MECHANICS O F L O C A L SCOUR AROUND

SUBMARINE PIPELINES
By Yee-Meng Chiew, 1 M e m b e r , ASCE

ABSTRACT: The primary objective of this study is to improve understanding of

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the mechanism causing scour in unidirectional current. Experiments have shown

how local scour develops around submarine pipelines in noncohesive sediments.
The study shows that piping is the dominant cause of the initiation of scour. Piping
and the stagnation eddy combine to undermine the pipeline, and mark the onset
of scour. The critical hydraulic gradient associated with the initiation of scour is
equal to the flotation gradient of the bed sediment. The pressure drop between the
stagnation pressure upstream and wake pressure downstream of the pipe induces
this hydraulic gradient. When a pipe is just embedded, the onset of scour does not
occur if the ratio of the flow depth to pipe diameter exceeds 3.5. Similarly, the
onset of scour does not occur for half-buried pipes. The reduction in pressure gra-
dient across the pipeline for these flow/pipe combinations accounts for the lack
of scour. The onset of scour can be prevented by placing an impermeable mem-
brane underneath the pipeline.

INTRODUCTION

Interaction between a submarine pipeline and an erodible bed has attracted

much attention because of its importance in offshore engineering. In con-
nection with the development of oil annd gas fields in offshore regions, ad-
ditional submarine pipelines are being laid on the ocean floor to transmit
crude oil to onshore refineries. Predictions of the behavior of submarine
pipelines on an erodible bed depend on understanding the mechanics of local
scour around pipelines. This study explores the temporal development of
scour around submarine pipelines resting on an initially flat bed composed
of uniform, cohesionless sediment. The experiments were conducted in uni-
form, steady flows, and the approach flow velocities were just below the
threshold for sediment entrainment.

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

Most research investigations (Bijker and Leeuwestein 1984; Kjeldsen et

al. 1973; Nalluri and Ibrahim 1985) conducted on scour around submarine
pipelines are confined to establishing empirical equations. In general, these
equations relate the depth of scour to parameters, such as velocity, pipe
diameter, grain size, and flow depth. In these experiments the pipe was placed
just on top of an initial flat bed. Bijker and Leeuwestein (1984) also con-
ducted model tests with the pipe partially embedded at the beginning of the
experiment. They reported a decrease in the scour depth when the ratio of
the embedment depth and the pipe diameter e/D increases, i.e., when the
pipe is partially buried. When the e/D ratio reaches a value of 0.5-0.7,
'Lect., School of Civ. and Struct. Engrg., Nanyang Tech. Inst., Nanyang Avenue,
Singapore 2263.
Note. Discussion open until September 1, 1990. To extend the closing date one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The
manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March
1, 1989. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 116, No.
4, April, 1990. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/90/0004-0515/$1.00 + $.15 per page.
Paper No. 24551.

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 Vortex A Vortex C Vortex B
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FIG. 1. Three-Vortex System and Onset of Scour

Bijker and Leeuwestein (1984) reported a zero scour depth under the pipe.
However, they did not specify the exact flow conditions of the tests from
which their conclusions were derived.
Besides establishing an empirical relationship relating scour depth to other
parameters, Bijker and Leeuwestein (1984) also identified three basic forms
of erosion around a submarine pipeline:

1. Luff erosion, which occurs at the upstream side of the pipe and is caused
by an eddy formation upstream of the pipe.
2. Lee erosion, which occurs at the downstream side of the pipe and is caused
by reemergence of the main flow over and the turbulent wake downstream of
the pipe.
3. Tunnel erosion, which occurs under the pipe and is a direct consequence
of the increased velocity underneath the pipe compared with the undisturbed
velocity.

