Master’s class

By
Prasanth Joseph (Faculty and Content Head Lead IAS)
The news: NASA's Voyager 2
spacecraft, currently in
interstellar space, is facing
communication difficulties
caused by an antenna
misalignment.
 • It is the only spacecraft to study all four of the
solar system's giant planets at close range.
• It discovered a 14th moon at Jupiter.
• It was the first human-made object to fly past
Uranus.
• At Uranus, Voyager 2 discovered 10 new moons
and two new rings.
• It was the first human-made object to fly by
Neptune.
• At Neptune, Voyager 2 discovered five moons,
four rings, and a "Great Dark Spot."

What is the Interstellar Space?

• Interstellar space, also known as interstellar medium or interstellar void, is the vast
expanse of space that exists between stars in a galaxy.
• It is the region of space beyond the influence of any individual star's gravity and magnetic
fields.
• It is primarily composed of very low-density gas, dust, cosmic rays, and magnetic fields.
• The Great Dark Spot
(GDS-89) was a giant
anticyclonic storm system
on Neptune, first
observed by NASA's
Voyager 2 probe in 1989.
It was similar in
appearance and size to
Jupiter's Great Red Spot,
but much shorter-lived.
• Digital signatures prevent impersonation and
ensure the origin of an electronic document,
transaction, or message through a cryptographic
process that relies on two unique keys: a private
key and a public key. Here's a breakdown of how
it works:
• Signing with the Private Key: The sender holds
a private key, which is a secret code known
only to them. This private key acts like a digital
signature stamp.
• Creating a Signature: When the sender wants
to sign a document, message, or transaction,
they use a cryptographic algorithm along with
their private key. This algorithm
mathematically transforms the message
content and the private key into a unique
digital signature.
• Attaching the Signature: The digital
signature is then attached to the original
message or document. This creates a
combined package of information that
travels together.
• Verification with the Public Key: The
recipient receives the message or
document along with the attached
digital signature. However, they don't
need the sender's private key for
verification. Instead, they use the
sender's public key, which is a different
code that is publicly available (often
included in certificates).
• Matching the Signature: The recipient applies the same
cryptographic algorithm used by the sender, but this time with the
message content and the sender's public key. If everything matches
correctly, the algorithm will recreate the same unique digital
signature that the sender generated.
• Verification Success:A
successful verification signifies
that:The message originated
from the entity with the
corresponding private key
(proven origin).The message
hasn't been altered in transit
since it was signed (ensuring
data integrity).
• Purpose: The primary purpose of halving
is to control the issuance rate of new
bitcoins. Bitcoin has a finite supply of 21
million coins, and the halving mechanism
helps to gradually introduce these coins
into circulation over time.
• Process: The Bitcoin network operates on
a concept called proof-of-work. Miners
compete to solve complex mathematical
puzzles to validate transactions and secure
the network. As a reward for their efforts,
they receive a certain number of bitcoins
for each block they add to the blockchain.
The halving event reduces this block reward
by 50%. Initially, miners received 50 bitcoins
per block. After the first halving in 2012, it
went down to 25 bitcoins, and so on with
each subsequent halving.
• Impact: The reduction in new coin issuance can lead to several potential impacts like
• Increased Scarcity: With fewer new coins entering circulation, existing bitcoins
become relatively scarcer. This can theoretically lead to an increase in the value of each
bitcoin, based on principles of supply and demand.
• Miner Incentives: The reduced block reward might initially discourage some miners
from participating in the network. However, the potential for rising bitcoin value and
transaction fees can still incentivize mining.
• Frequency: The halving event is programmed into the Bitcoin protocol and occurs
approximately every 210,000 blocks mined. Since it takes roughly 10 minutes to mine a
block, this translates to a halving event happening every four years, on average.
• Ejecta halo refers to a bright, irregular
patch that appears on the surface of a
celestial body, typically the moon,
following an impact even.
Deep web and Dark
web
• Think of a library. The surface
web is like the books on open
shelves that anyone can access.
The deep web is like the library's
restricted sections or archives that
require special permission or
procedures to access. Finally, the
dark web would be a secret room
within the library, accessible only
through hidden passages,
potentially containing both
valuable and harmful materials.
Apple's PQ3 protocol

