without damaging the specimen.

Destructive Testing Non Destructive Testing
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
1. Does not damages the specimen
1. Damages the specimen
2. 100%testing on actual components is possible
2. Single test may measure only one or few of the
properties 3. In service testing is possible, so break downcan
be prevented.
3. In-service testing is not possible
4. Repeated checks over a period of time
4. Qualitative measurements are not possible.
are possible to reduce accidents and safety
issues.
5. Test results are rapid
Non Destructive Testing Scope of NDT

• To provide quality control of a product during
• Disadvantages manufacturing stage or during fabrication.
1. High initial investment required • To ensure that an item confirms to required
2. Skilled and experienced worker is required to specification.
conduct the test and to interpret the result. • To examine a plant, equipment or components
during service to ensure that the requirements are
met and to prevent breakdown or failure.
• To be used as a diagnostic tool in research and
development.

Introduction to visual testing

Types of Visual Inspection (VI) Direct Visual Testing

1. Direct visual testing • Inspection using naked eye, magnifying lenses,
2. Remote/ indirect visual testing Mirrors etc

Remote/ Indirect visual testing Microscope
• Microscope a combination of lenses used to magnify the
image of a small object.
• Fiberscope, bore scope, robotic crawlers etc are used
• The object is placed close to the lens to obtain as high
magnification as possible.
Bore scope
• Bore scope is an instrument designed to enable an
observer to inspect the inside surface of narrow tubes,
bores, chambers etc.
• It consists of precision built in illumination system having a
complex arrangement of prisms and plain lenses through
which light is passed to the observer with maximum
efficiency.
Endoscope Fiberscope & Bore scope

• An endoscope is almost similar to bore scope.
• Endoscope has a superior optical system and a
high intensity light source.
Fibre optic bore scope (Fibrescope)
• A flexible fibre optic bore scope permits the
instrument to access corners and through passages
with several directional changes.
• It is designed to provide sharp and clear images of
parts and interior surfaces that are normally
impossible to inspect.
Telescope Robotic crawlers
• Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of (Eg. For inspecting crude oil pipelines)
objects at considerable distance from the observer.
• It is particularly use full for providing visual
examination of the surface which is other wise
inaccessible.
CCTV
• A Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) can be also
used for inspecting inaccessible areas.

Applications of visual inspection Visual Inspection

• Inspection of plant/ systems/ component for any
leakage, abnormal operation etc…
• Misalignment of parts in equipments
• Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fractures etc
• Defects in weldments such as surface cracks, lack
of penetration, porosities etc

Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) also
known as Dye penetrant inspection (DPI) or
penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied low- cost
inspection method for locating surface- breaking
defects in all non-porous materials like metals, plastics
or ceramics.

LPI – Working principle

1. Capillary action
• Also known as capillarity or capillary motion or wicking is
the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of (or even in opposition to) external forces
like gravity.
2. Surface tension
• The cohesive/ attractive force between liquid molecules

Desirable properties of penetrants Desirable properties of penetrants
1. Wetting ability - Good wetting ability improves penetrability
and bleed-back characteristics. 5. Solubility - A penetrant must hold sufficient dye at
2. LessVolatile - Highly volatile penetrant chemicals would ambient or high temperature and the dye must not
evaporate too quickly to be practical.
come out of solution if the temperature drops.
3. Chemically inert - Penetrant materials should be inert and
non-corrosive in nature. 6. Health hazard - Penetrant used should be non
4. Viscosity poisonous in nature and should comply with most
• Viscosity relates to the thickness or body of a fluid and is a stringent health and safety requirements.
result of molecular or internal friction.
• Excessive viscosity results in long dwell times, low viscosity 7.Availability – Penetrants should be easily and
leads to reduced dwell times but makes the penetrant cheaply available.
prone to over washing.
Desirable properties of developer Desirable properties of developer
• The material must be absorptive, to performblotting • There must be no fluorescing of the developer when
action. used with fluorescent penetrant
• The penetrant bleeding from a discontinuity/ crack must
• For colour contrast penetrants it must mask out easily wet the developer
backgroundcontours and colours • Developer must be of a highly contrasting colour
• It must be easily and evenly applicable compared to that of penetrant. It seems that the best
• It should be easily and cheaply available. colour of developer is white.
• It should be removed easily after the test is completed
• It must be non-toxic, non-corrosive and non-irritant.

