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Me 4i 22445 FMM Notes
Me 4i 22445 FMM Notes
Me 4i 22445 FMM Notes
Introduction
• Bourdon gauge is used to measure pressure differences that are more than 1.2 bars.
• The pressure to be measure is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross section.
• The pressure applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and the
deflection of the end of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a
recording needle.
• This gauge is widely used for steam and compressed gases.
• The pressure indicated is the difference between that communicated by the system to the
external (ambient) pressure. And is usually referred as the gauge pressure.
Disadvantages:
1. They respond slowly to changes in pressure;
2. They are subjected to hysteresis;
3. They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations;
4. Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low;
It cannot be used for precision measurement.
In MKS system and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity in m2/sec while in CGS units it is
written as cm2/sec.
Atmospheric pressure: - The pressure which is exerted due to the weight of air above
earth’s surface.
Capillarity:-
If adhesion is greater than cohesion then capillary rise is there. For example
water. If cohesion is greater than adhesion then capillary fall is there. For
example Mercury
Define Mass density, Weight density, Specific volume, Specific
volume.
Mathematically,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 𝑚3
Specific volume = Unit 𝐾g
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝞀
= is
Specific gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of any fluid to the specific
weight of standard fluid (water).
Numerical on Centre of pressure and Total pressure for circular surface and
isosceles triangle (vertically immersed or inclined to FSL).
Define Steady flow and unsteady flows
Steady flow: Fluid flow is said to be steady flow, if the flow characteristics such as velocity,
density, viscosity pressure, temperature etc. do not change with respect to time.
Example: Flow of water through a tap at a constant rate.
Unsteady flow: A fluid flow is said to be unsteady flow, if the flow characteristics such
as velocity, density, viscosity pressure, temperature etc. changes with respect to time.
Example: Flow of water when the tap is just open.
In non-uniform flow, the velocity of fluid does not remains constant but goes on changing from
section to section.
Example: Flow of water through a converging or diverging pipe.
Turbulent Flow: A flow is said to be Turbulent flow, if fluid particles do not have a definite
path and they move in a zigzag way.
Example: Flow of water in river at the time of flood.
Here Reynolds number>4000
It is also called as flow of high velocity.
Assumptions:-
Limitations:-
• Only applicable to ideal incompressible flow. In actual practice, fluid is not ideal.
• It is assume that, heat transfer from or to the fluid is zero. Actually, some energy addition
or removal may takes place as fluid flows.
• The effect of presence of any mechanical device between two sources is ignored.
• It is assumed that, velocity is uniform. But actually, velocity does not remains constant
across the section.
Explain the term Vena-contracta
On the downstream side, the pressure tap is provided quite close to orifice plate at the section,
where converging jet of fluid has almost the smallest cross-sectional area resulting in almost
maximum velocity of flow and consequently minimum pressure. This place is called as vena-
contracta (i.e. section 2-2). Thus vena-contracta is defined as, “the point in the fluid stream,
where the diameter of the stream is least and fluid velocity is maximum”. Therefore the
maximum pressure difference exists between section 1-1 and 2-2, which is measured by
differential manometer.
• Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of fluid flowing through the pipe at any point.
• It works on the principle that, “if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, there ia an
increase in pressure energy”. This point is known as stagnation point.
• Pitot tube consists of a glass tube opened at both ends.
• The lower end is bent through 900 and facing the upstream direction.
• The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy in to pressure
energy.
• The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.
𝑃2
And pressure head at section (2) = = (H+h)
𝜌.g
𝑉2
1 =h
2.g
𝑉12 = 2gh
Vth = √2𝑔ℎ
Note:- The bent end of the pitot tube should be purely facing the direction of flow of liquid,
otherwise, there will be error in the reading and calculation.
CC = 𝐴2
𝐴1
The theoretical value of CC for sharp edge orifice is equal to 0.611, but in actual practice its
value varies from 0.61 to 0.69 and generally taken as 0.64.
3. Coefficient of velocity: It is defined as, “the ratio of actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta
to theoretical velocity of jet”.
