LABORATORY #1 DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID

FUELS
DENSITY-is a substance's mass per unit of
volume. It is measurement that compares
the amount of matter an object has to its
volume.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY- ratio of the density
of a substance to that of a standard
substance. Also called relative density, is
a dimensionless quantity defined as
the ratio of the density (mass of a unit
volume) of a substance to the density of a
given reference material.
 The cost of liquid fuels is more than
that of solid fuels
 Specially designed expensive tanks
are required to store liquid fuel
 They have an unpleasant odour.
 There is a greater risk of fire
hazards with liquid fuels.
VISCOSITY- is defined as the
resistance of a fluid to flow, often
referred to as the thickness of a fluid.

LIQUID FUEL-are combustible or energy-

generating molecules that can be harnessed
to create mechanical energy, usually
producing kinetic energy; they also must
take the shape of their container. It is the
fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable
instead of the fluid.
-Most liquid fuels in widespread use are
derived from fossil fuels; however, there are
several types, such as hydrogen fuel
for automotive uses, ethanol, and biodiesel,
which are also categorized as a liquid fuel.
Many liquid fuels play a primary role in
transportation and the economy.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID
FUELS
-fuel can be classified into two types:
Natural or Primary fuel (Ex. coal, wood,
crude oil, natural gas, etc.), and Artificial
or Secondary fuel (Ex. kerosene, charcoal,
petrol, water gas. etc.)
Another basis of fuel classification is PYCNOMETER- designed for
on the state in which they exist, i.e., solid, measuring and comparing the densities
liquid, and gas. Fuels have some unique or specific gravities of liquids and
properties, such as ignition temperature solids.
and calorific value. Based on these
properties, we can decide the use of fuels HYDROMETER- an instrument used
in various aspects of our life. for measuring density or relative
density of liquids based on the concept
ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUELS of buoyancy.
 Liquids are easily tranportable through
pipes. VISCOMETER- is an instrument used
 They burn without any solid residue to measure the viscosity of a fluid.
like ash, clinkers etc.
 They are easy to ignite. RHEOMETER- used to measure the
 They can be stored for long periods of way in which a viscous fluid, flows in
time. response to applied forces.
 High energy content
LABORATORY #2
FLASH POINT -is the lowest temperature
of a liquid (usually a petroleum product) , as
determined by specific lab tests, at which
that liquid gives off vapours at a sufficient
rate to support a momentary flame across its
surface that will “flash,” or briefly ignite, on
exposure to an open flame. At the flash
point temperature, a liquid fuel will ignite
but will not sustain a flame. While a
flammable mixture is created above the fuel
surface at the flash point, it is burned off
more quickly than the vapours are
replenished.
FIRE POINT- or combustion point, the
lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel
ignites and self-sustains the flame,
continuing to burn in the vapour formed
above the liquid, for at least five seconds
after ignition by an open flame of standard
dimension.
-The fire point is the temperature at which a
liquid gives off vapours at a sufficient rate
to sustain combustion. At the fire point,
vapours are replenished fast enough for
combustion to be sustained
CLEVELAND OPEN-CUP-method is one
of three main methods in chemistry for
determining the flash point of
a petroleum product using a Cleveland
open-cup apparatus, also known as
a Cleveland open-cup tester. This apparatus
may also be used to determine the
chemical's fire point which is considered to
have been reached when the application of
the test flame produces at least five
continuous seconds of ignition.
Temperature range of this apparatus is 120
to 250 degree c.
PENSKY MARTEN’S APPARATUS- is
used for determining the flash and fire
points of oils having flash points between
50o C to 370o C. The closed cup apparatus
gives more reproducible results. t is consists
of a closed-cup test arrangement that
contains any vapors produced and
essentially simulates the situation in which
a potential source of ignition is accidentally
introduced into a container.
GREASE- is a solid or semisolid lubricant
formed as a dispersion of thickening agents in a
liquid lubricant. Grease generally consists of
a soap emulsified with mineral or vegetable oil.