Advantages of LPI
LPI Kits • The method has high sensitivity even to small surface
discontinuities.
• Materials including metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials
can be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at comparatively low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely
inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part
and constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipments are
relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages of LPI
Interpretation of LPI results
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can
be inspected.
• Pre cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or
vapor blasting must be removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required

Applications of LPI Applications of LPI
• LPI can be effectively used to detect surface 1. Aerospace: Uses LPI to ensure quality during
discontinuities such as cracks, porosity, seams, cold production and for regular maintenance and safety
shuts, lamination and poor weld joints on non porous checks.
metallic or non metallic, ferrous or non ferrous • Turbine blades, rotor discs, forged components,
materials. weld joints…
2. Automobile: Aluminium engine castings, piston,
cylinder head…

Applications of LPI Magnetic Particle Inspection

3. Railway: LPI is used to detect fatigue cracking
during regular in service safety checks of the bogie
frames.
4. Tools & Dies: Drilling equipments, tools and dies
are inspected by using LPI.
5. Reactors and tanks: Tanks, vessels, pumps, and
reactors are inspected by using LPI.

MPI MPI
• Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-

destructive testing (NDT) method for detecting
surface and subsurface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt,
and some of their alloys.
• The process introduces a magnetic field into the
part.

Magnetization techniques Magnetization techniques

1. Head shot technique 1. Head shot technique
SPECIMEN SPECIMEN

Magnetization techniques
Head shot technique
2. Coil shot technique
• Head shot technique produces circular magnetization
by passing electric current through the specimen.
• In this method , a round bar is held between heads of a
horizontal unit.
• As the current flows from one end to other end of the
bar, the magnetic lines of force gets circulated around
the bar.
• This circulation of magnetic flux around the bar is
known as circular magnetism.
2. Coil shot technique
Coil shot technique
• In this method, the specimen is placed longitudinally
within a current carrying coil.
• As current flows through the coil, flux will be
generated in the component, creating magnetic
poles at its ends.
• This method of producing magnetic field along the
longitudinal direction of the component is known as
longitudinal magnetism.

3. Central conductor technique
Central conductor technique
• The threaded bar, which is placed inside the
specimen is made of good conductor of electricity
(Copper orAluminium)
SPECIMEN • As current flows through the bar, the resultant flux
field will be generated in the surrounding test
specimen.
• Flux lines will be generated in the direction
perpendicular to current flow.

Magnetization techniques Magnetization using magnets

4. Magnetization using magnets
• In this technique, the specimen to be inspected
becomes a part of the magnetic circuit.
• The flux intensity can be varied by using strong or
weak magnet or by introducing a gap in the flux
path with a thin piece of non magnetic material.

Magnetization techniques Magnetization using yoke
5. Magnetization using yoke
• Using this method, components of varying cross
section can be easily magnetized.
• DC current is varied to provide a wide range of
induced flux density.
Yoke

Advantages of MPI Disadvantages of MPI

• It is restricted to ferromagnetic materials
• It is quick and relatively uncomplicated • Only surface and near surface cracks can be detected
• It gives immediate indications of defects • Most methods need supply of electricity
• It shows surface and near surface defects • It is sometimes unclear whether the magnetic field is
• The method can be adapted for site or workshopuse sufficiently strong to give good indications
• The method cannot be used if a thick paint coating is
• It is inexpensive compared to radiography method present
• Large or small objects can be examined • False or non-relevant indications, are probable, and
• Elaborate pre-cleaning is not necessary thus interpretation is a skilled task
• Magnetic particle suspension fluids are flammable and
hazardous in nature.
Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Eddy Current Testing (ECT)

