ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Course Name: Water Quality and Treatment

Course Number: WREN4309

By: Beka Benti (MSc.)

October 2023 1
2
 Introduction
 Water treatment is any process that improves
the quality of water to make it appropriate for a specific end-use

 The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation,

river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses,
including being safely returned to the environment

 water treatment plants are responsible for collecting, treating, and

distributing supplies of water, whether for residential, commercial,
or industrial uses

 Globally, these facilities may follow slightly different processes in

their water treatment systems.

 However, their methods are all based on similar stages depending

3
on the end use they aim to achieve.
 Water Treatment Process

 Unit operations provided for water treatment process depends

on the source of water (Ground water and Surface water)
i. Ground Water
Raw water Aeration Softening Filtration

Disinfection Supply
ii. Surface Water

Raw water Screening Plain sedimentation

Coagulation & Filtration Disinfection Supply
Flocculation 4
 Unit operation and its Function
1. Aeration Removal of color, odor, and taste
2. Screening Floating material removal
3. Softening Hardness (Fe, Mn) using chemicals
4. Sedimentation Suspended matter removal
5. Coagulation Suspended matter, flocculants &
colloidal matter & bacteria
6. Filtration Remaining colloidal, dissolved matter,
bacterial removal
7. Disinfection killing pathogenic bacteria, organic
matter & reducing substances. 5
 Introduction cont…

 Water treatment plant must produce water of sufficient quality

and quantity for all intended purposes

 If the water is to be used for human consumption, it must be

free of organisms or substances posing health hazards at all times

 The overall water quality objective can be met if the water

delivered to service meets the drinking water standards presented
(chapter 1).

 This involves the selection of proper plant site and use of

suitable combination of treatment processes among the
commonly used processes (Screening, coagulation/flocculation,
Sedimentation, Filtration, Softening, and Disinfection). 6
 Introduction cont…

 The following items will be considered in choosing a plant site

 Proximity to the source of raw water;

 Proximity to the area to be served;

 Land availability and costs;

 Potential for flooding of the site;

 Availability and reliability of electric power;

 Geology and topography of the site;

 Availability of transportation facilities;

 Legal obligations or restrictions. 7

 Introduction cont…

 Surface waters typically contain fish and debris which can clog
or damage pumps, clog pipes and cause problems in water
treatment
 Surface water may also contain high concentrations of suspended
matter
 Preliminary treatment processes like screening is employed for
removal of debris and part of the suspended material.

8
9
 Introduction to Sedimentation
 Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the

water is lowered below the suspension velocity and the suspended

particles settle out of the water due to gravity

 Sedimentation is removal of particulate materials suspended in

water by quiescent settling due to gravity

 It is the process of removing solid particles heavier than water by

gravity force

 Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be

removed using a sedimentation tank (also called clarifiers)

 Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their

10
treatment processes.
 Introduction to sedimentation cont...
 However, sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity
water of less than 10 NTU

 The purpose of sedimentation here is to decrease the

concentration of suspended particles in the water, reducing the
load on the filters.
 Pre-sedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because
the process depends merely on gravity and includes no coagulation
and flocculation
 Without coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can
remove only coarse suspended matter (such as grit) which will
settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of chemicals
11
 Introduction to sedimentation cont...

 It is a commonly used unit operation in water and wastewater

treatment plants

 This type of sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir,

grit basin, debris dam, or sand trap at the beginning of the
treatment process

 Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pre-treatment

process, where it is known as pre-sedimentation.

Water Treatment:
• Plain Sedimentation
• Sedimentation after flocculation
• Sedimentation after softening 12
 Introduction to Sedimentation cont…
 Wastewater Treatment:
 Grit Removal

 Primary Sedimentation

 Biomass Sedimentation

 Settling particles can be discrete or flocculating in terms their

change in size

 Discrete particles do not change in size, shape or weight during

sedimentation

 Flocculating particles show a change in size, shape and weight

during sedimentation
13
 Geometry of sedimentation tanks
 Sedimentation tanks are either rectangular or circular tanks.

