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Engineers Wallah Civil Engineering

Short Notes
Subject : Engineering Hydrology
Chapter-01 : Introduction
Water budget equation
Hydrological Cycle: Hydrological cycle is a global sun Mass inflow – Mass outflow = Change in mass storage
driven process in which water is transported from the
(P – R – E – T – G) = s
sea to the atmosphere and then to the land and finally
back to the sea. Where, P = Precipitation,
Evaporation(E): It is the transfer of water from liquid state R = Runoff,
to vapour state. G = Net Ground water flow,
Precipitation(P): It is the deposition of water on earth E = Evaporation,
surface as rain, snow, hail etc. T = Transpiration,
Infiltration(I): It is the movement of water into the soil of S = Net increase in storage
the earth’s surface. Important Points:
Transpiration(T): The process by which water leaves the Property Measuring instrument
body of a living plant through leaves and reaches the i Transpiration Phytometer
atmosphere as water vapour. ii Evaporation Atmometer
Runoff(R): Flowing or draining off of precipitation from a
iii Evapotranspiration Lysimeter
catchment area through surface channel. Infiltrometer rainfall
iv Infiltration capacity
Condensation: Change of the state of matter from the gas simulator
phase into the liquid phase. v Humidity Hygrometer
Interception: Short term retention of rainfall by vi Relative humidity Psychrometer
vegetation. vii Wind speed Anemometer
Percolation: Deep movement of infiltered water through Temperature and
viii Thermohydrometer
soil and fissured rock. Humidity

Catchment Area: Area of land draining into a stream at a ix Capillary potential Tensiometer

given location. In a closed catchment, the water Ombrometer /

x Rainfall depth
Pluviometer /Hyetometer
converges to a single point.

Residence time: Average duration of a water particle to

pass through a phase of hydrologic cycle is known as
residence time of that phase.
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Chapter 02 : Precipitation 2. Recording gauges (Automatic): Produces a

continuous plot of rainfall against time. According to
Precipitation is the process by which water vapor in the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), at least
atmosphere condenses and falls to the Earth's surface. The
10% of total rain gauge stations should be equipped
total amount of precipitation on a given area is expressed as
with self-recording type rain gauges.
the depth over the horizontal projection of that area.
a. Tipping bucket type: Gives data of the intensity of
Type of Precipitation rainfall.
(i) Convective Precipitation: Heating of air → rising → b. Weighing bucket type: Gives mass curve of rainfall
adiabatic cooling to form clouds. (accumulated precipitation against time)
(ii) Orographic Precipitation: Uplift of an air mass due c. Natural Siphon type: Float type gauge, standard
to mountain barriers. recording type rain gauge in India, mass curve of
(iii) Cyclonic precipitation: Lifting of moist air rainfall.
converging into a low-pressure belt. Slope of graph represent intensity of rainfall.
(iv) Frontal Precipitation: Due to contrasting air masses d. Snowfall water equipment: Amount of liquid
clash with contrasting temperature and densities. precipitation contained in that snowfall During
Forms of precipitation snowfall, the funnels of the gauges are removed so that
• Rain: Water drops size > 0.5 mm and < 6 mm all precipitation can fall directly into the receiver.
Rain gauge Network: As per IS 4987: 1968
Types of rain Rainfall intensity
1. Light rain Trace to 2.5 mm/h Type of Area Station

2. Moderate rain 2.5 to 7.5 mm/h Plain regions 1 station per 520 km2
Regions of average 1 station per 260 – 390 km2
3. Heavy rain > 7.5 mm/h elevation 1000 m.
• Snow: Average density = 0.1 gm/cc (Elevated area)
• Sleet: Freezing of raindrops when they pass through a Hilly areas with heavy 1 station per 130 km2
rainfall
layer @ subfreezing air. (dia. 5 mm or less)
• Hail: Size > 5 mm Adequacy of Rain gauge Stations
• Drizzle: Diameter < 0.5 mm, Intensity < 1 mm/hr. P1 + P2 + ..... + Pn
Average rainfall (Pm) =
• Glaze: Rain freezes when comes in contact with cold n
ground at 0°C. n