Bijker and Leeuwestein (1984) added that the fundamental cause of ero-
sion around a pipeline is a local increase in transport capacity of the flow
around the pipeline, while deposition takes place where this capacity de-
creases. This argument is, nevertheless, a necessary corollary of their ob-
servation, rather than an explanation.
Mao (1988) reported the formation of three types of vortices around a
submarine pipeline resting on a plane bed. As illustrated in Fig. 1(a), one
of the vortices, A, formed at the nose of the pipe, the other two vortices,
B and C, formed downstream of the pipe. He also cited pressure coefficient
distribution near a pipe in unidirectional flow measured by Bearman and
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 Zdravkovich (1978) and deduced that the pressure difference between the
upstream and downstream sides of the pipe may cause seepage underneath
the pipe. He stated that "because the permeability of the bed material is
rather small, the velocity of groundwater flow is too small to move the bed
material." However, he added that although this ground-water flow may not
directly move sediment away, it gives the sediment an upward force, in-
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ducing instability to the particles so that they may be moved away. The onset
of scour is thus, according to Mao, due to the combined action of the vor-
tices and underflow, which leads to the formation of a small opening under
the pipe as more and more sand particles are carried away. Fig. 1 clearly
illustrates the process of the onset of scour.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

This study consisted of three series of experiments. The temporal devel-

opment of the scour was observed using video recordings in the first series
of experiments. The second series, consisting of three types of tests, showed
the relationship between seepage flow under the pipeline and the onset of
scour. The experiments included measurement of the pressure distribution
around the pipe, investigation of the effect of an impermeable plate on the
onset of scour, and determination of the threshold condition of scour. The
final series comprised study of the variation in pressure gradient across the
pipeline in various flow conditions.

Experiment Series A
The first series of experiments, A, included observations of the temporal
development of the scour hole under various flow conditions. Video re-
cordings were used to obtain a better view of the scour process especially
during the initial stages. The experiments in this series were conducted in a
flume that was 8 m long, 300 mm wide, and 450 mm deep and had glass
sides. For each test, a cylinder that extended the entire width of the flume
was used to represent the pipe. The cylinder, fixed at both ends, was placed
in two positions as shown in Fig. 2. For position 1, the cylinder was 1/16D
embedded, where D = pipe diameter, whereas for position 2, the cylinder

nmj 1/16 0 Embedment

(1) (2)

FIG. 2. Extent of Pipe Embedment Used in Experiment; Position 1: 1/16D

Embedment; Position 2 : 1 / 2 D Embedment

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 was half buried. The bed consisted of cohesionless, uniform sediment with
a mean particle size, d50 of 1.7 mm. The specific gravity Ss of the bed sed-
iment was 2.6, and the porosity n was 43%.
Five mean approach flow depths y0 and three pipes were used in the ex-
periments. The flow depths were 65, 100, 130, 150, and 220 mm, and the
three pipe diameters were 32, 50, and 63 mm. For all flows, the shear ve-
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locity was kept constant at 0.95 times the critical shear velocity of the bed
sediment. The latter was calculated using the Shields entrainment function
given in Raudkivi and Sutherland (1981). The shear velocity was chosen to
be less than the threshold velocity for the bed sediment in order to eliminate
general scour associated with sediment transport. Any scouring was thus due
to the increased local scouring power as a result of the presence of the pipe.
The bed slopes for all approach flow depths were adjusted to provide uni-
form flow conditions.
Before the commencement of a test, the flume was filled with water to a
level slightly higher than the predetermined flow depth. The pump was then
switched on and the downstream gate lifted simultaneously. This procedure
was followed strictly to ensure that the onset of scour was caused by the
predetermined flow condition rather than the instability otherwise induced.
If scour did not start at the center of the flume, the test would be repeated
to ensure that the onset of scour was not due to sidewall effects.