Fig. Rectangular Sedimentation Tank Fig. Circular Sedimentation Tank

14
 Types of sedimentation
 Four types of sedimentation depending on the degree of
interaction between settling particles can be identified
1. Type I: Discrete particle settling
– No interaction between particles

– Settling velocity is constant for individual particles

– Examples: pre-sedimentation in water treatment, grit removal in

wastewater
2. Type II: Flocculent settling
– Particles collide and adhere to each other resulting in particle
growth

– Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling in water treatment and

primary sedimentation in wastewater treatment. 15
 Types of sedimentation Cont…
3. Type III: Hindered or zone settling
– Particles are so close together, movement is restricted
– Intermediate solids concentration
– Solids move as a block rather than individual particles
– Distinguishable solids liquid interface
– Intermediate solids concentration
– Example: settling of secondary effluents
4. Type IV: Compression settling
– Particles physically in contact
– Water is squeezed out of interstitial spaces
– Volume of solids may decrease
– High concentration of solids (sludges)
 Type I settling and Type II settling are the common sedimentation
processes found in water treatment. 16
 Settling of discrete Particles (Type 1 sedimentation)
 Discrete particles in this type of sedimentation settle freely without
interference from adjacent particles

 The settling of discrete particles in a dilute suspension is influenced by the

following parameters

 Characteristics of the particles

 Size and shape

 Specific gravity

 Properties of the water

 Specific gravity

 Viscosity

 Physical environment of the particle

 Velocity of the water & inlet and outlet arrangements of the structure
17
 Type I Sedimentation Cont…
 When a particle settles in a fluid, it accelerates until the drag
force due to its motion is equal to the submerged weight of the
particle

 At this point, the particle will have reached its terminal

velocity (constant velocity), vs, which can be calculated as:
4 (  s   w ) gd
Vs 
3 w CD

Where, vs = settling velocity

ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρw = density of water (kg/m3)
Sg = specific gravity of particle
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
18
d = particle diameter (m) and CD = drag coefficient
 Type I Sedimentation cont…

 In practice, it is found that CD is a function of the Reynolds

Number, Re, and, for spherical particles, it can be represented
by the following expressions:
24
 Re < 1, CD = (Laminar flow)
Re 3
24
 1 < Re < 104, CD = + 1 + 0.34 (Transition)
Re (Re ) 2
 103 < Re < 105, CD  0.4 (Turbulent)

 Substituting the above expression for Re < 1 (laminar flow) in

above equation and noting that Re = wvsd/ (for perfect
sphere), Stoke’s law can be obtained:

19
 Type I Sedimentation cont…
 For laminar flow range substituting the value of CD into
equation above, gives:
gd 2 (  s   w ) gd ( S g  1)
2
vs  = vs  This equation is called Stokes’ law
18 18
Where,

 μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)

 ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s) =µ/ρw

20
 Type II: Flocculent settling
 Type 2 settling involves flocculating particles in dilute
suspension.

 The Stock’s Equation cannot be used because flocculating

particles are continually changing in size, shape, and specific
gravity.

 Settling column analysis is with some alteration to that of type-

1 settling can be used for settleability analysis of flocculating
suspension.

 Particles collide and adhere to each other resulting in particle

growth

 Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling in water treatment21

 Type II Flocculent settling cont...
 It is characterized by particles that flocculate during
sedimentation

 Addition of chemicals promotes these particles to exhibit a

natural tendency to agglomerate and their size and settling
velocity will increase

 The trajectory traced by a settling particle will be curvilinear

because of the increase in its settling velocity

 The instantaneous settling velocity is the tangent to the curve

 The average settling velocity for the particle is:

22
 Type II Flocculent settling cont...
 The average velocity distribution for the suspension is continually
changing with time

 In water treatment these types of particles occur in Alum or Iron

coagulation

 To design a basin for the flocculent settling, the average settling

velocity distribution variation with time must be found to calculate
the total removal.

23
 Type II Flocculent settling cont...
 The design of sedimentation basins is generally based on the
concept of ideal sedimentation basin

 A particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity equal to

the velocity of the fluid:

 And a vertical velocity, Vs, equal to its terminal settling velocity

defined by Stoke’s or Newton’s law

 If a particle is to be removed, its settling velocity & horizontal

velocity must be such that their resultant V will carry it to the
bottom of the tank before the outlet zone is reached

 If a particle entering at the top of the basin (point a) is so removed,

all particles with the same settling velocity will be removed. 24
Type II Flocculent settling cont...