• Apple's PQ3 protocol stands for

Post-Quantum Secure Messaging
Protocol for iMessage. It's a
significant advancement in
securing communication on Apple
devices, particularly focusing on
protecting against future threats
from quantum computers.
• The winners of the 2023 Nobel
Prize in Physics were Pierre
Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne
L'Huillier, recognized for their
work on "experimental methods
that generate attosecond pulses of
light for the study of electron
dynamics in matter."
• Focus: Their research focused on developing methods to generate extremely short pulses of
light, measured in attoseconds (an attosecond is one billionth of a billionth of a second).
• Significance: These attosecond light pulses allow scientists to observe and understand the
behavior of electrons in atoms and molecules on their ultrafast timescales.
This has significant implications for various fields, including:
• Material Science: Understanding electron dynamics is crucial for developing new materials
with desired properties.
• Chemical Reactions: Studying electron movement helps us understand how chemical
reactions occur at the fundamental level.
• Attosecond Science: This emerging field explores phenomena happening on attosecond
timescales, and these light pulses are essential tools for research.
Colloidal quantum dots, recognized by the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, are fascinating nanomaterials
with unique properties that have opened doors to various technological advancements. Here's a deeper
look:
• Structure and Properties:Composition: Colloidal quantum dots are tiny semiconductor crystals,
typically made from elements like silicon, cadmium, selenium, or lead sulfide.
• Size Matters: Their size, measured in nanometers (billionth of a meter), plays a crucial role. As the size
of the dot gets smaller, its optical properties change.
• Tunable Light Emission and Absorption: Due to a phenomenon called quantum confinement, smaller
dots emit light at higher energy (bluer) wavelengths, while larger ones emit at lower energy (redder)
wavelengths. This allows for precise control over the color of light they emit or absorb.
• Colloidal Suspension: These nanocrystals are typically dispersed in a liquid, forming a colloidal
suspension. This allows for easier processing and application in various materials.
• Brighter and more efficient displays:
Quantum dots can be used in TVs,
phones, and other displays to make them
brighter, more colorful, and use less
energy.
• Better solar cells: They can help solar
cells capture more sunlight, leading to
more efficient conversion of sunlight into
electricity.
• Medical imaging: Tiny quantum dots can
be used to tag specific molecules inside
cells, helping doctors see what's
happening inside our bodies.
• Future technologies: Scientists are even
exploring using quantum dots in future
computers that could be much more
powerful than anything we have today.
Uranium enrichment

• Uranium enrichment is the process of

increasing the concentration of the fissile
isotope uranium-235 (U-235) in uranium ore.
Natural uranium consists of about 0.7% U-
235, while the remaining 99.3% is uranium-
238 (U-238). U-235 is the fissile isotope,
meaning it can readily undergo nuclear
fission, releasing a tremendous amount of
energy. U-238, on the other hand, is not
fissile on its own. Enrichment is necessary
because nuclear reactors typically require
fuel with a higher concentration of U-235
(around 3-5%) for efficient operation.
 Features
• Equipped with a high-resolution infrared
sensor and a spectrometer.
• It can track differences in methane
concentrations as small as three parts
per billion in the atmosphere, which
enables it to pick up smaller emissions
sources than the previous satellites.
• It also has a wide-camera view — of
about 200 km by 200 km — allowing it
to identify larger emitters so-called
“super emitters”.

MethaneSAT satellite was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket from California.
 Semaglutide

semaglutide is not a natural substance. It's a synthetic version of a naturally occurring hormone.
The human body produces a hormone called glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in the gut. This
hormone plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels.

Treating type 2 diabetes: It helps regulate blood sugar levels in adults with this condition.
Weight management: It can be used for long-term weight loss in specific adult patients, often in
conjunction with a healthy diet and exercise program.
 • The Parker Solar Probe is a
NASA spacecraft launched in
It holds the record for the fastest speed achieved by a 2018 on a mission to study
spacecraft, reaching a blistering 635,266 kilometers per
the Sun's corona, the
outermost layer of the Sun's
hour (394,736 mph) during its close flyby of Venus. atmosphere. It is named after
Eugene Parker, the solar
physicist who first theorized
the existence of solar wind in
1958. The Parker Solar Probe
is the closest spacecraft ever
sent to the Sun, and it will
withstand incredible heat and
radiation in order to gather
data about the Sun's corona
and solar wind.
• Neutrinos
• Neutrinos are produced in various natural
processes, including:
• Nuclear reactions within the Sun and
stars
• Radioactive decay of atomic nuclei
• Supernova explosions (the death of
massive stars)
• The Big Bang (theorized origin of the
universe)
• Limited Interaction: Despite their
abundance, neutrinos rarely interact with
matter due to their extremely weak
interaction with other particles. This
characteristic also makes them challenging
to study directly.
Cryogenic engine

• Propellants: These engines rely on propellants that are liquefied gases at

incredibly low temperatures, often below -150 degrees Celsius ( -238 degrees
Fahrenheit). Common propellants include liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid
hydrogen (LH2).
• Efficiency: Cryogenic propellants offer a significant advantage in terms of
efficiency compared to conventional solid or storable liquid propellants. The
low temperatures allow them to pack more propellant mass into a given
volume, resulting in greater thrust for the same amount of propellant.
Interesting names related to artificial
intelligence (AI) and image generation

• Gemini (me!): I am a large language model (LLM) chatbot developed by Google AI,
trained on a massive dataset of text and code. I can generate text, translate
languages, write different kinds of creative content, and answer your questions in
an informative way. While I can't generate images directly, I can access and process
information about image generation techniques.
• DALL.E: DALL.E is a series of AI models developed by OpenAI, known for their ability
to generate realistic and creative images from text descriptions. DALL.E 2 is the
latest and most powerful version, capable of generating high-quality and often
mind-bending images based on user prompts.
• Stable Diffusion: Stable Diffusion is an open-source AI model for image
generation. Compared to DALL-E 2, it may require more specific prompts to
achieve the desired results. However, its open-source nature allows for greater
experimentation and customization by developers.
• Midjourney: Midjourney is an independent research lab that offers a diffusion-
based AI model for generating images. Similar to DALL-E 2 and Stable Diffusion,
it allows users to create images from text descriptions. Midjourney offers a paid
access model for users to experiment with its image generation capabilities.
• Whisper: Whisper is a large
language model from OpenAI
trained on a massive dataset
of text and code, similar to
me (Gemini). However,
Whisper focuses specifically
on processing audio and
generating text descriptions
of what it hears. It can be a
powerful tool for tasks like
video captioning or audio
search.