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡
Cv =
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 = Cv × 𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 = Cv √2𝑔ℎ
• The difference between theoretical and actual values of velocity is mainly due to
friction at orifice.
• The value of CV varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different orifices. In general, it is taken
as 0.98
Explain Venturimeter.
Construction
b) Convergent cones
• It is a short pipe, which converges from a diameter d1(diameter of pipe, in
which, venturimeter is fitted) to a smaller diameter d2 (diameter of throat).
• The slope of converging cone is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5.
• The total angle of converging cone is 21 + 10.
c) Throat
• It a small portion of circular pipe having diameter d2.
• Diameter of throat varies between 33% - 75% of main pipe diameter. Preferably
is taken as 0.5 times the diameter of pipe i.e. d2 = 0.5 d1
d) Divergent cone
• It is a long pipe, which diverges from a diameter d2 to the pipe diameter d1.
• The length of the divergent cone is 3 to 4 times the divergent cone.
• The included angle of divergent cone is 50 – 70 (preferably 60).
Working
Working
Thus, venturimeter works on the principle of converging pressure energy (head) into
kinetic energy by reducing cross-sectional area of flow passage. This gives rise to
pressure difference, which is measured by means of U-tube differential manometer.
Question: Why Divergent cone made 3-4 times longer than the convergent cone.
• In convergent cone, the fluid is accelerated up to throat and in divergent cone; fluid is
retarded up to end section of the venturimeter.
• The acceleration of the flowing fluid is allowed to take place rapidly in a relatively
smaller length (convergent section), without resulting in appreciable loss of energy.
• However, if the retardation of the flow is allowed to takes place rapidly in small length,
then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with the boundary of the diverging flow
passage or in other words, the flow separates from walls and eddies are formed. This
results in excessive energy loss.
• Therefore, in order to avoid the possibility of flow separation and consequent energy loss,
the divergent cone is made longer with gradual divergence.
Since the flow separation may occur in divergent cone of venturimeter, this portion is not
used for discharge measurement.
• Venturimeter head is defined as, “piezometric head difference measured and expressed in
terms of column of liquid flowing through pipe”. It is denoted by as ‘h’.
P2
Thus Venturimeter head = ( P1
+ Z 1 ) −( + Z )2
𝛒.g 𝛒.g
• In case of horizontal venturimeter,
Z1 = Z2
P2
Venturi head (h) = P1
−
𝛒.g 𝛒.g
P1−P2
h =
𝛒.g
d2 = diameter of throat
𝜋
A = Area of pipe at inlet = × 𝑑2
1 1
4
𝜋 2
A = Area of pipe at inlet = ×𝑑
2 2
4
x = manometer reading
𝑉12 2
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
+ 𝑉2
𝝆. 𝝆. 2.𝑔
𝑔 = 𝑔
2.𝑔
2 𝑉21
𝑃1 𝑃
- 𝝆.2 = 𝑉2 -
𝝆.𝑔 2. 2.𝑔
𝑔 𝑔
𝑃1 𝑃2
But, h = Difference of pressure head = -
𝝆.𝑔 𝝆.𝑔
2 𝑉21
h = 𝑉2 -
2. 2. 𝑔
𝑔
2gh = 𝑉2 − 𝑉2 ...................................................................................................(i)
2 1
Q = A1 V1 = A2V2
V1 = 𝐴2 × V2
𝐴1
2gh = V2 − A2.