25
 Type II Flocculent settling cont...
 Considering the slope of the vector from a to f and the dimensions of
the basin itself, one may write

 This defines the surface over flow rate (SOR) which is numerically equal
to the flow divided by the plan area of the basin (Q/A in m3/s/m)

 SOR represents the settling velocity of the lowest settling particle which
is 100% removed

 Those particles which settle at velocities equal to or greater than the

SOR will be entirely removed, while those which settle at lower
velocities will be removed in direct proportion to the ratio of their
26
settling velocity to Vs.
 Types of Sedimentation Basins and their Design
 Sedimentation tanks are designed in different shapes including
Rectangular, Square, or Circular

 They can be operated continuously or by batch in a horizontal or

vertical direction of flow

 The most appropriate sedimentation tank is the rectangular,

operated with horizontal flow and a continuous basis

 The flow condition in a circular tank is more complicated & the

operation of vertical-flow settling tank is very difficult

 The intermittent tanks sometimes called quiescent type tanks are

simple settling basins, which store the raw water for a certain
period & keep it in complete rest. 27
 Types of Sedimentation Basins and their Design cont…
 After giving it a rest of some specified time, the clear water drawn
off, & settled silt is cleaned off from the tank. The tank is again
filled with the raw water to continue the next operation.

 This require some period of time so that it necessitates the provision

of more settling units & more time & labour is wasted

 In continuous flow type of sedimentation tank, the flow velocity is

only reduced & the water is not brought to complete rest, as is done
in an intermittent type.

 The working of such tank is simple, as the water enters from one
end and comes out from the other end.

 The velocity is sufficiently reduced by providing sufficient length of

28
travel.
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank

 It is assumed that sediment is uniformly distributed as the water

enters the basin. 29
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 Let the water containing uniformly distributed sediment enters a
rectangular tank with a uniform flow velocity of V and the
particle of silt entering the tank will have a vertical falling
velocity of Vs
 Now every discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity
V & a downward vertical velocity Vs
 The horizontal velocity is given by:

 And time of horizontal flow is given by:

 The time for falling distance is given by:

30
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 For the particle to reach the bottom before the water leaves the
tank the time of fall must equal the time of horizontal flow,

i.e. from which;

Where A is the surface area of the tank

 This is the limiting velocity of all to enable the particle to reach

the bottom of the tank

 All particles whose speed greater than Q/A will reach the bottom
before the outlet end of the tank

 In other words, no particles having a settling velocity more than

or equal to Q/A will remain in suspended in such a tank.
31
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 Particles with velocity less than Q/A will be removed in the same
proportion with their velocity to Q/A

 The quantity Q/A = Q/BL (discharge per unit plan area) is

known as the overflow rate or the surface loading or overflow
velocity

 Its normal value ranges between 500-750 litres/hr/m2 for plain

sedimentation & b/n 1000-1250litres/hr/m2 for chemically aid
sedimentation tank

 Decreasing the overflow rate will lead to the settlement of

particles which are having lower values of their settling velocities.
32
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 Detention Time: is the average theoretical time required for the
water to flow through the tank length.

 It is the time which would be required by the flow of water to fill

the tank, if there were no outflows & it is given by:

 The detention time usually ranges b/n 4 to 8 hours for plain

sedimentation, and from 2 to 4 hours when coagulants are used.

 The main features of a horizontal flow rectangular sedimentation

tank can be divided into different areas comprising an inlet,
settling, outlet and sludge accumulation zone.
33
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….

34
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 The inlet zone serves to provide even distribution over the full
cross-section

 The outlet zone collects the clarified water uniformly over the full
tank width

 Sludge is accumulated at the bottom, where it is stored and

removed periodically

 The most important area is the settling zone, where solid

separation takes place

 Given a specified raw water quality, the efficiency of a

sedimentation tank is mainly dependent on the surface loading,
the tank depth and detention time. 35
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 Low surface loads should be applied for raw water with poor
settling properties

 Adequate weir loads will prevent formation of undesirable

turbulence in the outlet zone

 An appropriate length to width ratio is important to maintain

laminar flow conditions and to prevent short circuits

 Shallow sedimentation tanks with a depth of approximately 1.5

to 2m will ease manual removal of accumulated sludge

 Other parameters such as the horizontal velocity Vh and the

weir overflow rate (weir loading, qw) also have to be considered
36
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont….
 Excessive horizontal velocity may move some of the previously
settled particles toward the outlet zone

 Horizontal flow velocity should no exceed 9m/hr (0.0025m/sec) for

light flocculent suspensions or about 36m/hr (0.01m/sec) for heavier
discrete particle suspension

 Large weir overflow rates results in excessive velocities at the outlet,

which then extend backward into the settling zone, causing particles
& flocs which would otherwise be removed as sludge to be drawn
into the outlet.