ECT ECT Results

Eddy Current Eddy Current Testing – Working Principle
• Definition • In ECT, an AC of frequency 1 kHz – 2 kHz is made

• Eddy current is defined as oscillating electrical to flow in a coil which in turn, produces an
currents induced in a conductive material by an alternating magnetic field around it.
alternating magnetic field, due to electro magnetic • Coil when kept close to the conducting metallic
induction. test specimen, induces an eddy current flow in the
material due to electro magnetic induction.
• Eddy current generated are parallel to the coil
winding.

Eddy Current Testing – Working Principle
• Eddy current in turn generates an alternating

magnetic field, which may be detected as a
voltage across a secondary coil
• When a flaw is introduced, the eddy currents are
disrupted
• These disruptions are detected by sensors and
displayed through display systems.
Eddy current concentrates near the surface and
strength decreases as distance fromcoil increases.
Standard depth of penetration Frequency & depth of penetration
• δ = Standard depth of penetration (mm)

• σ = Conductivity
• µ = Relative permeability
• f = Test frequency (Hz)
As frequency increases, depth of penetration decreases

Applications of ECT Applications of ECT

1. Detection of defects 2. ConductivityMeasurement
• Defects/ discontinuities are detected when they • As the conductivity of the test material increases,
disrupt the path of eddy currents and weaken their resistant loss will be less and inductive reactance
strength. changes will be greater.
• High frequencyACis used for checking surface flaws • This intensifies the eddy current generated.
• Low frequency AC is used for attaining increased • Intensity of eddy current generated is directly
depth of penetration for inspecting sub surface flaws. related to conductivity of the specimen.

Applications of ECT Applications of ECT
3. Coating thickness measurement 3. Coating thickness measurement
• Non conducting coating increases the lift off
distance between eddy current probe and
conducting base, which weakens the strength of
eddy current generated
• This reduction in strength is measured, which is
closely related to coating thickness.
Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 70

Engg., MACE.
Applications of ECT
4. Thickness measurement of specimens
Advantages of ECT
• ECT are used to measure the thickness of hot
sheets, strips and foils in rolling mills.
• Also used to measure the sheet metal thickness of
aircrafts and marine vessels.
• During the test, reduction in eddy current strength
is measured, which is closely related to specimen
thickness.

Limitations of ECT
Module 2

Ultrasonic testing UT
• Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a type of non-destructive
testing technique based on the propagation
of ultrasonic waveson the specimen to be tested

UT Ultrasonic testing techniques
1. Transmissionmethod
2. Pulse – echomethod

Ultrasonic testing techniques Ultrasonic testing techniques

1. Transmission method 2 . Pulse – echo method
Ultrasonic waves Working
• UT system consists of a pulser, reciever, transducer
• Sound waves having frequency above 20kHz are & display devices.
termed as ultrasonic waves. • Pulser/ reciever is an electronic device that can
produce high frequency ultrasonic waves.
• Usual frequency range for NDT of materials is 0.5 –
10 MHz • Sound energy propagates through the material in
the formof waves.
• To detect fine cracks high frequency waves are
• When the sound wave met with a flaw/ crack/
required.
discontinuity, it will reflect back to the receiver.
• The reflected wave is then converted into electrical
energy by a transducer, and is then displayed.
Generation of ultrasonic waves Generation of ultrasonic waves
• Ultrasonic waves are produced when an electrical

signal generator sends a burst of electrical energy
to a piezoelectric crystal in the transducer causing
the crystal to vibrate and convert the electrical
pulses into mechanical vibrations (sound waves).