Experiment Series B
Piping may occur underneath a submarine pipeline if the pressure gradient
across the pipe can induce a large enough upward flow of ground water at
the downstream side. When this occurs, the threshold of sediment entrain-
ment will decrease substantially and scour will start. The second series of
experiments included three types of tests. They were designed to investigate
piping and its relationship to the onset of scour. Series B-I involved mea-
surements of the pressure distribution around a 48-mm diameter cylinder
lying on the sediment used in series A subject to a unidirectional flow with
depth y0 — 150 mm. The cylinder was placed in the same two positions in
Fig. 2. Previous tests had shown that tunnel scouring occurred with the cyl-
inder in position 1 but not for position 2. In this test, the pipe was free to
rotate, and a single pressure tab at the midspan enabled pressure measure-
ments to be made at any angular position. The pressure tapping was con-
nected to a standpipe where the pressure could be measured for each angular
position.
Since the pressure distribution will vary substantially when a scour hole
develops, pressure measurements in both instances were carried out for the
pipe lying on a flat bed. When the cylinder was in position 1, a wire mesh
placed on top of the bed sediment prevented formation of the scour hole.
No such precaution was necessary when it was in position 2 since tunnel
scour did not occur.
The purpose of the second test (series B-II) was to investigate the effect
of placing an impermeable plate on the upstream side of the pipeline on the
onset of scour. The impermeable plate can effectively reduce the pressure
gradient across the pipeline and thus eliminate piping. A perspex plate was
placed upstream of the 48 mm diameter pipe (refer to Fig. 3). The flow
depths y„ were 100 and 150 mm, respectively. The length of the plate was
subsequently shortened at regular intervals, and its effect on the onset of
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 Flow

, Impermeable Flare V If^Sand Bed Level

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\i > > i i i i i i i * * * * > * t t t > > > i t ^ [ " ^

. 4 . A . J . -> • • .
0
a • t • * •

FIG. 3. Tests with Impermeable Plate Placed Upstream of Pipe

scour was noted. The pressure at each shortened location was also measured.
The initiation of scour was further investigated by artificially creating a
static pressure gradient across the same 48 mm diameter pipe (series B-III).
The pipe was placed in a plastic box that was 150 mm long, 100 mm wide,
and 400 mm deep. The box was divided into two equal compartments by
placing a watertight partition at its center (Fig. 4). The same sediment used
in the previous tests was placed below the pipe. Both the compartments were
initially filled with water to the top. Thereafter, the water in one of the
compartments was siphoned out, whereas the water level in the other com-
partment was maintained at its original level, thus creating a pressure gra-
dient across the cylinder.
The mode of failure of the sediment and the critical pressure (water level)
difference at failure were noted. The experiment was repeated with four
embedment ratios e/D, where e is the depth the cylinder embedded in the
sediment. The pressure gradient is the ratio of the pressure difference be-

Siphon

Piping
occurs ^ o ^
here

FIG. 4. Investigation of Onset of Scour Using Static Pressure Gradient

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 tween the water levels and the length of the arc of contact between the sed-
iment and the buried cylinder.

Experiment Series C
An additional series of tests was conducted in a second flume that was
2.5-m long, 50-mm wide, and 175-mm deep. The objective of this series of
tests was to measure the pressure difference between the upstream and down-
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stream sides of a pipe under various flow conditions. Five different-sized

pipes were tested, and the three undisturbed approach flow depths used were
56, 80, and 95 mm. The undisturbed mean approached velocities Va were
varied systematically. The difference in pressure coefficient between the up-
stream and downstream sides of the pipe ACP where
Ah
^Cp = —^ (1)

2g
and Ah = difference in pressure head at upstream and downstream sides of
pipe, was computed for all the flow and pipe-diameter combinations.