2
V2
2 A21 2
2
2gh = V2[1− A2 ]
2 A21
2
−𝐴2
2gh = V2 . [𝐴 1 ]2
2 𝐴12
2
𝐴
V22 = [ 1 ] × 2gh
𝐴2−𝐴2
1 2
𝐴2
V2 = √ 𝐴2−𝐴1 2 × 2gh
1 2
Also, Q = A2V2
𝐴21
Q = A2 × √ 𝐴2−𝐴2 × 2gh
1 2
𝐴2.𝐴2
Qth = √ 𝐴12−𝐴2 2 × 2gh
1 2
𝐴1.𝐴2
Qth =
√𝐴2 −𝐴2
× √2gh
1 2
But the actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge. Therefore, a new term called as,
coefficient of discharge „Cd‟ is introduced in the equation and actual discharge is given by,
𝐶𝑑.𝐴1.𝐴2
Qact =
√𝐴2−𝐴2
× √2gh
1 2
Note: - If, x = Difference of mercury level / manometric liquid in the U-tube manometer then,
1) Case I: Heavier liquid in manometer
h = x. [𝑆ℎ − 1]
𝑆
Where, 𝑆ℎ = Specific gravity of heavier manometric liquid
Also we have,
Q = A. V
Write the Darcy’s formula for head loss due friction. State the meaning of each term.
• According to the Darcy‟s Weisbach equation, loss of head due friction is given by,
4 .f.L.V2
hf =
2g.d
2. f = 16 , if Re ≤ 2000
𝑅𝑒
d= Diameter of pipe in m.
L = length of pipe
• The value of the Reynolds number decides, whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent. In case of circular pipe, if Re < 2000, the flow is said to laminar
and if Re> 4000, the flow is said to be turbulent.
• If Re lies between 2000 to 4000, the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
Reynolds was the first to demonstrate that, transition of flow from laminar to
turbulent depends upon,
1. Increase in velocity
2. Increase in pipe diameter,
3. Decrease in viscosity.
V.d μ
• Reynolds number, Re = 𝞀 .V.d = = i.e. a dimensionless number [ 𝝑 = ]
μ 𝝑 𝞀
𝟐 ……..Darcy‟s equation
hf = 𝟐𝐠.𝐝
𝜋 4𝑸
But, Q= × 𝑑2 × 𝑉 ∴ 𝑉 =
4 𝜋.𝑑2
16 𝑸2
So, V2 =
𝜋2𝑑4
16 Q2
Substituting the value V2 = in Darcy’s equation
𝛑2d4
f.l.Q2
We get hf ≅ 3. d5
Chezy’s
formula
1. Write Chezy’s equation. State the meaning of each term.(S-11,S13)
• If hf is the loss of head due to friction and L is the length of pipe, then ratio ( hf) is called
𝐿
as head loss per unit length of pipe denoted by i.
• The loss of head due to friction is calculated by using Chezy‟s formula, which is given by
average velocity of fluid as,
V = C √m. i
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
Where, m = hydraulic mean depth (H.M.D.) =
w𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛑 2
d
m=A= 4 d
P 𝛑.d
= 4
C = Chezy‟s constant
i = loss of head per unit length of pipe = ( hf)
𝐿
V22 1
hc = .[
2g Cc
− 1]2
0.5V22
If value of hc is not given then, hc = 2g
0. 5V22
hent =
2g
D. Loss of head at the exit/outlet of a pipe:
• This is the loss head (energy) due to the velocity of liquid at outlet of the pipe, which is
dissipated either in the form of a free jet ( if outlet of the pipe is free) or it is lost in the
tank or reservoir ( if outlet of the pipe is connected to the tank or reservoir).
This loss is denoted by ho and is given by,
V2
ho =
2g
Where, V= velocity of liquid at outlet of pipe.
a) Angle of bend.
b) Radius of curvature of bend.
c) Diameter of pipe.
State the laws of fluid friction for Laminar and Turbulent Flow
P = ( 𝝆. 𝑔. 𝑸 × (H - hf).................................. [h = H - hf ]
4.f.L.V2
P = ( 𝝆. 𝑔. 𝐴. 𝑉. [H − ] .................................... [Q = A. V]
2gd
Condition for maximum power transmission
H
hf = 3
Or H = 3hf
H−hf
𝛈 =
H
Consider a jet of water coming out from nozzle striking on a fixed flat plate kept normal to the
jet.
D = diameter of jet;
F = ρ. a. V
2
in Newton
u= velocity of plate
Therefore we can consider that jet is moving with an initial velocity ( V − u) relative to the plate.
Also the final velocity in the direction of jet is zero.