Fundamentals of ultrasonic waves Types of ultrasonic waves
1. Transverse or shear type ultrasonic waves
• Types • In transverse waves, particles of the medium
1. Transverse or shear ultrasonic waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of waves
2. Longitudinal or compressional or pressure propagation.
ultrasonic waves • These waves can propagate through solids.
3. Surface or rayleigh waves
4. Lamb or flexural or plate waves

Types of ultrasonic waves Types of ultrasonic waves

2. Longitudinal or compressional or pressure 2. Longitudinal or compressional or pressure
type ultrasonic waves type ultrasonic waves
• In the longitudinal waves particles of medium
vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of
propagation of wave.
• These waves propagate through the medium as a
series of alternate compression and rarefaction.
• These waves are most widely used in the
ultrasonic inspection of materials.

Engg., MACE.
Types of ultrasonic waves Types of ultrasonic waves
3. Surface or Rayleigh waves 4. Lambor flexural or plate waves
• Surface waves combines both a longitudinal and • Lamb waves are complex shaped waves that vibrate
parallel to the test surface throughout the thickness of the
transverse motion to create an elliptical orbit
material.
motion

Fundamentals of ultrasonic waves Time period (T)

Wavelength
• Time period is the time taken by a wave to travel a
• Wave length is the distance between distance equal to its wavelength.
two successive crests or troughs in a transverse
wave.
• It is also defined as the distance between any two Frequency (n)
nearest particles on the wave having same phase. • Frequency is defined as the number of
waves produced in one second.
n = 1/T

Velocity (V) Beam spread & beam divergence (α)
• Distance travelled by a wave in one second is • Beam spread is the measure of the whole angle from
called the velocity of propagation. side to side of the main lobe of the sound beam.
• V = Distance travelled • Beam divergence (α) is the measure of angle from
Time taken one edge of the sound beam to the central axis of the
beam.
= d / T = nd
• Therefore V = nd

Attenuation of sound wave

• Attenuation generally refers to reduction in strength of
signal or wave.
• When sound wave travels through a medium, its
intensity reduces with distance.
• Attenuation is the combined effect of scattering and
absorption.

UT Techniques
The angle of incidence to which the angle of refraction is

90° is called the critical angle.

Immersion type UT
Contact type UT

Ultrasonic guide waves
Ultrasonic guide waves
Ultrasonic guide waves Assignment # 1

1. With neat sketches differentiate between
Fresnel and Fraunhofer effect.
2. With neat sketches explain the working of
electromagnetic acoustic transformer (EMAT).
3. With neat sketches, explain the working of
laser ultrasonic testing and laser
shearography. Write down the advantages
and applications of both techniques.
Submit on or before 13.10.2023 Friday
Radiography Testing (RT)
MODULE 3
Radiography Testing
Electro magnetic radiation sources
1. X-Ray source
2. Gamma ray source
X-Ray Source Production of X-Rays
1. First performed by Roentgen (1895)

2. Generates accelerated electrons between anode and
cathode by maintaining high voltage difference
3. X-Rays are produced when fast moving
electrons collides with a matter.
4. Upon collision about 99% of kinetic energy
gets converted to heat energy.
5. Less than 1%is converted to X-Rays
High energy X-Ray source Gamma ray source

1. High energy X Rays or HEX rays are high intensity X 1. Gamma rays are electro magnetic radiation emitted
rays whose energy value is 1 MeV. froman unstable nucleus.
2. Used for examining thick specimens. 2. Gamma rays are produced by 4 different nuclear
3. Advantages - Increased penetration, sensitivity reactions – Fission, fusion, alpha decay and gamma
and resolution. decay.
Gamma ray sources Properties of X rays and Gamma rays
1. They are invisible and travels at the speed of light.