COMMENTS ON EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Temporal Development of Scour Hole at Submarine Pipelines

Observations showed that undermining of the pipeline (tunnel scour) oc-
curred almost as soon as the flow was started for small values of flow depths
(low values of the ya/D ratio). Video recordings of the temporal develop-
ment of the scour hole from an initially flat bed showed that tunnel scour
began at the downstream side of the pipe. The bed sediment appeared to be
ejected from the bed, showing that piping could be the cause of failure. Once
the sand grains at the downstream side of the pipe were lifted off the bed,
they were carried downstream by the flow. At the same time, the stagnation
eddy at the upstream side of the pipe created a small depression, and the
sand barrier was quickly breached leading to the formation of a tunnel under
the pipe. In the tunnel, sediment particles were entrained, and vigorous sed-
iment transport occurred in the early stages. The sand that eroded from the
tunnel formed a bar with a height of approximately half the pipe diameter
downstream of the scour hole, With time, the sand bar propagated down-
stream and lee erosion, caused by the turbulent wake and reattachment of
the main flow over the pipe, began to dominate. Scouring continued until
equilibrium was reached, i.e., when the temporal shear stresses and turbulent
agitation near the bed were no longer able to transport bed material from
the scour hole. In contrast to model tests conducted by Nalluri and Ibrahim
(1985), tests in this study required 60-70 hours to reach the equilibrium
stage.
For pipes placed in position 1 in Fig. 2, the tunnel scour described above
did not occur for higher values of ya/D (ya/D > 3.5), whereas for that
placed in position 2, tunnel scour did not occur at all for the flow depths
tested. In both instances, the reverse flow within the wake region (vortex B
in Fig. 1) pushed bed material upstream until the sand completely choked
the downstream side of the pipe and prevented the onset of tunnel scour (see
Fig. 5).
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 —J^»— Flow
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FIG. S. Scour Pattern whan Tunnel Scour Did not Form

In contrast to deductions made by Mao (1988), vortex C (Fig. 1) was not

strong enough to initiate scour, and its action is completely overshadowed
by vortex B. However, lee erosion did occur; the scour hole was formed
with its deepest point 5-6 diameters downstream of the pipeline. Since scour
depth ds is normally defined as the depth just underneath the pipe, a zero
scour depth will be recorded when tunnel scour does not occur. In this case,
the sediment would protect the pipeline from the vibrations induced hydro-
dynamically.

Initiation of Tunnel Erosion

In order to determine the cause of the occurrence of tunnel erosion at low
y0/D ratios and no tunnel erosion at higher y0/D or high embedment ratios,
it is necessary, first of all, to investigate the cause leading to the initiation
of tunnel erosison.
As discussed earlier, observations of the development of scour hole (when
tunnel scour occurs) showed that scouring began just downstream of the
pipeline. The sediment particles at this position appeared to lose their sta-
bility, much as sediments do that have reached the quick condition. A quick
phenomenon normally occurs if an upward flow of water through a sand
layer produces seepage forces large enough to offset the weight of the sed-
iment. A greater flow may even lift the sand grains on the surface. In gen-
eral, erosion of this kind starts (for cohesionless sediments) when the flo-
tation gradient;} is exceeded: if = (1 — n)(Ss — 1), where n = porosity; and
Ss = specific gravity (Bowles 1984).

Piping Effects
In piping failures at hydraulic structures, such as dams, the difference
between the water levels in the reservoir upstream and the tailwater down-
stream causes the hydraulic gradient. For a submarine pipeline, the pressure
gradient is induced by the formation of a stagnation pressure upstream and
a comparatively low pressure in the separation zone downstream of the pipe-
line. If the exit pressure gradient exceeds the flotation gradient of the bed
sediment, piping occurs. When the sediment at the downstream end of the
pipe has reached the quick condition, the weight of the sand particles reduces
and soil particles are dislodged and eroded. This erosion process is a pro-
gressive phenomenon: As the grains are eroded, the threshold of sediment
entrainment reduces with a corresponding increase in the pressure gradient.
With the reduction of the threshold of sediment entrainment, the upstream
eddy (vortex A in Fig. 1) easily excavates the sediment. Both piping and
the stagnation eddy combine to breach the sand barrier underneath the pipe,
521

r J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 r

Bed Level
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Bed Level

(b)

FIG. 6. Pressure Distribution Around Pipeline Laid in (a) Position 1; and (h) Po-
sition 2

leading to the formation of tunnel scour.