 Overflow rate ranging from 6m3/h per meter of weir for light flocs
to about 14m3/h per meter of weir for heavier discrete particle
suspension are commonly used. 37
 Design Details
 Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for
coagulated sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 h

 Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow)

 Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common)

maximum 100 m.

 Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m.

generally 20 to 40 m

 Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m)

 Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000

L/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000
L/d/m2 tank area
38
 Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
39
 What is Coagulation?
 Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of
chemicals that neutralize the negative charges

 The chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence

cationic salts (Al3+, Fe3+ etc)

 Coagulation is essentially a chemical process

Purpose of coagulation

 The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is

the removal of turbidity from the water

 Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small

particles suspended therein

 Water with little or no turbidity will be clear. 40

 Coagulation Cont….
 A large portion of the suspended particle in water are
sufficiently small and their removal in a plain sedimentation
alone is impossible at reasonable surface overflow rates and
detention time

 In addition to the suspended solids, water also contains colloidal

particles (colloids), which are midway in size between suspended
solids and dissolved solids, which will be in continuous motion
but never settle

 Coagulation is the process of removing such fine particle from

water by adding certain chemicals called coagulants
41
 Fine particles + Water + Chemical/Coagulant=Coagulation
 Coagulation Cont….
Properties of coagulant

 Trivalent

 Non-toxic

 Insoluble in the neutral pH range

 Flocculation: is a slow mixing process which promotes the

agglomeration of destabilized particle

 Agglomeration: bringing together of particle in to groups (flocs)

increases the effective size and the settling velocities

 The aggregation of these particle in to large, more readily

settleable aggregates is essential for successful separation by
sedimentation followed by filtration. 42
 Coagulation Cont….
 There are three main processes which can ensure the removal
of the fine particles from raw water
• Coagulation and flocculation

• Sedimentation

• Filtration

 Commonly used coagulants are:

 Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O, Ferric chloride: FeCl3

 Ferric sulfate: Fe2(SO4)3

 Polyelectrolytes (Polymers)

43
 Coagulation Cont….
Optimum Coagulant Dosage

 Two important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose

 The optimum dose and pH must be determined from

laboratory tests

 The optimal pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5

with adequate coagulation possible between pH 5 to pH 8
under some conditions

 In laboratory, jar test is used to determine optimum dosage and

pH value.

44
 Coagulation Cont….
 The jar test has to be performed on each water that is to be
coagulated and must be repeated with each significant change on
the quality of a given water.

Fig. Jar Test

45
 Jar Tests Coagulation Cont….
 The jar test– a laboratory procedure to determine
the optimum pH and the optimum coagulant dose

 A jar test simulates the coagulation and

flocculation processes

Determination of optimum pH

 Fill the jars with raw water sample (500 or 1000

ml)– usually 6 jars

 Adjust pH of the jars while mixing using H2SO4 or

Fig. Jar Test
NaOH/lime (pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5; 7.0; 7.5)

 Add same dose of the selected coagulant (alum or

iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5 or 10 mg/l)
46
 Jar Tests–determining optimum pH Coagulation Cont….
 Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute

 The rapid mix helps to disperse the coagulant throughout

each container

 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm and continue

mixing for 15 to 20 mins

 This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation

by enhancing particle collisions, which lead to larger flocs

Fig. Jar Test Set-Up
 Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45

mins

 Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar

 Plot residual turbidity against pH. 47

 Coagulation cont…

Optimum pH: 6.3

48
 Optimum coagulant dose Coagulation Cont….
 Repeat all the previous steps

 This time adjust pH of all jars at optimum

(6.3 found from first test) while mixing using

H2SO4 or NaOH/lime

 Add different doses of the selected coagulant (alum

or iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5; 7; 10; 12; 15;
20 mg/l)

 Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute.