2. Propagates through straight path.
3. Not affected by electric and magnetic fields
4. Capable of ionizing gases
5. Capable of blackening photographic film
6. Can damage living cells & produce genetic mutation
7. Exhibit wave properties like reflection, refraction
& diffraction.
Inspection techniques in radiography

1. a. SWSI – Flat Technique
1. Single wall single image technique (SWSI)
a. Flat technique b. Panoramic technique
2. Double wall single image technique (DWSI)
3. Double wall double image technique (DWDI)

Engg., MACE.
Inspection techniques in radiography Inspection techniques in radiography
1. b. SWSI – Panoramic Technique 2. Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Films used in radiography
3. Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
1. Made of 0.0005 inch thick polyester type transparent
material.
2. Emulsion containing Silver Halide (Silver Bromide or
Silver Chloride) with a binder (Gelatin) is applied to
both sides of the film.
3. When exposed to radiation, silver halide turns to
black.

Engg., MACE.
Speed of films used in radiography Types of films used in radiography
Based on exposure time, films are classified into
Class Characteristics
1. High SpeedFilm has coarse grains of silver halide
which reacts with radiation at a faster rate. Class I Extra fine grain, Slow speed
• Less exposure time required. Class II Fine grain, Medium speed
• Produces poor quality images. Class III High speed
2. LowSpeedFilm has fine grains which exhibits slow Class IV Fluorescent type,
reaction to radiation. Not for industrial radiography
• More exposure time is required for low speed films.
• Produces good quality images
Image quality of radiography Quality of good radiography

1. Density: Radiographic density is the measure of the
• Image quality of radiography is measured using degree of filmdarkening.
4 factors:
1. Density
2. Contrast
3. Definition D = Filmdensity
4. Sensitivity Io = Radiation intensity which strikes the film
It = Radiation intensity at source
Quality of good radiography Quality of good radiography
2. Contrast is the degree of density difference between 2. Contrast
adjacent areas on a radiography film.
• Contrast between different parts of the film is what
forms the image.
• The greater the contrast, the more visible the image
becomes.
Quality of good radiography

Screens used in radiography
• Radiographic films when exposed to radiation, absorb
Definition &Sensitivity
only small amount of radiations.
• Definition and sensitivity are measures of quality of
• In order to fully utilize the radiation and enhance
image in terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity
photographic effect, screens are used in combination
that may be detected.
with films.
• Quality of radiographic film and equipment greatly
• Types of screens:
affects the definition and sensitivity of the process.
1. Metal foil screens
2. Fluorescent salt screens
Metal foil screen Fluorescent intensifying or salt screen
• Metal foil screens are generally lead foil screen.
• They are used in pairs by sandwiching the film between
them. • It consists of a thin layer of powdered fluorescent
• Side of filmfacing the x-ray source is the front screen and material (E.g: Barium lead sulfate) mixed with a
the other one is called back screen. suitable binder, which is coated on a plastic base.
Advantages • The fluorescent material emits visible or UV rays
1. Improved photographic action when exposed to radiations.
2. Soft and scattered radiations are absorbed
more effectively • Exposure time required is greatly reduced.
3. Increased quality of image
4. Exposure time is reduced.
Real time radiography
Real time radiography Neutron radiography
Motion radiography Flash radiography
Inspection of weld joint - Interpretation
Evaluation of results
of results
• Image of a discontinuity (void or inclusion) in a test • Gas porosity – Appears as round or elongated
specimen is shown in contrast compared to its dark spots
surroundings. • Slag inclusion –Appears as dark irregular shapes
• A crack or void in a component results in darker • Incomplete penetration of weld joint – Appears as
image compared to its surroundings continuous or intermittent dark lines of uniform
• Aforeign particle can be detected by lighter image width , occurring in the middle of the weld.
• Cracks –Appears as sharp lines with tapered ends
• Foreign metal inclusion – Appears as white areas
of round or irregular shapes
Interpretation of welding radiographs Interpretation of welding radiographs
Excess reinforcement

Engg., MACE.