F = mass flow rate × change in velocity (Initial vel. – Final velocity)
F = ρ. a. ( V − u)2
We know that;
F = (ρ. a. V2)
Fx = ρ. a. V2. sin2 θ
Force in the direction normal to the jet, Fy = Fn. cos θ = ρ. a. V2. sin θ . cos θ
IMP CASE-4 IMPACT OF JET ON AN INCLINED PLATE MOVING IN THE
DIRECTION OF JET
Let, V= velocity of jet
u= velocity of plate
• If the plate is smooth, and if it assumed that, there is no loss of energy due to impact of
jet, and then the jet will leave the inclined plate after striking with velocity „(V-u)
• Let us find out the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction normal to the plate.
Let this force be Fn
• Component of velocity of jet before striking in
direction normal to the plate
= ( V − u). sin 𝜃
• Velocity of jet after striking in direction normal to the
plate = 0
• Therefore, F = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 w𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
n ( )×
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
(𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 )
• Fn= ρ. a. ( V − u)[(V − u) sin θ − 0] = ρ. a. ( V − u)2.
sin θ
• This normal force Fn can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components, i.e.
along two perpendicular directions, one in the direction of jet (Fx) and other
perpendicular to the direction of jet (Fy).
• 𝐅x = Fn. sin θ = [ρ. a. ( V − u)2. sin θ]. sin θ = 𝛒. a. ( V − u)2. sin2 𝛉
• 𝐅y = Fn. cos θ = [ρ. a. ( V − u)2. sin θ]. cos θ = 𝛒. a. ( V − u)2. sin 𝛉. cos 𝛉.
• Also work done per second by the jet on the plate,
• W.D = 𝐅 × u = 𝛒. a. ( V − u)2. sin2 𝛉 .× u in N.m or Joule or watts.
x sec sec
CHAPTER5
Hydraulic Turbines
Explain the significance or function of draft tube in reaction
CHAPTER 6
Centrifugal Pump
pump
pump?
Reciprocating Pump
Explain the working of single acting Reciprocating pump with a suitable diagram.
ble acting Reciprocating pump with a suitable
1741
Explain the working of
diagram. and negative slip of a Reciprocating
Dou pump
1
Define slip, percentage
slip is an Air vessel? List down its advantages
What
Z= Potential Energy
State the Darcy’s equation for frictional losses with meaning
of each terms used in it.
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some
resistance due to which some energy or head of the fluid is lost. This
loss of energy or head is classified as
i) Major loss
ii) Minor losses
OR
Explain HGL and TEL.
Hydraulic Gradient
Line:-
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and
datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some
reference
line. (01 Marks)
Total Energy Line (TEL):-
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum
head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to
some reference line. (01
Marks)
CO1 b 04
Given:
- S1=1
Sm=13.
6
h1=50mm =0.05m
h2= 60mm = 0.06m
Find out:-
PB=? N/m2
Solution:-
a) Pressure on the left hand side of Manometer.
h B + S1 x h 1 = 0
hB + 1 x 0.05 =0 (1)
b) Pressure on the right hand side of Manometer.
S m x h2 = 0
13.6 x 0.06 = 0 --------------------------(2) (01 Marks)
∴Equatng pressure equation (1) and (2)
Alternate Method
∴Pressure on L.H.S. of Manometer = Pressure on R.H.S. of
Manometer
∴PB + ρ1 x g x h1 = ρm x g x h2 (01 Marks)
∴PB = ρm x g x h2 - ρ1 x g x h1 (01 Marks)
∴PB = (13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.06) – (1 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.05)
∴PB = (8004.96) – (490.5) (01 Marks)
∴PB = 7514.46 N/m 2
(MODEL ANSWER)
AGNEL POLYTECHNIC, VASHI
Unit Test 2
Course Code: - ME-4G (A&B) Subject Fluid Mechanics and
Machinery
Time: 1 hour
Marks: 25
C.
Q.No Questions Marks
O.
A) Attempt any two of the following. 3x2=6
What is impact of jet? Write the formula for force exerted when plate is
fixed.