• Fog + Smoke = Smog

 ( Pi − Pm )2
i =1
n − 1 = ,
n −1
Types of Gauges
 n −1
1. Non-recording gauges (Manual): Symons gauge of Coefficient of variation (CV) = 100
Pm
diameter 12.7 cm and height of 30.5 cm used in India
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measurements are to be made at a fixed time, every C 
Optimal number of stations(N) =  V 
day. For uniformity, the rainfall is measured every day   
at 8.30 AM (IST)
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Additional number of rain gauges stations required = ii. Thiessen polygon method: Considers the rain gauge
present outside the catchment, thiessen polygon takes
N −n
care of non-uniform distance of rain gauges,
where, n = Total no. of existing station topographical influences not taken care, reliable for
plain area.
Pi = Rainfall recorded at station
n
Pm = Mean of precipitation  Pi Ai
i =1 P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ... + Pn An
 n − 1 = Standard deviation of the data Pm = =
 Ai A1 + A2 + ... + An
= allowable degree of error in the estimation of mean
iii. Isohyetal method: The area between two isohyets can
rainfall (%) be determined by a planimeter. This method is the
most accurate because it takes into account the
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data topographical influences on rainfall. Isohyets are lines
Arithmetic mean method: If normal precipitation of that join points of equal rainfall magnitude.
selected stations is within 10% of that for the station  P + P1   P1 + P2   Pn −1 + Pn 
A1  0  + A2  2  + ... + An  
Pm = 
2     2 
P1 + P2 ... + Pn A1 + A2 + ... + An
with missing data. Then, Px =
n
Frequency of Point Rainfalls
Normal ratio method: If normal precipitation of
selected station does not lie in (0.9 Nx to 1.1Nx) then, a. Arrange all the rainfall data in chronological order.
b. Arrange in descending order of magnitude of rainfall
Px 1  P1 P2 P  provide a numbered 1 to N.
=  + ..... + m 
N x m  N1 N 2 Nm  c. Then probability P of a rainfall can be find from the
following formula.
Where, m = Number of working stations. N = number of allotted to the last position i.e., number
of years of record.
Presentation of rainfall data
Method Probability
i. Mass curve of rainfall: Plot of the accumulated
precipitation against time Weibull’s method M
P=
ii. Hyetograph: Plot of the intensity of rainfall against N +1
time interval. It is represented in the form of bar chart California method M
P=
iii. Moving average: A moving average made to N
smoothen out the fluctuation in time series and help in Hazen method,
P=
( M-0.5)
determining the trend of rainfall.
N
iv. Point rainfall: Point rainfall is known as station rain
Recurrence Interval: Average time period after which the
fall. Represented in the form of pie chart. particular rainfall value is likely to be equaled or exceeded.
Calculation of Average Depth of precipitation over a 1 N +1
T= =
Catchment P M
i. Arithmetical mean method: Least accurate method • Probability of non-occurrence, q = 1 – P
does not take into account the rain gauges located
• Probability Of occurrence of event r times in n
outside the catchment.
successive years = 𝑛𝐶 rprqn–r
P1 + ... + Pn • Reliability: Probability of not occurring at all in n-
Pm =
n successive years = (1 – p)n = qn
n = No. of rain gauge within the Catchment area • Risk: Probability of occurring at least once in n-
successive years = 1 – (1 – p)n =1 – qn.
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Chapter-03 : Abstractions from Precipitation Potential Evapotranspiration (PET): Sufficient moisture

to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully covering
the area, then the resulting Evapotranspiration.
Dalton’s law-
Actual Evapotranspiration (AET):
EL = C (ew – ea)
real Evapotranspiration.
where, ( ew − ea ) = saturation deficiency • Available water for plant growth = Field capacity –
EL = Rate of evaporation (mm/day) Permanent wilting point
ea = Actual air vapour pressure of Hg (mm) AET
• Ratio of varies between 0 to 1.
ew = Saturation vapour pressure of Hg (mm) PET

Measurement of infiltration:
Measurement of Evaporation
i. Flooding type infiltrometer: Plot of the infiltration
1. Pan Measurement of Evaporimeters: capacity verses time
Lake evaporation = CP  pan evaporation ii. Rainfall simulator: Gives lower values than
infiltration capacity due to the effect of rainfall impact
S. No. Type of pan Cp and turbidity.
1 USWB class A pan 0.70
Horton’s Infiltration curve:
2 I.S. Modified Class A pan 0.80
Horton expressed the decay of infiltaration capacity
3 Colorado sunken pan 0.78 with time as an exponential decay given by-
4 USGS floating pan 0.80