Porosity

Engg., MACE.
Safety aspects required in radiography Safety aspects required in radiography

• Protection of person • Protection of person
• Monitoring radiation dosage
Safety aspects required in radiography Safety aspects required in radiography
• Protection of person • Protection of person

1. Exposure time: Reduce exposure time to 3. Shielding: Provide proper shielding between
radiations to as minimumas possible. operator and source.
• Time of handling can be reduced by providing • Dense & heavy shielding provides improved
proper training & by adopting fast work techniques. protection against radiation.
2. Distance: Radiation intensity reduces as the • E,g.: Steel.
distance from source increases. Worker should
stay as far as possible from the source.
Safety aspects required in radiography

Monitoring radiation dosage
• Radiation detectors
2. Thermo luminescent dosimeters
• Radiation detectors • is a type of radiation dosimeter, consisting of a
1. Film badge: piece of a thermo luminescent crystalline material
inside a radiolucent package.
• When a thermo luminescent crystal is exposed
to ionizing radiation, it absorbs and traps some of
the energy of the radiation in its crystal lattice.
• When heated, the crystal releases the trapped
energy in the form of visible light, the intensity of
which is proportional to the intensity of the ionizing
radiation the crystal was exposed to.
Thermoluminescent dosimeters
• Radiation detectors
3. Direct reading / Pen dosimeters
Applications of radiography testing
Advantages and disadvantages of
radiography testing
MODULE 4
PhasedArray Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)
PAUT Phased array wedges

• Phased array ultrasonic systems utilizes multi-
element probes, which are individually excited
under computer control.
• By exciting each element in a controlled manner, a
focused beam of ultrasound can be generated.
• Software enables the beam to be steered.
• Two and three dimensional views can be generated
showing the sizes and locations of any flaws
detected.
Phased array wedges Phased array wedges
Beam steering
• Beam steering refers to altering the angle of the

ultrasound beam with respect to the transducer.
• Beam steering allows a point on an image to be
captured from multiple angles from a single probe
and a single position of the probe.
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) Time of flight diffraction (TOFD)
• In a TOFD system, a pair of ultrasonic probes are
positioned on opposite sides of a weld. One of the
probes, the transmitter, emits an ultrasonic pulse that is
picked up by the probe on the other side, the receiver.
• In a defect free specimen, the signals picked up by the
receiver probe are from two waves: one that travels
along the surface and one that reflects off the far wall.
• When a crack is present, there is a diffraction of the
ultrasonic wave from the tip(s) of the crack.
• Using the measured time of flight of the pulse, the
depth of a crack tips can be calculated.
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) Assignment # 2

1. Write short notes about linear scan, sectoral
scan and C-scan using phased array probe.
2. Explain the significance of selection and
calibration of probes during phased array
inspection
3. With neat sketch explain the Synthetic
Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)
Date of submission: 17.11.2023 Friday
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING (AET)
MODULE 5
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING (AET) Leak testing - over pressure method
• Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a non-destructive

testing (NDT) technique that detects and monitors
the release of ultrasonic stress waves from
localized sources when a material deforms under
stress.
• The process involves using sensors to detect AE
and then converting the waves into electrical signals
so that they can be recorded.
Thermo graphic NDT
Leak testing – vacuum method Thermo mechanical behavior of materials
Thermo graphic NDT Thermo graphic NDT

• Contact type - Heat sensitive coatings
• Contact type
• Heat sensitive coatings range from simple
• Non contact type wax-based substances that are blended to
melt at certain temperatures to specially
formulated paint and greases that change
color as temperature changes.
• Heat sensitive coatings/ paints are relatively
inexpensive but do not provide good
quantitative data.
Heat sensitive paints Heat sensitive paper
• Thermo chromic paints use liquid crystals or leuco • Heat sensitive paper is impregnated with a mixture of
dye technology. afluoran dye& octadecylphosphonic acid.
• After absorbing a certain amount of light or heat, the • This mixture is stable in solid phase; however, when
molecular structure of the pigment changes reversibly the octadecylphosphonic acid is melted, the dye
in such a way that it absorbs and emits light at a undergoes a chemical reaction in the liquid phase,
different wavelength than at lower temperatures. and assumes the protonated colored form.