COMPONENTS OF GREASE
Base Oils: Base oil comprises the largest
component of a grease, representing 80 -
97% by weight. The choice of base fluid
may be mineral oil, synthetic oil, or any
fluid that provides lubricating properties.
It must be noted that the base oil portion
of a grease performs the actual
lubrication except in very slow or
oscillating applications. The same rules
applied to determine proper viscosity
grade in a fluid lubricant apply to the
selection of the base oil portion of
lubricating grease.
Thickeners: The thickener may be any
material that, in combination with the
base oil, will produce the solid to semi-
fluid structure. Simply put, a grease
thickener in combination with the base
oil acts much the same way as a sponge
holding water. Principal thickeners used
in greases include lithium, aluminum,
calcium soaps; clay; polyurea; either
alone or in combination. Lithium soap is
the most common thickener in use
today.
Additives: As in lubricating oil
additives, grease additives and modifiers
impart special properties or modify
existing ones. Additives and modifiers
commonly used in lubricating greases
are oxidation or rust inhibitors,
polymers, extreme pressure (EP)
additives, anti-wear agents, lubricity or
friction-reducing agents (soluble or
finely dispersed particles such as
molybdenum disulfide and graphite) and
dyes or pigments. Dyes or pigments
impart color ONLY having no effect on
grease’s lubricating capability
APPLICATION OF GREASE- Grease
has a widespread application across
various industries,
including construction, mining, steel
milling, automotive, marine,
aeronautical, and farming. They play
multiple roles, including: preventing
corrosion. reducing friction and wear.
GREASE CONSISTENCY- The accepted
method for testing grease consistency is
the cone penetration test given by ASTM
D217 . In this test, a cone is dropped into a
cup of grease and the depth of penetration is
used as a measurement of consistency. This
value of penetration is used to assign a
grade to a grease from 000 to 6.

-During this test, the cone is released and

allowed to sink under its own weight for 5
seconds. The further the cone penetrates the
grease, the higher the penetration result and
the softer the grease.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF
GREASE
 Grease functions as a sealant to
minimize leakage and to keep out
contaminants. Because of its
consistency, grease acts as a sealant to
prevent lubricant leakage and also to
prevent entrance of corrosive
contaminants and foreign materials. It
also acts to keep deteriorated seals
effective.
 Grease is easier to contain than oil. Oil
lubrication can require an expensive
system of circulating equipment and
complex retention devices. In
comparison, grease, by virtue of its
rigidity, is easily confined with
simplified, less costly retention devices.
 Grease holds solid lubricants in
suspension. Finely ground solid
lubricants, such as molybdenum
disulfide (moly) and graphite, are
mixed with grease in high-temperature
service or in extreme high-pressure
applications. Grease holds solids in
suspension while solids will settle out
of oils.
LABORATORY #3

CARBON RESIDUE is the solid, black
substance that remains after a fuel
undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, often
indicating inefficiency in the burning
process. It can clog engines and reduce
performance. Understanding its formation
and effects is crucial for optimizing fuel use
and minimizing environmental impact.
EFFECTS OF CARBON RESIDUE
 high amounts of residue can be
damaging to the environment. for
example, high levels of carbon
monoxide can lead to an increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. these gases are thought
to contribute to global warming
 carbon residues can also be life
threatening or poisonous. exposure to
high amounts of carbon monoxide can
lead to brain and cellular damage,
including death by asphyxiation. in
addition,inhaling carbon black particles
can irritate the lungs and cause
coughing. carbon black can also irritate
the eyes, nose, and throat. when people
are exposed to high levels of carbon
black over many years, the particles
may lodge deep in their lungs. if it stays
in the lungs, the condition may lead to
bronchitis and eventually to a chronic
condition called "obstructive
pulmonary disease."
 animal studies suggest long-term
exposure to very high doses of pure
carbon black may increase a person's
risk of cancer. carbon black that comes
from incomplete burning of
hydrocarbons is more likely to contain
cancer causing chemicals than pure
carbon black.
 it is considered to be a pollutant and
certain fuels may result in higher
amounts of residue than others.
additives, such as ethanol, may be
mixed into certain types of fuel to
reduce the amount of carbon deposits.