 The rapid mix helps to disperse the coagulant

throughout each container

 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm for 15 to

20 mins 49
 Optimum coagulant dose Cont…
 Turn off the mixers and
allow flocs to settle for 30 to Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/l
45 mins

 Then measure the final

residual turbidity in each jar

 Plot residual turbidity

against coagulant dose

 The coagulant dose with the

lowest residual turbidity will
be the optimum coagulant
dose.
50
 Coagulation Cont….

Recommended values for coagulants

 Dosage
– Alum: 10-150 mg/l
– Ferric sulfate: 10-250 mg/l

– Ferric chloride: 5-150 mg/l

 pH

– Alum: 5.5-7.7

– Fe3+: 5-8.5

 Initial mixing time (Al3+and Fe3+)

– 1s and preferably less than 0.5s 51

 Factors affecting coagulation
 Type of coagulant

 Dose of coagulant

 Characteristic of water

– Type and quantity of suspended matter

– Temperature of water

– pH of water

 Time and method of mixing

52
 Coagulation Cont...
Design of rapid mix
Dimensions of the tank

– Determine the tank volume for given detention time

– Assume a depth

– Calculate the tank diameter/width

Power requirements

– Calculate water horsepower

– Calculate electric horsepower

– Estimate power costs

– Calculate impeller size and speed 53

 Geometry of rapid-mix basin & detention time
 Should provide uniform mixing

 Should minimize dead areas and short-circuiting

 Usually square basins for mechanical mixers

 Depth-to width ratio: about 2

 Detention time should provide sufficient time for homogenization of

the chemicals with water

 Typical detention time: 10 s to 5 min

 Average detention time: is the average theoretical time required for the
water to flow through the tank length

td = V/Q

Where: td: detention time, min; V: volume of tank, m3; Q: flow rate, m3/min
.54
 Coagulation Cont….
Agitation requirements
G = dv/dy =[ p/(v)]1/2

Where

G: velocity gradient, s-1 (100 to 1000s-1)

p: power imparted to the water, watt

v: tank volume, m3

µ: absolute viscosity, Pa-s

 The motor power can be calculated if the motor efficiency is

known (motor efficiency = 80-90%)

55
 Coagulation Cont….
Power imparted to the water, p
 It can be calculated by:

p = 2nT

p = Npn2d3 (for laminar flow, NR < 10)

p = Npρn3d5 (for turbulent flow, NR < 10,000)

 Where,

n: impeller speed, rps

T: impeller shaft torque, N-m

Np: power number of the impeller (given for different impellers)

d: impeller diameter

ρ: density of fluid, kg/m3 56

 What is Flocculation?
 Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate
destabilized particles into compact, fast settleable particles (or flocs)

 Flocculation or gentle agitation results from velocity differences or

gradients in the coagulated water, which causes the fine moving,
destabilized particles to come into contact and become large, readily
settleable flocs

 It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid (or) flash mix for

the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals into the water. Slow
mixing is then done, during which the growth of the floc takes place

 Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into a large

size particles known as flocs which can be effectively removed by
57
sedimentation or flotation.
 Coagulation aim Flocculation Cont….

 Objective: to bring the particles into contact so that they will

collide, stick together, and grow to a size that will readily settle

 The flocculation process relies on turbulence to promote collisions

 Velocity gradients are also a convenient way of measuring this

58
turbulence.
 Design of Paddle Flocculator
 Flocculator's dimensions
– Decide on the number of channels

– Calculate the flow in one channel

– Calculate the volume of one channel

– Assume a depth

– Calculate the width and length

 Check the flow through velocity

– Calculate the cross-sectional area of one channel

– Calculate the velocity in one channel

– Determine whether the flow through velocity is acceptable 59

 Design of Paddle Flocculator Cont...
 Calculate the power requirements:

– Calculate the volume of the entire flocculator

– Calculate water horsepower for the flocculator

– Calculate electric horsepower for the flocculator

– Estimate power costs for the flocculator.