• Contact type - Thermoelectric devices • Non contact type – Thermal imaging
• Thermal imaging instruments measure radiated
• Thermoelectric devices include infrared energy and convert the data to
thermocouples, thermopiles, thermistors corresponding maps of temperatures.
• A true thermal image is a gray scale image with hot
and bolometers. items shown in white and cold items in black.
• These devices produce an electrical Temperatures between the two extremes are shown
as gradients of gray.
response based on a change in • Advanced type thermal imagers have the ability to
temperature of the sensor. add color (red for hot and green for cold), which
is artificially generated by the camera's video
• They are often used for point or localized enhancement electronics, based upon the thermal
measurement during contact type testing. attributes seen by the camera.
• Non contact type – Thermal imaging
• Non contact type – Thermal imaging
Infrared radiation detector
Laser infrared thermography
Laser beam shapes/ configuration
Dept. of Mech.
Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 189 Engg., MACE. 23 November 2023 190
Engg., MACE.
Computed Tomography (CT) Computed tomography
• Computed Tomography is an radiographic NDT-

method to locate and size planar volumetric details
in three dimensions.
• A CT-scanner generates X-ray attenuation
measurements which are used to produce
computedreconstructed imagesof anydesired part
of an object.
Computed tomography
Computed radiography (CR) Computed radiography (CR)

• Computed radiography (CR) is a digital imaging
technique widely used for dental/ medical
diagnostics.
• Instead of a conventional X-ray film, CR uses a
special X-ray sensitive, photo-stimulable
phosphor plate also known as an imaging plate
(IP).
Direct/ digital radiography (DR) Direct/ digital radiography (DR)
X ray source
• Direct/ digital radiography is an advanced
technology based on digital detector systems
• During digital radiography, the x-ray image is
displayed directly on a computer screen without the
need for developing chemicals/ films/ intermediate
scanning.
Computed radiography Vs. Digital radiography
Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 199 Engg., MACE. 200
191
Engg., MACE.

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Course: B Tech in Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, MACE

Dr. Kora T Sunny

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 5 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 6

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 7 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 8

Non Destructive Testing Scope of NDT

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 11 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 12

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 13 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 14

Types of Visual Inspection (VI) Direct Visual Testing

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Endoscope Fiberscope & Bore scope

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Applications of visual inspection Visual Inspection

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 23 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 24

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 25 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 26

LPI – Working principle

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 27 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 28

Desirable properties of developer Desirable properties of developer

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 31 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 32

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 35 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 36

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 37 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 38

Applications of LPI Magnetic Particle Inspection

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 39 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 40

• Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 41 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 42

Magnetization techniques Magnetization techniques

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 43 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 44

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 47 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 48

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Magnetization techniques Magnetization using magnets

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Advantages of MPI Disadvantages of MPI

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ECT ECT Results

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• Definition • In ECT, an AC of frequency 1 kHz – 2 kHz is made

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 61 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 62

Eddy Current Testing – Working Principle

• Eddy current in turn generates an alternating

• δ = Standard depth of penetration (mm)

As frequency increases, depth of penetration decreases

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 65 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 66

Applications of ECT Applications of ECT

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 67 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 68

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Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 71 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 72

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 73 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 74

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 75 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 76

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 77 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 78

Ultrasonic testing techniques Ultrasonic testing techniques

Generation of ultrasonic waves Generation of ultrasonic waves

• Ultrasonic waves are produced when an electrical

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 83 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 84

Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 85 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 86

Types of ultrasonic waves Types of ultrasonic waves

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Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 89 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 90

Fundamentals of ultrasonic waves Time period (T)

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Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 93 Dept. of Mech. 23 November 2023 94

Attenuation of sound wave

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The angle of incidence to which the angle of refraction is