The tests conducted in experiment series B-I were designed to measure
„ the magnitude of the pressure gradient around the pipeline. This pressure
i gradient could then be compared to the flotation gradient of the bed sedi-
ment. The comparison would indicate whether or not piping occurred at the
pipeline. Fig. 6 and Table 1 contain the measured pressure distributions around
the cylinder and the exit pressure gradieint, respectively. The exit pressure
,, gradients were calculated using the pressure difference at the exit point and
H' location 15° upstream of the exit point along the circumference of the pipe.
i! Table 1 also contains the average pressure gradients, which are computed
:' i using the difference between the upstream and downstream pressure. The
| results show an exit pressure gradient exceeding the flotation gradient (if =
1
,M 0.9) of the bed sediment for the cylinder in position 1 and not for the cyl-
',, ! inder in position 2. Since the occurrence of tunnel scour (test with pipe
J, i! placed in position 1) is accompanied by a pressure gradient exceeding, and
, I a nonoccurrence of tunnel scour (test with pipe placed in position 2) is ac-
1 companied by that less than the flotation gradient of the bed sediment, it
i»
h
ill TABLE 1. Comparison of Pressure Gradients for Cylinder Placed in Positions 1
i and 2
Pressure Gradient
Position Exit Average Remarks
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 12 mm/6.3 mm 26 mm/24.3 mm 0.9 Piping occurs
(1.91) (1.07)
2 3 mm/6.3 mm 11 mm/75.4 mm 0.9 No piping
(0.48) (0.15)

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 y0 = 1b0 mm

y0 =100 mm
100 • # —•-
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50

V0 = 0.4 m/s 48 mm

-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0

Distance from Pipe (mm)

FIG. 7. Pressure Measurements at Sand/Plate Interface

suggests that piping is a dominant feature in causing the onset of tunnel

scour.

Effect of Impermeable Plate

The proposition that piping is the cause of the onset of tunnel scour at
submarine pipelines was further investigated in experiment series B-II. The
intention of these tests was to study if tunnel scour could be initiated by the
flow in the absence of piping. Placing an impermeable plate at the upstream
end of the pipe (Fig. 3) would effectively lengthen the streamlines of the
seepage flow and hence reduce the pressure gradient across the pipe. If the
plate is long enough that the pressure gradient is kept to a value less than
the flotation gradient of the bed sediment, piping can be eliminated. For the
experimental setup in these tests, earlier results had shown that tunnel scour
would occur without the impermeable plate. If piping were indeed important
in causing tunnel scour, placing an impermeable plate would inhibit its for-
mation.
Since no tunnel scour occurred when the plate was placed at the position
in Fig. 3, piping failure was clearly demonstrated as the dominant cause of
the onset of tunnel scour. The length of the impermeable plate was subse-
quently reduced at regular intervals until the onset of tunnel scour just oc-
curred. The critical length of the plate Lc was found to be 42 and 54 mm
for y0 = 150 and 100 mm, respectively. Fig. 7 contains the pressure distri-
butions along the plate for both flow depths. These pressure measurements
were taken at the sand/plate interface as the plate was systematically short-
ened. The results show that without piping, the stagnation eddy alone is
unable to initiate tunnel scour.
The higher pressure difference across the pipe in the shallower flow in
Fig. 7 is caused by the choke phenomenon associated with low y0/D ratios.
This aspect is discussed later. With the pressure known, the pressure gradient
across the plate can be evaluated either from a flow net or pressure distri-
bution derived using conformal mapping. The latter was used, and the pres-
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 a

7 1
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Hi
\

H2
• \
/ / ^ v / / 7, v^ , / v s -
/ / > N /
2a ' -\

FIG. 8. Definition Sketch for Seepage under Flat-Based Dam

sure distribution along a flat-based dam is shown in Raudkivi and Callander

(1976) to be

h{x) =H2 + -AH cos -1 I - ) (2)

IT W
where the symbols used in the equation are defined in Fig. 8.
The exit pressure gradient is taken as the gradient of the downstream quar-
ter of the plate. Hence, h is computed (from Eq. 2) using a value of x =
+a/2 for both the flow depths tested, and a = Lc/2. The critical pressure
gradient is therefore equal to 4[h(a/2) - H2]/Lc. The results (Table 2) show
that the pressure gradient associated with the critical plate length is almost
identical to the flotation gradient of the bed sediment, showing that piping
is indispensable if tunnel scour is to occur.