60
 Flocculation Cont…
 Time is an important factor, and the design parameter for
flocculation

 The velocity gradient must be controlled within a relatively

narrow range in order to get good floc formation and not to
shear of already formed flocs

 The heavier the floc and the higher the suspended solids
concentration, the more mixing s required to keep the floc in
suspension

 The G value for mechanically driven flocculators is calculated

as follows.
61
 Mixing Mechanisms
 The principal objective of mixing process as applied to water treatment
is to obtain uniform dispersion of coagulant in the main flow of water
and to enhance the agglomeration of destabilized colloids

 The mixing process can be related to the coagulation and flocculation

processes as rapid mixing and slow mixing

Rapid Mixing

 Is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniformly dispersed

through the mass of water

 After the addition of the coagulant to the raw water, the mixture is
thoroughly and vigorously mixed, so that the coagulant gets fully
dispersed in to the entire mass of water.
62
 Flocculation Cont…
 This process usually occurs in a small basin immediately
preceding or at the head of the coagulation basin

 Generally, the detention period is 30 to 60 seconds and the

head loss is 20 to 60 cm of water. Here colloids are destabilized
and the nucleus for the floc is formed

Slow mixing
 It brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilized
matter formed during rapid mixing.

63
 Mixing and Power
 The degree of mixing is measured by Velocity Gradient (G)

 Higher G value, intenser mixing

 Velocity Gradient: relative velocity of the two fluid

particles/distance G = dv/dy = 1.0/0.1 = 10 s-1

 In mixer design, the following equation is useful

0.1 m
Where G= velocity gradient, s-1;
P = Power input, W
1 m/s
V = Tank volume, m3;
 = Dynamic viscosity,
64
(Pa.s)
 Flocculation Cont…
 G value for coagulation: 700 to 1000 s-1; 3000 to 5000 S-1 for
Mixing time: 30 to 60 S in-line blender; 1-2 sec
 G value for flocculation: 20 to 80 S-1; Mixing time: 20 to 60 min
 In the flocculator design, Gt (also known Camp No.); a product
of G and t is commonly used as a design parameter
 Typical Gt for flocculation is 2 x 104 – 105
Large G and small T gives small but
dense floc
Small G and large T gives big but
light flocs
We need big as well as dense flocs
G1:40
1 G2:30
2 G3:20
3
which can be obtained by designing
flocculator with different G values 65
 Flocculation Cont…
Example: Power Calculation

What horsepower level do we need to supply to a flocculation basin

to provide a G value of 100s-1 and a Gt of 100,000 for 0.438 m3/sec
flow? (Given:  = 0.89 x 10-3 Pa.s; 1 hp = 745.7 watts)
Solution:
Retention time, dt = Gt/G = 100,000/100=1000 secs
Volume of Flocculation basin, V = (0.438 m3/sec) x (1000 sec) = 438 m3

P = G2 V x 
= 1002 x 438 x 0.89 x10-3 = 3900 W
= 3900/746 = 5.2 hp

66
 Mixing Mechanisms Cont…
 Design parameters for rapid-mixing units are:

 mixing time t and

 velocity gradient G,

Where:

G = velocity gradient, s-1

P = power input, W (N.m/s)

V = volume of mixing basin, m3

μ = viscosity, N.s/m2

67
Mixing Mechanisms Cont…

68
 Flocculation Cont…
 First, the power input is determined by: p= FDVp

Where

p = power input, W (N.m/s)

FD = drag force on paddles, N

VP= velocity of paddles, m/s

 The drag force on the paddle is given by:

FD

 Where CD = dimensionless coefficient of drag, 1.8 for flat

blades

Ap = area of paddle blades, m2

ρ = density of water, kg/m3 69

 Flocculation cont…
 The above equation now becomes

 Substituting into Equation,

70
 Detention time and geometry of flocculation basin
 Typical detention time: 20 to 60 minutes

 Use multiple compartments in series to minimize short-

circuiting

 Separate each compartment by diffuser (baffle) wall

 Typical velocity criteria:

– Rapid mixing unit to flocculation basin: 0.45-0.9 m/s

– Flow through the flocculation basin: 0.15-0.45 m/min

– Baffle-wall: 0.3-0.45 m/s

– Pipe between flocculation and sedimentation basins: 0.15-0.45

m/s
71
 Mechanism of Flocculation
a) Gravitational flocculation

 Baffle type mixing basins are examples of gravitational flocculation

 Water flows by gravity and baffles are provided in the basins which
induce the required velocity gradients for achieving floc formation

b) Mechanical flocculation

 Mechanical flocculators consists of revolving paddles with horizontal

or vertical shafts or paddles suspended from horizontal oscillating
beams, moving up and down.