Cp = pan co-efficient
2. Empirical formulae: By Meyer’s formula
 u  f = f c + ( f o − f c )e− at
EL = Km (ew – ea) 1 + 9 
 16  Where,
EL= Rate of evaporation in mm/day f = Infiltration capacity at any time t from start of the
u9 = Monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at about 9 rainfall
m above the ground. f0 = Initial infiltration capacity at t = 0
km = 0.36, for large deep of water fc = Final steady state infiltration capacity at t  tc
km = 0.5, for shallow and small water Infiltration Indices:
1
It is defined average infiltration rate is called
V  H 7
1/7th Power Law = 1 =  1  infiltration index. There are two types of indices are in
V2  H 2  common use.
Where, V1 = Wind velocity at height H1, i. -index: Average rainfall above which the rainfall
V2 = Wind velocity at height H2 volume is equal to the runoff volume.
3. Analytical methods: P−R
=
i. Water budget method: It is based on mass conservation t
principal. ii. W-index: Average infiltration rate during the entire
Inflow – outflow = change in storage period of rainfall
ii. Mass transfer method: based on theories of turbulent P − R − IL
mass transfer in a boundary layer. W=
t
Evapotranspiration P = Precipitation (cm), R = Runoff (cm)
IL = Initial losses (cm)
Transpiration: Process by which water leaves the body of
t = Effective duration of rainfall (hr.)
a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.
W index   index
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Chapter-04 : Runoff Decrease from normal Classification

precipitation
< 25% No drought
Runoff:
26 – 50% Moderate
Runoff is the flow of water across the earth's
surface, and is a major component in the hydrological > 50% Severe
cycle. (ii) Hydrological drought: Prolonged met drought
i. Direct runoff: It is that part of runoff which enters the resulting in marked depletion of surface and ground
stream immediately after the precipitation. It includes water.
surface runoff, prompt interflow and precipitation on
(iii) Agricultural drought: Soil moisture and rainfall
the channel surface.
inadequate draining crop season.
ii. Base flow: delayed flow that reaches a stream
essentially as ground water flow. Aridity Index (AI) = PET – AET  100
Direct runoff = Surface runoff + Prompt interflow + PET
Direct precipitation
Runoff-Rainfall relationship:
Chapter-05 : Hydrographs
R = aP + b

N (PR) − (P)(R) Hydrograph

a=
N (P 2 ) − (P)2 • It is a plot of discharge against time curve
R − aP • Flood hydrograph: It is used to study the flooding
b=
N characteristics of a stream due to a rainfall.
• Discharge noted is combined effect of surface runoff,
interflow, and base flow.

Coefficient of correlation (r)

N PR − P  R
=
 N P 2 − (  P ) 2   N R 2 − (  R ) 2 
  
Index of wetness
Index of wetness =
rainfall in a given year at a given place
 100 M → Start of rainfall
Average annual rainfall of that place
A → Start of direct runoff
% Rain deficiency = 100 – % Index of wetness
MADN → Represents base flow
Drought
(i) Meteorological drought: Due to the deficiency in C→Point of maximum storage

precipitation. BCD → Crest segment

As per IMD TL → lag time or basin time or Basin Lag

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Factors Affecting Flood Hydrograph the basin area at an uniform rate during a specified
period of time (D – hr.)

Climatic factors Physiographic factors Unit Hydrograph (Sherman, 1932)