Static Pressure Gradient

Experiment series B-III was designed to further explore piping and its role
in causing scour at submarine pipeline. The purpose of this series of ex-
periments was to determine the critical pressure gradient at which tunnel
scour occurs. The results would show that the flotation gradient formula, if
= (1 — n)(Ss — 1), normally used in soil mechanics to determine the oc-
currence of piping, can also be applied to scour around pipelines. Table 3

TABLE 2. Comparison of Critical Pressure (Exit) Gradient with Flotation Gra-

dient with Impermeable Flat Plate Placed Upstream of Pipe
Pressure Head at Onset
Flow depth of Tunnel Scour (mm) Critical pressure
(mm) Hi H2 AH gradient
0) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
100 105.5 69.0 36.5 0.90 0.9
150 155.5 128.5 27.0 0.86 0.9

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 TABLE 3. Average Pressure Gradient at Failure
Depth of Difference in Average pressure
Depth of cylinder cylinder water level at gradient at failure
embedded e (mm) exposed (mm) failure (mm) (mm)
0) (2) (3) (4) (5)
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3 45 25 1.03 0.9
17 31 55 0.90 0.9
24 24 68 0.90 0.9
37 11 98 0.95 0.9

shows the critical pressure gradients obtained from the experiment. The re-
sults show a remarkably close resemblance between the critical pressure gra-
dient and flotation gradient computed using the formula. The observed mode
of failure under this statically induced pressure gradient was also very similar
to that obtained under actual flow conditions.
The three tests conducted in this series of experiments relating to the ini-
tiation of tunnel scour pointed toward a close relationship between piping
failure of the bed sediment and the onset of tunnel scour around submarine
pipelines.

Specified Energy and Choke Phenomenon

When a cylinder is placed in an open channel, as a submarine pipeline
resting on a flat bed in unidirectional current is, the stagnation pressure may
be higher than that placed in a close conduit, such as a wind tunnel. This
phenomenon is due to the formation of a flow transition, similar to that
outlined in open channel flow textbooks, e.g., Chow (1973) or Henderson
(1966). For a given unit flow rate q, the specific energy at an undisturbed
upstream section is equal to that at the pipe plus the difference in bed ele-
vation (neglecting the small frictional loss). The flow depth at the pipe can
be evaluated using the specific energy method first introduced by Bakh-
meteff (1912). However, the pipe diameter can only be raised (or in normal
transition problems, the bed is increased) to the critical energy Ec limit of
the flow, after which a choking effect takes place, and the upstream flow
depth has to increase to maintain the given flow rate. The depth increases
until the flow over the pipe is at the critical condition. For the given situ-
ation, this leads to a weir-flow condition with a large drawdown over the
downstream side of the pipeline. Due to the backing up of water, the pres-
sure at the upstream side of the pipe increases, even exceeding the expected
rise in stagnation pressure due to the large hydrostatic pressure as a result
of the increased flow depth. Experiment series C was conducted to examine
the variation in pressure difference for different y0/D ratios.
Fig. 9(a) contains the function relating y„/D to ACP, and it shows that y0/
D is inversely proportional to ACP. Within the range of the Reynolds number
R tested in this study (2,350-30,000), the experimental data did not show
that ACP is related to R. This is probably because ACP is insensitive to this
range of the Reynolds number and because the effect of the choke may have
overshadowed its influence.
Fig. 9(b) contains the curve relating e/D versus ACP with y0/D as a third
variable. It shows that the larger the embedment depth, the smaller the ACP
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

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T—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—r—r