72
 Coagulation-flocculation Process Overview
 The water first flows into the Flash mix (Rapid mix) chamber, and
then enters the flocculation basin

 In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and
the water is mixed quickly and violently

 This step is to evenly distribute the chemicals through the water

 After flash mixing, coagulation occurs. During coagulation, the

particles are caused to come closer together and form large clumps

 The final step is flocculation

 During flocculation, a process of gentle mixing brings the fine

particles formed by coagulation into contact with each other.
73
 Coagulation-flocculation process overview Cont…

 Flocculation typically lasts for about 30-45 minutes

 The flocculation basin often has a number of compartments with

decreasing mixing speeds as the water advances through the basin

 This compartmentalized chamber allows increasingly large floc to

form without being broken apart by the mixing blades

 The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation

process is water in which the majority of the turbidity has been
collected into floc, clumps of colloids that have come together and
formed a cluster

 The floc will then settle out in the sedimentation basin, with
remaining floc being removed in the filter. 74
Coagulation-flocculation process overview Cont…

75
76
 Introduction
 About 5 percent of the suspended solids may still remain as
non settleable floc particles

 These remaining flocs can cause noticeable turbidity and may

shield microorganisms from the subsequent disinfection
process

 Filtration involves the removal of suspended particles from

the water by passing it through a layer or bed of a porous
granular material, such as sand

 As the water flows through the filter bed, the suspended

particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the filter
material, or filter media 77
 Filtration Cont…
 Filtration: Removal of colloidal (usually destabilized) and
suspended material from water by passage through layers of
porous media.

78
 Types of Granular Filters
 Based on filter media

– Slow sand filtration

– Rapid filtration

– High-rate filters

 Based on driving force

– Gravity filters

– Pressure filters

 Based on flow direction

– Downflow filters

– Upflow filters 79
a) Schematic diagram of the b) Schematic diagram of the
filtration process backwash or cleaning cycle of a rapid 80
 Filter media size parameters
 Effective size (d10): the size of standard sieve opening that will
pass 10% by weight of the media

 Uniformity coefficient (UC): the ratio of the standard sieve

opening that will pass 60% by weight of the media (d60) to its
effective size.

UC = d60/d10

81
 Slow Sand Filters (SSF)
 In slow sand filters, water is allowed at a slow rate through a bed
of sand, so that coarse suspended solids are retained on or near
the surface of the bed.

Fig. Typical slow sand filter 82

 Mechanisms of impurities removal in SSF
 Physical: Mechanical straining/sedimentation

 Chemical: Oxidation of organic matter by aerobic bacteria

 Biological: Occurs through Schmutzdecke or “Vital layer”.

 Schmutzdecke is a layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms

build up on the top of the sand

83
 Slow Sand Filter Cleaning
 Periodic raking and cleaning of the
filter by removing the top two inches
of sand

 After a few cleanings, new sand must

be added to replace the removed sand

 After a cleaning, the filter must be

operated for two weeks, with the
filtered water sent to waste, to allow
the schmutzdecke layer to rebuild.

84
 Advantages of SSF

 Simple to construct and supervise

 Suitable where sand is readily available

 Effective in bacterial removal

 Preferable for uniform quality of treated water

Disadvantages of SSF

 Large area is required

 Unsuitable for treating highly turbid water

 Less flexibility in operation due to seasonal variations in raw

water quality
85
 Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)
 The most common type of filter for treating municipal water
supplies

 Water passes downwards through the filter media and the filters
are cleaned by backwashing

 As the name implies, the water flows through the filter bed
much faster (about 100 times as fast) than it flows through the
slow sand filter

 During filtration, the water flows downward through the bed

under the force of gravity.

86
 Rapid Sand Filters con…
 When the filter is washed, clean water is forced upward,
expanding the filter bed slightly and carrying away the
accumulated impurities This process is called backwashing

 Cleaning by backwash operation is a key characteristic of a

rapid filter

Advantages of RSF

 Turbid water may be treated

 Land required is less compared to slow sand filter

 Operation is continuous.