(rising limb) (recession limb)
Storm characteristic Basin characteristics A hydrograph of direct runoff caused by 1 cm of effective
Precipitation, Intensity, Shape, Size, Slope, Nature of rainfall applied uniformly over a basin area at a uniform rate
Duration, Magnitude, the valley, elevation, over a defined time period (D-hr).
and Movement of storm Drainage density (length of If UH is triangular
channel /total area)
heff =1 cm
Initial loss Infiltration characteristics
Land use and cover, soil type 0.18TQp A
and geological conditions,
1cm =  Qp =
A 0.18T
Lakes, swamps, and storage
Evapotranspiration Channel characteristics Limitations:
Cross-section, roughness, a. Rainfall must be the only source of precipitation.
storage capacity
b. Applicable for UHs with areas ranging from 2 km2 to
Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH): 5000 km2.
Area of rainfall hyetograph – initial loss – infiltration c. The catchment should not have abnormally huge
losses. storage capacities.
Area under ERH = Depth of Direct runoff (DR) =heff
(Height of effective rainfall) S-curve:
Area under DRH = Volume of DR = Depth of DR × It is also known as S- hydrograph. It is a curve formed by
Catchment area adding an unlimited number of D-hr unit hydrographs
Or spaced D-hr apart. The S - curve hydrograph reaches
Area under DRH = (Area under ERH) × Catchment equilibrium discharge (Qe) at the conclusion of the unit
Area hydrograph's base period.
Or
Qe = A (km 2 )  1 (cm/h) = 2.778 A m3 /s
D D
Area under DRH = heff × Catchment Area
Synthetic Unit Hydrograph
Area under DRH
So, heff = Or UH of engaged basins in the same hydrometeorological
Catchment Area homogenous area from the known basin parameters
n
0.36 Oi  t 3 parameters:
heff = i =1
i. Basin time width (T)
A
ii. Peak discharge (QP)
Where, t (in hr), heff (in cm), Oi = Ordinate of ith
element (in m3/sec.), A = Catchment area(km2) iii. Lag time

DRH for triangular shape- Lag time ( tp) = Ct (L× Lca)0.3

Area under DRH = heff × Catchment Area 2.78C p A

QP =
tp
0.18TQp
heff =
A
Where, T = base period (in hr), Qp = Peak discharge
(km2)
Unit Hydrograph: A hydrograph of direct runoff resulting
from 1 cm of effective rainfall applied uniformly over
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Rational Method:

QP = C i A

Runoff
where, C = Runoff coefficient =
Rainfall
i = Intensity of rainfall, depends on time of
tp = Time interval between mid-point of unit rainfall concentration (tc)
excess and peak of unit hydrograph in hour Time of Concentration: by Kirpich Equation:
Ct = Regional constant (1.35 to 1.65) 0.77
 L 
Cp = Constant (0.56 to 0.69) tc = 0.01947  
 S
L = Length of main stream
L = Maximum length of travel by water
Lca = The distance along the main stream from the S = Slope of catchment
basin outlet to a point on the stream which is nearest to
the centroid of basin in km. Estimation of Design Flood for a particular return
period: Gumble's method:
It is based on extrapolation for large return period,
Chapter-06 : Floods
X T = X + Kσ n − 1 X=
x
n
Standard project flood (SPF): flood likely to occur from
the most severe combination of the metrological and
hydrological condition. σ n −1 =
 ( x − x )2 K=
yT − yn
n −1 Sn
Probable maximum flood (PMF): extremely rare and
catastrophic floods. SPF → 80% of the PMF.  T 
yT = − ln  
Design flood selected after making a cost-benefit analysis  T −1
XT = Value of variate of return period T
Empirical Formula's for Flood Peak:
n = Number of years of record
(a) Dicken formula used in Central and Northern parts of
country: K = Frequency factor
QP = CD.A3/4 yT = Reduced variate;
Where, QP = Peak discharge in m3/sec, CD = Dickens y n = Mean of reduced variate
constant, 6  CD  30 Sn = Standard deviation of reduced variate
2
A = Catchment area in km For n > 50, yn = 0.577, Sn = 1.2825
(b) Ryves formula used in Tamil Nadu, Parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka: Risk- Reliability
• Suitable when sample data are available for long
QP = CR.A2/3
period of time
Where, CR = Ryves coefficient
• Probability of occurrence of flood
(c) Inglis formula used in Western ghats of Maharashtra,
1
124 A P=
QP = T
A + 10.4
T = Return period
• A probability of non – occurrence of flood q = 1 – P
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• The probability of occurrence of an event (x  xT) at S = S(H), dS = A dH , Q = Q(H)

least once over a period of n successive years is called dt dt
the risk R. dQ
n = 0 at peak flow
 1 dt
R = 1 – (1 – P)n = 1 − 1 − 
 T dH dS
=0 & = 0 at peak flow.
n dt dt
 1
Reliability or assurance (Re)= 1 – R = 1 − 
 T  I.Q = dS  I = Q at peak flow.
dt

