Modes of failure

A component may fail as result of one of the following

Module 4 three modes of failure
Design for Impact and Fatigue • Failure by elastic deformation
• Failure by yielding
• Failure by fracture

Modes of failure Modes of failure

Failure by elastic deformation Failure by yielding

Modes of failure
Factor of safety
Failure by fracture • For a component in design, safety is of utmost importance.
• To ensure the safety of those items, each component is designed to bear more
loads than its actual operating loads.
• So, there will always be some margin or cushion as compared to its operating
capabilities.
• This is ensured during the design stage by considering a suitable factor of safety.
• It denotes the additional strength of the component than the required strength.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Factor of safety (FOS), n = = =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ𝑦
• For ductile materials, n = =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ𝑑
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ𝑢
• For Brittle materials, n = =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ𝑑

Factor of safety values Design for static loading

• A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually
applied to a mechanical component and which does
not change its magnitude or direction with respect to
time.
• A static load may produce tension or compression,
shear deformation, bending, a torsional twist, or any
combination of these.
 Example problem
• A solid shaft is subjected to a torque of 15 kN m. Find the necessary diameter of Based on rigidity
the shaft if the allowable shear stress is 60 MPa and angle of twist is 1° for every
20 diameter length of the shaft. Take G = 80 GPa. 𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑇𝐿 𝛱𝑑4
Data given: We have = ;J= ; J= and L = 20d
𝐽 𝐿 𝐺𝜃 32
T = 15 x 106 N-mm, shear stress, τ = 60 MPa, θ = 1° = 0.0174 rad, 𝛱𝑑4 𝑇(20𝑑)
L =20d, G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 MPa. Diameter, d = ? =
32 𝐺𝜃
Solution: 𝛱𝑑4 15𝑋106(20𝑑)
𝑻 𝑮𝜽 τ
= ;d=129.95mm
We know the torsion equation, = = [ page 3, eqn-1.3b 32 80𝑋103 𝑋0 .0174
𝑱 𝑳 𝒓
Based on strength
𝑻𝑿𝒓 Π𝑑4
τ= J= [ page 14, table-1.3b
𝑱 32 Two values obtained for d are 108.39 mm and 129.95mm
𝑻𝑿𝒓 𝟏𝟔𝑻
Substituting r=d/2 and for 𝑱 ;τ= ; τ = [ page 2, eqn-1.1d Select a standard value of shaft diameter from table which is more than this
𝑱 𝜫𝒅𝟑
value
therefore , d= 140mm [ page 57, Table-3.5a
16𝑿(15 x 106)
𝒅𝟑 = ; d = 108.39 mm
𝛱𝑋60

Design for Impact loading

• A load is said to be an impact load, if it is applied with some initial velocity. In
general, impact load is an external force applied to a structure or a part if the
time of application is less than one-third its lowest natural period of vibration. It
can occur in the following ways.
• A direct impact by another member or an external body moving with
considerable velocity, e.g. punch press, two cars colliding.
• Sudden application of forces without a blow being involved,
eg: power stroke in IC engines.
• Sudden moving of force on to a member,
• Eg: heavily loaded train or truck moving rapidly over the floor of the bridge.
• The inertia of the member resisting high acceleration and retardation,
eg: reciprocating levers
• The following two methods are employed for selection of member
subjected to impact loads.
• Maximum force exerted by moving body on resisting member is
estimated by applying an impact factor. Later this force is considered
as static and the design formulas are used.
• Energy to be absorbed by resisting member is to be estimated and
from this value, stresses or deformations by formula for impact load
on members are determined.
 Impact stress due to axial load:-
consider a bar fixed at top end and a rigid collar firmly attached at its bottom end. A
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL TO RESIST IMPACT LOAD weight W is free to slide vertically and is held at a height h above the collar

• The two most important properties of a material that indicate its • W = load applied with impact
resistance to impact load are: • h = height through which the load falls
• A = cross-sectional area of the bar
• " Modulus of resilience: It is defined as the capacity of a material to • L= length of the bar
absorb energy within its elastic range without undergoing permanent • s = static stress
wL
deformation. • d = deformation of bar due to static action = AE
• s'= impact stress
• Ultimate energy resilience: This property indicates the material s′L
• d'= deformation due to impact action= E
toughness or its ability to resist fracture under impact loading. Both • E= Young's modulus of the bar material
properties are obtained from stress-strain diagram.
𝑤 2𝐴𝐸ℎ
impact stress, s'=( )[1+ 1 + ( )] page 27, eqn -2.26a
𝐴 𝑊𝐿

• Impact factor • A bar of 16 mm diameter gets stretched by 4 mm under a steady load