87
 Disadvantages
 Requires skilled personnel for operation and maintenance

 Less effective in bacteria removal

 Operational troubles

 Based on filter material, rapid filters may be of thee types:

 Single-media filters: these have one type of media, usually

sand or crushed anthracite coal

 Dual-media filters: these have two types of media, usually

crushed anthracite coal and sand

 Multi-media filters: have three types of media, usually crushed

anthracite coal, sand, and garnet.
88
89
 Backwashing
 Involves passing water upward through the filter media at a
velocity sufficient to expand (fluidize) the bed and wash out the
accumulated solids

 Done when:
– The head loss through the filter exceeds the design value

– Turbidity breakthrough causes the effluent quality to be less than

a minimum acceptable level

– A pre-selected maximum filter run time has passed since it was last
cleaned

 Filtered water is used which consumes 1-5% of the product water

 Bed expansions are achieved in backwashing 90

 Backwashing Design Considerations
 Settling velocity of the media

 The backwash flow rate

 The head loss during backwash

 The duration of backwash cycle

 The quantity of water required to backwash each filter

91
 Settling velocity of the filter media
 Backwash system should operate without washing out the filter
media

 Dual or multi-media systems should be designed such that the entire

filter bed has approximately the same settling velocity

Where,

d2=effective size of the media with specific gravity of Sg2, mm

d1=effective size of the media with specific gravity of Sg1, mm

Procedure:

 Select the sand medium that would yield acceptable finished water
quality
92
 Use the above formula to select the effective size of the other media
 Duration of backwash and quantity of water
Backwash duration:

 Should be long enough to clean the media bed

 It is a function of:

– Nature of the floc

– Whether air-scour (or surface wash) is used

– The geometry of the filter bed and the wash water troughs

 Usually lasts from 8 to 15 minutes

Quantity of backwash water:

 Depends on wash water flow rate and the duration of the

backwash cycle
93
 Must also include water used to operate the surface wash systems
 Backwash water systems and head loss
 Backwash: is the method used to clean filter media by reversing
the water flow

 Water storage: should be equal to the maximum amount

needed to backwash each filter once during a 24-hour period

 Head loss during backwash:

Where,

hL = head loss through the media during backwash, m

e = porosity of the clean stratified bed at rest

L = depth of the stratified bed at rest, m

Sg = specific gravity of the media

94
95
 Disinfection Cont…
 Disinfection is the process of killing all pathogens

 Disinfection is treatment used for destruction or removal of

pathogens

 Safe water means water which is

 free from pathogenic bacteria,

 aesthetically acceptable and

 free from excessive minerals, and poisonous matter

 The purpose of disinfection is to kill all pathogens remaining

after conventional treatment

 The substance used for disinfection is called disinfectant. 96

 Disinfection Cont…
 Disinfectants must effectively reduce all types of pathogens
without being toxic to humans or domestic animals

 Additionally, it must not drastically change the taste or color of

water and it must be persistent.

Factors affecting the efficiency of disinfection

 Nature and concentration of organisms

 Nature and concentration of disinfectant

 Nature of water to be disinfected (interfering substances like

NH3, iron, Mn, organic matter)

 Temperature of water and Time of contact

97
Some diseases associated with contaminated water

98
 Disinfection Cont…

Disinfection methods include:

 Heat

 Mechanical (ultrasonic vibration, membrane filtration)

 Radiation (Gamma, Ultraviolet radiation)

 Chemical

 Halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine)

 Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

 Chloramines (ClNH2, Cl2NH, Cl3N)

 Ozone
99
 Disinfection Cont…

 Chlorine and its compounds are widely used for the disinfection
of water because:
 It is available as gas, liquid or powder;

 It is cheap;

 It is easy to apply due to relatively high solubility (7000mg/l);

 It leaves as a residual in distribution system but not harmful to

man;

 It is very toxic to most microorganisms, stopping metabolic

activities;

 It uses to oxidize iron, manganese, taste and odour.

100
 Disinfection Cont…
Chlorination
 The chlorine dosage required is a function of the water's organic
content (including the microorganisms) and the water's reduced
inorganic content

 Reduced inorganics include species such as Fe2+, Mn 2+, NH3,

etc which will be oxidized by chlorine.

 Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways:

a) It is most often added as a gas, Cl2(g),

b) generated from the vaporization liquid chlorine

 However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach. 101
 Disinfection Cont…
Points of chlorination
1. Pre-chlorination: It is the application of chlorine to water
prior to any unit treatment process.

2. Post chlorination: This is the application of chlorine to

treated water before it enter the distribution system.

3. Re-chlorination: when the distribution system is long and

complex, post-chlorination dosages are not sufficient to get
required Cl2 residuals at consumers end

 So, stage wise application of chlorine in distribution system is

carried out and is called re-chlorination.
102