 Carbon deposits can disrupt airflow,
causing the engine to operate outside of
OEM spec. This results in operational
turbulence that makes the air-fuel
ratio inconsistent.
 This inconsistency causes the
engine to experience rich and lean
mixtures, which have an adverse
effect on the long-term reliability of
the engine and cause hotspots
within the combustion chamber of
the engine.
 Hotspots dramatically affect engine
efficiencies. Areas, where carbon
buildup has localized, will likely
experience overheating, due to
carbon’s nature of “holding” heat.
This can lead to engine knock and a
drastic reduction in engine
efficiency.
Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR)
test is a method used to determine the
amount of carbon residue left behind
when a sample of crude oil is distilled at
high temperatures. In general, the test is
applicable to petroleum products that are
relatively non-volatile, and which
decompose on distillation at atmospheric
pressure. It is also an indicator of the
relative “heaviness” or “lightness” of
crude oil, with higher values indicating a
heavier crude oil with a higher
proportion of heavy, high-boiling point
hydrocarbons.
Micro carbon residue tester, an
automatic airtight furnace that is pre-
programmed to run tests to determine
Micro (Conradson) Carbon residue of
petroleum products.
The digitally controlled furnace has a
temperature range of ambient to 500°C.
Temperature, flow and pressure values
are automatically controlled and values
are displayed on the control panel. The
test cycle includes an audible ‘end of
test’ alarm.
 12 sample capacity
 Automatic temperature ramp and
gas control
Ramsbottom Carbon Residue Apparatus-
determines the ‘carbon residue’ left after
evaporation and pyrolysis of a sample oil in
the Ramsbottom furnace, providing an
indication of the deposit forming tendencies
of fuels and guidelines for the processing of
refinery products. Microprocessor
temperature control with digital display and
over temperature cut-off. Thermostatically
controlled coking furnace for five samples.
LABORATORY #4
SOLID FUEL-refers to various forms
of solid material that can be burnt to release
energy, providing heat and light through the
process of combustion. Solid fuels can be
contrasted with liquid fuels and gaseous
fuels. Common examples of solid fuels
include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, hexamin
e fuel tablets, dry dung, wood
pellets, corn, wheat, rice, rye, and
other grains. Solid fuels are extensively
used in rocketry as solid propellants.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID FUELS
a) Natural Solid Fuels
1) Wood - may be burned directly as a fuel
or maybe converted into charcoal or
producer gas. Sawdust is sometimes burnt at
sawmills supplemented with oil to reduce
fuel cost.
2) Peat – Brown fibrous mass of partially
decayed plant material that has accumulated
under water logged conditions. pressure
b) Artificial Solid Fuels
1) Wood Charcoal – Solid residue from the
carbonization of wood which involves
heating wood strongly in the absence of
oxygen.
2)Peat Charcoal – Made by carbonizing
peat at low temperature
3) Lignite Briquettes – Air dried lignites
4) Lignite Coke – Air dried and carbonized
lignite
5) Coke – Carbonized coal
APPLICATION/FUNCTION OF SOLID
FUELS
 Residential heating
 Cooking
 Energy generation
 Smelting
 Industrial processes
The advantages of solid fuel are as
follows:
 They are easily transportable.
 They may be stored easily and there
is no danger of spontaneous
explosion.
 Their production costs are minimal.
 Their ignition temperature is
moderate.
Disadvantages of solid fuel as are
follows:
 They contain a lot of ash and
burn with clinker formation.
 The combustion processes are
difficult to manage. Also during
combustion, a sizable percentage
of the heat they produce is lost.
 Their handling expenses are
high.
 They have poor thermal
efficiency and a lower calorific
value as compared to liquid
fuels.
 For complete combustion, they
need a lot more air than is
necessary.
 They are ineffective as fuels for
internal combustion engines.