FIG. 9. (a) yjD versus ACP for e/D = 0; (b) e/D versus ACP with yjD as Third
Variable

value. This result is not surprising because, for a given undisturbed flow
depth and pipe diameter, a large embedment is effectively the same as a
large y0/D ratio.
In subcritical flow, the choking effect will occur, in general, for small
values of the y„/D ratio or, specifically, when the difference between the
undisturbed specific energy E0 (= y0 + V„/2g) and the pipe diameter is less
than the critical specific energy Ec. The choke phenomenon explains why
tunnel scour does not occur when yjD or e/D is large. The comparatively
small stagnation pressure at the upstream side of the pipe for large ya/D or
e/D ratios causes a pressure gradient smaller than the flotation gradient of
the bed sediment. On the other hand, at small y0/D ratios, the choke takes
place and causes a larger pressure gradient and hence the piping failure.
At this juncture, the reason that tunnel scour occurs in some instances
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 while no scour occurs in others can be explained. The tests conducted in
this study showed that the onset of scour is primarily caused by piping failure
of the bed sediment. Piping reduces the effective weight of the sediment,
thereby causing a decrease in the threshold of sediment entrainment. This
enhances the upstream stagnation eddy in breaching the sand barrier causing
the onset of scour. On the other hand, piping failure is directly related to
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the relative magnitude of the pressure gradient across the pipe and the flo-
tation gradient of the bed sediment. At low ya/D ratios, the pressure gradient
is increased due to the choke phenomenon while at higher y„/D or large
embedment ratios, the pressure gradient is comparatively lower. This lower
pressure explains why no tunnel scour occurs in some of the tests conducted
in this study and other research investigations reported in the literature.

Scale Effects
The y„/D ratios encountered in prototype conditions are likely to be much
higher than those tested in this study, perhaps around 10 or more. Based on
the results obtained from this study, scouring would never occur in the field.
This inference, however, is inconsistent with observations from field con-
ditions. The difference lies in the large pressure (and velocity) fluctuations
associated with flow turbulence in the wake of the pipe in real flows. Be-
cause of turbulent bursts, the pressure gradient across the pipe in prototype
conditions could reach a value necessary to induce piping and hence the
initiation of tunnel scour. This large flow turbulent structure cannot normally
be reproduced accurately in model tests. However, the scale effect does not
negate that piping is a dominant feature in initiating tunnel scour around
submarine pipelines.

APPLICATIONS

Scour underneath a submarine pipeline may expose part of the pipe caus-
ing it to be suspended in water. If the free span of the pipe is long enough,
the pipe may experience resonant flow-induced oscillations, leading to struc-
tural failure. Therefore, a main aim in the design of submarine pipelines is
to avoid these oscillations by dealing with the cause of the problem; that is,
to reduce the depth of, or perhaps, to eradicate scour underneath the pipe.
The study found that the initiation of scour at submarine pipelines is pre-
dominantly caused by piping as a result of the pressure gradient across the
cylinder. It is, therefore, possible to inhibit this failure, thereby eradicating
tunnel scour at submarine pipelines completely, if the pressure gradient across
the pipe can be kept below the flotation gradient of the bed sediment. Pres-
sure gradient can be reduced by increasing the length of the streamlines of
seepage flows. In practice, some form of impermeable membrane, such as
thick polythene sheets, may be laid on the seafloor before installing the pipe-
line. The sheet needs to be properly anchored, and the length of the mem-
brane used is governed by the magnitude of the pressure gradient induced
under designed conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

For a pipeline just embedded in a flat bed, the study shows that tunnel
scour does not occur if the ratio of the flow depth to pipe diameter exceeds
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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.