Chapter-07 : Flood Routing For regulated (controlled reservoir), peak will not
occur when I = Q.
Flood hydrograph: A procedure to determine the shape of Muskinghum Method of Channel Routing
a flood hydrograph at a particular location from the known
or assumed flood hydrograph at upstream. Total storage in the channel reach can be expressed as
S = k [xIm + (1 – x) Qm]
Basic Equations used in Flood routing
Where, K = Storage time constant
1. Continuity equation, I – Q = dS
dt m = constant exponent

 I1 + I 2   Q1 + Q2  m = 0.6 for rectangular channels and m = 1.0 for

 2  t −   t = [S2 – S1] natural channels
   2 
When x = 0 then storage is a function of out flow
2. Continuity equation for unsteady flow
discharge only
Q y
+T =0 S = K.Q
x t
Such a storage is known as linear storage or linear
T = top surface width reservoir
y = depth of flow S2 – S1 = K[x(I2 – I1) + (1 – x)(Q2 – Q1)] …(A)
Attenuation, lag and storage characteristics I +I   Q + Q1 
S2 – S1 =  2 1  t −  2  t …(B)
 2   2 
The reduction in the peak value of outflow hydrograph from
inflow hydrograph is known as attenuation. In hydraulic routing, continuity equation with equation
If the outflow from the reservoir is in continuous then peak of motion of unsteady flow is employed.
of outflow hydrograph will occur at the point of intersection
From A and B, Q2 is
of inflow and outflow hydrograph.
Q2 = Co I 2 + C1 I1 + C2 Q1

− Kx + 0.5t Kx + 0.5t
C0 = , C1 = ,
K − Kx + 0.5t K − Kx + 0.5t
K − Kx − 0.5t
C2 =
K − Kx + 0.5t

C0 + C1 + C2 = 1
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Chapter-08 : Stream Flow Measurement Velocity Distribution:

Introduction
Stage: Stage is the elevation of the water surface above a
datum. Higher the stage in the river, higher is the discharge
Measurement of Stage
(i) Manual:
(a) staff gauge (Below water surface area)
(b) Wire gauge (Above water surface area)→ kind of
inverted staff
(ii) Automatic stage recorders: (i) For turbulent flow:

(a) Float gauge recorder → Most common type V = (0.85 to 0.95) Vs

(b) Bubble gauge: where, V = Mean velocity

Use of stage data: determination of stream discharge flood Vs = Surface velocity

warning and protection works. (ii) For Shallow Streams:

Measurement of Velocity V = V0.6 y where,

(i) Current meter: a rotating element rotates due to reach V0.6y = Point velocity at 0.6y from surface
of the steam current with an angular velocity And
(iii) For Deep Streams:
current velocity. It is most reliable and accurate during
flood V0.2 y + V0.8 y
V=
2
V = aN s + b

where,
N s = in revolution per second, V = Stream velocity
(m/s)
a, b = Current meter constants
(ii) Float Method: Float are generally used to determine
approximate velocity of the surface. These are floating
devices which are passed with the water along the flow Area Velocity Method:
of stream. This method of discharge measurement consists essentially
L of measuring the area of cross-section of the river at a
Vs = selected section called the gauging site and measuring the
t
velocity of flow through the cross-sectional area.
where,
Vs = Surface velocity
L = Distance travelled by the float in time 't'
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Total discharge,
Q = q1 + q2 + ... + qn −1

where, q1 = w1 y1 v1

q2 = w2 y2 v2 etc.
wi + wi + 1
wi = for 2  i  ( n − 2)
2
2
 w2 
2
 wn − 1 
+  w +  VB = VR cos ; VF = VR sin 
 w1
2 
n

w1 =  ; wn − 1 =  2 
2w1 2wn Q =  qi

 yi −1 + yi 
Moving Boat Method: In this method a special propeller qi =   wi  vi
type current meter which is free to move about a vertical  2 
axis is towed in a boat at a velocity VB at right angles to the
stream flow. If the flow velocity is VF the meter will align  yi −1 + yi  2
qi =   VR sin   cos   ti
itself in the direction of the resultant velocity VR making an  2 
angle  with the direction of the boat. Further, the meter
will register the velocity VR. If VB is normal to VF. where,
qi = Discharge through the ith segment.
ti = Time required to pass the boat through ith segment.

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