The liquid comes out in the form of jet from the outlet of a nozzle, which is fitted
to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate,
which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of jet, a force is exerted by
the jet on the plate. This force is obtained from Newton’s second law off
motion or from impulse-momentum equation. Thus impact of jet means
a force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or moving.
force exerted when plate is fixed(F) = mass flow rate × change in velocity
(Initial vel. – Final velocity)
w
= ρ. a. V × ( V − u) = ρ. a. V2 ……………as u = 0 and ρ =
g
F = ρ. a. V
2
in Newton
1. CO4 Find the force exerted by jet when it strikes on a flat inclined fixed plate.
Consider a jet of water striking on a fixed inclined plate at an angle θ,
We know that;
F = (ρ. a. V2)
• Let a jet of water striking an
inclined stationary flat plate with
velocity V;
• Therefore, mass of water striking
per second = ρ. a. V
b • Now, let us find out the force
exerted by the jet in the direction
normal to the plate. Let Fn be this
force.
Fx = ρ. a. V2. sin2 θ
Force in the direction normal to the jet, Fy = Fn. cos θ = ρ. a. V2. sin θ . cos θ
F = ρ. a. V2
F= 4427.890 N
c
B) Attempt the following 3x1=3
Define Slip and state the condition for negative Slip.
The actual discharge of pump is generally less than the theoretical discharge due
to leakage.
Negative Slip
If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump
will become negative and the slip is called as negative slip. The reason for
negative slip to occur is short delivery pipe, higher rpm. of pump and long
suction pipe.
CO5 c
Or
Define i) Suction Head ii) Delivery Head iii) Manometric Head related to
Centrifugal pump.
i. Suction head (hs): It is the vertical height of the Centre line of centrifugal
pump above the water surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be
lifted.
ii. Delivery head (hd): The vertical distance between the Centre line of the
pump and water surface in the tank upto which water is to be delivered is known
as delivery head.
iii) Manometric head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head
against which the centrifugal pump has to work.
The amount of water striking the bucket (vanes) of the runner, is controlled by
providing sphere in the nozzle as shown in figure.
ii. Runner with bucket
To get high head the impellers can be mounted on the same shaft or output of
one pump is connected to second pump and second pump is to third pump and so
on.
Impeller
c The rotating part of centrifugal pump is called as impeller. It consists of series of 04
backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on shaft which is connected to
the shaft of an electric motor with the help of coupling. There are three types of
impellers.
a. Closed type impeller: In this impeller the vanes or blades are inserted in the
closed walls from both sides. It provides better guidance for liquid and has
higher efficiency. Uses: Used when the liquid is clean and free from
impurities and debris.
b. Semi-closed impeller: The vanes or blades are closed from only one side by
the wall of the material. Uses: It is used for pumping water or liquid containing
debris and impurities to some extent such as sewage water, machine tool
lubricants, paper pulp etc.
c. Open impeller: In this type the vanes are open from all the sides.
Uses: This is used for pumping liquid having debris or impurities of large size
such as mixture of water, sand, clay etc.
Q4. Explain the function and different types of Draft tube. (8 Marks)
Q6. Explain the working of centrifugal pump with neat labeled sketch. (8 Marks)
Q7. Explain the different types of impellers and casing used in centrifugal pump. (8 Marks)
Q9. Define Slip and state the condition for negative slip? (4Marks)
Q10. Define the different head related to the Centrifugal pump. (4Marks)
Q12. Define the Specific Speed of Pump OR Specific speed of Turbine. (2 Marks)
Q20. Explain Hydraulic gradient and Total Energy Line. (HGL and TEL). (4Marks)
Q22. Define Atmospheric pressure, Gauge pressure, Vacuum pressure, Absolute pressure and
show there relation with diagram. (4 Marks)
Q24. State Darcy‟s equation and Chezy‟s equation and state the meaning of each term. (4 marks)
Q25. State the law of fluid friction for laminar and turbulent flow. (4 marks)
Q26. Define Kinematic viscosity and Dynamic viscosity with unit. (2 marks)