 3.5. Similarly, tunnel scour fails to form when the embedment ratio is high,
such as when a pipe is half-buried.
The study shows that the onset of scour at submarine pipelines is primarily
caused by piping. Piping occurs when the hydraulic (exit) gradient at the
pipe exceeds the flotation gradient of the bed sediment. The upward flow
of water associated with piping offsets the weight of sediment and reduces
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the threshold of sediment entrainment. This phenomenon helps the upstream

stagnation eddy to breach the sand barrier underneath the pipeline causing
the onset of tunnel scour.
The hydraulic gradient is induced by the stagnation pressure upstream arid
a low pressure in the separation zone downstream of the pipe. The pressure
gradient is greater for unidirectional flow over a submarine pipeline when
the ratio of the flow depth and pipe diameter is small because of choking
effects. The choke causes a large backwater buildup upstream of the pipeline
and creates an even higher pressure gradient than one expects for conditions
when the y0/D ratio is large. The magnitude of the pressure gradient is thus
related to the ya/D ratio, which accounts for cases when tunnel scour does
not occur, as observed in this paper.
In prototype conditions, the pressure gradients necessary to cause piping,
are induced by turbulent bursts associated with the large pressure (and ve-
locity) fluctations that occur in the wake. This explains why tunnel scour
occurs for larger y„/D ratios in the prototype conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Professor J. S.

McNown for his stimulating remarks during the preparation of this paper
and Mr. Edmund Lee for collecting the experimental data.
The project was financially supported by the Applied Research Grants
Committee of the Nanyang Technological Institute.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

Bakhmeteff, B. A. (1912). Varied flow in open channel. St. Petersburg, Russia.

Bearman, P. W., and Zdravkovich, M. M. (1978). "Flow around a circular cylinder
near a plane boundary." J. FluidMech., 89(1), 33-47.
Bijker, E. W., and Leeuwestein, W. (1984). "Interaction between pipelines and the
seabed under the influence of waves and current." Seabed Mechanics, Proc. Symp.
IUTAM/IUGG, Newcastle Upon Tyne, England, Dec, 235-242.
Bowles, J. E. (1984). "Physical and geotechnical properties of soils." McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, N.Y.
Chow, V. T. (1973). "Open channel hydraulics." McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, N.Y.
Henderson, F. M. (1966). "Open channel flow." MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc.,
New York, N.Y.
Kjeldsen, S. P., et al. (1973). "Local scour near offshore pipelines." Proc. of 2nd
Int. Conf. on Port and Ocean Engrg. Under Arctic Conditions, Univ. of Iceland,
Iceland, 308-331.
Mao, Y. (1988). "Seabed scour under pipelines." Proc. of 7th Int. Symp. on Offshore
Mech. and Arctic Engrg., (OMAE), Houston, Tex., 33-38.
Nalluri, C , and Ibrahim, A. (1985). "Scour around pipelines under marine envi-
ronment." Proc. of 4th Int. Symp. on Offshore Mech. and Arctic Engrg., (OMAE),
Dallas, Tex., 569-575.
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 Raudkivi, A. J., and Callander, R. A. (1976). Analysis of groundwater flow. Edward
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London, England.
Raudkivi, A. J., and Sutherland, A. J. (1981). "Scour at bridge crossing." Road
Res. Unit Bulletin No. 54, National Roads Board, Wellington, New Zealand.

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

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The following symbols are used in this paper:

a = half length of flat-based dam;

cP = pressure coefficient;
D = pipe diameter;
d5o = mean particle size;
ds = scour depth;
e = embedment depth;
Ec = critical specific energy;
Eo = undisturbed specific energy;
g = gravitational acceleration;
Huh, = pressure head upstream of cylinder or dam;
H2,h2 = pressure head downstream of cylinder or dam;
h(x) = pressure head along flat-based dam;
if = flotation gradient;
Lc = critical plate length for onset of tunnel scour;
n = porosity;
q = unit flow rate;
R = Reynolds number;
Ss = specific gravity;
vc = critical mean velocity for sediment entrainment;
v0 = undisturbed mean approach velocity;
y0 = undisturbed flow depth;
ACP = difference in pressure coefficient; and
Ah = difference in pressure head.

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 1990.116:515-529.