• Impact factor is defined as the ratio of the dynamic response of a of 10 kN. What stress would be produced in the bar by a weight of
structure to the static response. This factor represents the amount by 1000 N, which falls through 100 mm before commencing the stretch
which the static elongation is amplified due to the dynamic effects of of rod which is initially unstressed? Take E = 200 GPa.
the impact
s‘ 2ℎ
= [1+ 1 + ( )] is called impact factor or shock factor Data given: d = 16 mm ⇒ area A =pd²/4 =201.06 mm²,
s d
static deformation d = 4 mm, static load F = 10000 N,
impact stress s' = ?, if impact load W = 1000 N, h = 100 mm,
E = 200 GPa = 2 × 105 MPa.
A bar of 16 mm diameter gets stretched by 4 mm under a steady load of 10 kN. What
stress would be produced in the bar by a weight of 1000 N, which falls through 100 mm
before commencing the stretch of rod which is initially unstressed? Take E = 200 GPa.
Fatigue loading
• When we do some task repeatedly, we feel fatigue.
𝑤
[
impact stress, s'=( ) 1+ 1 + (
𝐴
2𝐴𝐸ℎ
𝑊𝐿
) ] page 27, eqn -2.46a
• Fatigue in a material may occur due to repeated loading and the
loading is known as fatigue loading.
𝐹𝐿 10000𝑋𝐿
• Machine members may fail due to fatigue loading known as fatigue
For static deformation, d= ; 4= ; L = 16084.95mm failure
𝐴𝐸 201.6𝑋(2𝑋105)
• Fatigue failure is the formation and propagation of cracks due to a
repetitive or cyclic load. Most fatigue failures are caused by cyclic
therefore, s‘ = 116.30 MPa loads significantly below the loads that would result in yielding of the
material.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED TO AVOID

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATIGUE
• In metals and alloys, the process starts with dislocation movements,
eventually forming persistent slip bands that initiate short cracks.
• The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life
• Damage is cumulative, Materials do not recover when rested.
• Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature,
surface finish, microstructure, presence of oxidizing or inert chemicals,
residual stresses, etc.
• High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles) can be described by
stress-based parameters.
• Low cycle fatigue (typically less than 103 cycles) is associated with
widespread plasticity in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be
used for fatigue life prediction in metals and alloys.
FATIGUE FAILURE
• Variation in size of component should be as gradual as possible.
• Holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
• Proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be
provided wherever necessary.
• Parts should be protected from corrosion.
• To provide smooth finish on the outer surface of the component,
thereby increasing its fatigue life.
• Materials with high fatigue strength should be selected.
• Residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increases its
fatigue strength.

• Endurance limit/Fatigue limit :- (sen) is defined as maximum value of
the completely reversed bending stress which a polished standard
specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles
(usually 107 cycles).
• Endurance strength: It is defined as the safe maximum stress which
can be applied to the machine part working under actual conditions.
• The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for
other types of loading, the term endurance strength is used when
referring the fatigue strength of the material.
Cyclic stresses
varying stresses
• Fluctuating stress is the stress which varies from a maximum value to a minimum value of the
same nature (tensile/compressive).
• Repeated/released stress is the stress which varies from zero to a maximum value
(tensile/compressive).
• Completely reversed/cyclic stress is the stress which varies from one value in compression to the
same value in tension
• Maximum stress (smax) is the largest algebraic stress in a stress cycle.
• Minimum stress (smin) is the smallest algebraic stress in a given cycle.
• Stress cycle is the smallest portion of the s-t curve which is repeated periodically
• Range of stress (Ds) is the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses.
Mean/average/mid-range stress (sm) is the average of the maximum and minimum stresses in a
cycle.
• Variable/ alternating stress/stress amplitude (sa ) is defined as half the value of stress range.
• Stress ratio(R) is defined as the ratio of minimum stress to the maximum stress.
• Amplitude ratio(A) is defined as the ratio of alternating stress to that of the mean stress
Correction factors
• Load correction factor (A): Test is conducted on a specimen that is in pure bending.
Components that are loaded axially will have all their fibers under maximum stress. The
fatigue strength should be adjusted to reflect this condition. The correction factor (A) for
load is incorporated to take care of different loads,viz. reversed bending, reversed axial
load and reversed torsional load.
• Size effects (B): The fatigue failure of a material is based on the probability that a lager
part is more likely to fail at lower stress due to the presence of flaw in larger stressed
volume. This is due to the fact that a longer specimen will have more defects than a
smaller one.
• Surface effects (C): The rotating beam specimen has a highly polished surface finish with
final polishing in the axial direction to smooth any circumferential scratches. Most
machine elements do not usually have such high-quality finish. The surface modification
factor depends on process used to generate the surface and on the ultimate strength.
• Reliability factor, Temperature effects
𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
• Fatigue stress concentration factor(Ktf ) =
𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg criteria
• When stress amplitude (sa) is
zero, the load is purely static and
the criterion of failure is Sut or
Syt. These limits are plotted on
the abscissa. When the mean
stress (sm) is zero, the stress is
completely reversing and the
criterion of failure is the
endurance limit Se, that is
plotted on the ordinate. When
the component is subjected to
both components of stress, viz.,
(sm) and (sa), the actualfailure
occurs at different scattered
points shown.
• When a component is subjected to
fluctuating stresses as shown, there
is mean stress (sm)as well as stress
amplitude (sa). It has been observed
that the mean stress component has
an effect on fatigue failure when it is
present in combination with an
alternating component. In this
diagram, the mean stress is plotted
on the abscissa. The stress amplitude
is plotted on the ordinate. The
magnitudes of (sm) and (sa) depend
upon the magnitudes of maximum
and minimum force acting on the
component.
• There exists a border, which divides
safe region from unsafe region for
various combinations of (sm) and (sa).
Different criterions are proposed to
construct the border line dividing safe
zone and failure zone. They include
Gerber line, Soderberg line and
Goodman line.
• Gerber Line - A parabolic curve joining
Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa
is called the Gerber line.
• Soderberg Line - A straight line joining
Se on the ordinate to Syt, on the
abscissa is called the Soderberg line.
• Goodman Line - A straight line joining
Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa
is called the Goodman line.