BOMB CALORIMETER is used to
determine the calorific values of solid
and liquid fuels. The bomb calorimeter
is a laboratory instrument used to
measure the amount of a sample’s
combustion heat or heat power when
excess oxygen combustion occurs.
MUFFLE FURNACE is a laboratory
instrument used to heat materials to
extremely high temperatures whilst
isolating them from fuel and the
byproducts of combustion from the heat
source.
CHNS/O elemental analysis is based
on the combustion of the sample. Upon
combustion, the sample generates
uniform compound gases of the
elements C, H, N and S. These
combustion products are measured using
gas chromatography and thus the ratio of
the elements in the original sample is
determined.
LABORATORY #5
Flue gas is the gas that exits into the
environment through a flue, which is a
pipe or channel used to transfer exhaust
gasses from a fireplace, oven, furnace,
boiler, or steam generator. It is frequently
used to describe the exhaust gas produced
by power plants during combustion.
Typical flue gases from natural gas-fired
power plants may contain 8-10% CO2, 18-
20% H2O, 2-3% O2, and 67-72% N2;
typical flue gases from coal-fired boilers
may contain 12-14 vol% CO2, 8-10 vol%
H2O, 3-5 vol % O2 and 72-77% N2.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUE GAS
ANALYSIS
 Flue gas can tell you a lot about the
performance of a heating system or
power generation plant. Regular flue
gas analysis is a great way of ensuring
that the plant is achieving optimal
efficiency at all times.
 Flue gas analysis will give you an
indication of whether or not you are
achieving maximum possible carbon
combustion in your fuel.
 You can also analyse your flue gas in
order to determine environmental
impact and whether you are
maintaining compliance with local
emissions regulations.
 We conduct a flue gas analysis to detect
the concentration of different gases and
regulate the burner on a boiler to ensure
optimal performance.
 Flue gas analysis is essential for
evaluating air-to-fuel ratios in
combustion for the best efficiency.
EFFECTS OF FLUE GAS
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,
which are commonly found in flue gas,
can contribute to acid rain, which can
harm forests, crops, and bodies of water.
These gases can also cause respiratory
problems in humans, particularly in
people with asthma or other respiratory
conditions.
High humidity flue gas emission
increases the overall humidity in the
lower atmosphere, which is not
conducive to the pollutants diffusion in
low atmosphere and even affect the local
climate around the plant; high humidity
flue gas emission promotes the
secondary transformation of air
pollutants as well, accelerating the
hygroscopic aerosol growth, thus aerosol
optical characteristics is changed, and
atmospheric visibility reduces. As for
the power plant itself, high humidity flue
gas emission will cause the increase of
water consumption, and take away too
much latent heat of vaporization, which
is adverse to water conservation and
heat reuse. High humidity flue gas and
other acidic gases such as SO3 cause
low-temperature corrosion of flue at the
end of boiler, shortening the operation
span of equipment. High humidity flue
gas also produces "gypsum rain" after
the wet flue gas desulfurization, which is
harmful to the surrounding environment.
INSTRUMENTS USED TO
MEASURE FLUE GAS
Orsat device, also known as an Orsat
gas analyzer, was created by Louis
Orsat and first published in the Annales
des Mines in 1875. Thomas Egleston
had already written about this in 1873. is
a piece of scientific equipment used to
measure the amount of oxygen, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide in a gas
sample (usually flue gas from fossil
fuels).
The IR400 infrared gas analyzer is
capable of measuring the concentrations
of NO, SO2, CO2, CO, CH4 and
O2 components in sample gas. NO,
SO2, CO2, CO and CH4 are measured
by the non-dispersive infrared method
(NDIR), while O2 is measured by built-in
paramagnetic sensor or external zirconia
sensor. A maximum of 5 components
including O2 (up to 4 components except
for O2 measurement) are simultaneously
measurable. This gas analyzer is an ideal
system for the measurement of combustion
exhaust gas from refuse incinerators and
boilers, or gas from various types of
industrial furnaces.