(Physics)

INDEX

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Electric Field on Axial Line of an Electric Dipole 𝟏
2. Electric Field on Equatorial Line of Dipole 𝟏
3. Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field 𝟐
4. Electric Field Due to a Line Charge 𝟐
5. Electric Field Due to Infinite Charged Plane Sheet 𝟐−𝟑
6. Electric Field Due to Charged Spherical Shell 𝟑
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Electric Dipole 𝟒
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole, when Placed in Uniform
8. 𝟒
Electric Field
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor 𝟒−𝟓
Capacitance of Capacitor, when a Dielectric Slab Completely Fills
10. 𝟓
the Space Between Plates
11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 𝟓
12. Drift Velocity 𝟕
13. Relation between Drift Velocity and Electric Current 𝟕
14. Electric Current and Current Density 𝟖
15. Cells in Series 𝟖
16. Cells in Parallel 𝟖−𝟗
17. Wheat Stone Bridge 𝟗
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform Magnetic Field 𝟏𝟎
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop 𝟏𝟏
Force between two infinitely Long Parallel Current Carrying
20. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐
Conductors
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic Field 𝟏𝟐
22. Self-Induction (of a Long Solenoid ) 𝟏𝟑
23. Mutual Induction (of Two Long Solenoids) 𝟏𝟑
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C. 𝟏𝟒
25. Root Mean Square(rms) or Virtual Value of A.C. 𝟏𝟒
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit 𝟏𝟔
28. Mirror Formula (for Concave spherical mirror) 𝟏𝟕
29. Linear Magnification(for Concave spherical mirror) 𝟏𝟕
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface 𝟏𝟖
31. Lens Maker's Formula 𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟗
32. Refraction through a Prism 𝟏𝟗
33.a Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D) 20
33.b Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟎
34.a Compound Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D). 𝟐𝟏
34.b Compound Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟏
35. Astronomical Telescope (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟏

APNI KAKSHA 0

(Physics) (Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES

1. Electric Field on Axial line of an Electric Then, resultant electric field at point P is given by
36. Laws of Reflection on the basis Wave Theory 𝟐𝟑
37. Laws Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory 𝟐𝟑 Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference 24 Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
39. Distance of Closest Approach 𝟐𝟓
and +q, separated by a distance 2a and placed in
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 𝟐𝟓
41. Nuclear Density 𝟐𝟔 free space.
42. Mass Defect 𝟐𝟔
43. Binding Energy 𝟐𝟔

⃗ at point P due to the dipole will

The electric field E
⃗ A (due to −q
be the resultant of the electric fields E
⃗ B (due to +q at the B) i.e.
at point A ) and E ⃗E = ⃗EA + ⃗EB
⃗ =E
E ⃗ A + ⃗EB Let ∠MPN = ∠PBN = θ .
⃗ B | >|E
Also, |E ⃗ A |. Also ∠NPL = ∠PAB = θ

̂ So, E ̂
⃗ = ⃗EA + ⃗EB = (EA cos θ + EB cos θ)(−i)
⃗E = ((E
⃗ B ) − (E
⃗ A ) ) (𝑖)
1 q 1 q ̂
⃗ = ⃗EA + ⃗EB = (2EA cos θ)(−i)
E
or ⃗E = ⋅ − ⋅
4πε0 (r − a)2 4πε0 (r + a)2 1 q 2a
= ⋅ × ̂
(−𝑖)
1 (r + a)2 − (r − a)2 4πε0 (r 2 + a2 ) (r 2 + a2 )1/2
= ⋅q 1 q(2a)
4πε0 (r 2 − a2 )2 ̂
or E= ⋅ (−𝑖)
1 q(4ra) 4πε0 (r 2 + a2 )3/2
⃗E = ⋅ ̂
(𝑖)
4πε0 (r 2 − a2 )2 ̂ , So,
Now ⃗P = q(2a)(𝑖)
1 P
∴ E= ⋅ ̂
(−𝑖)
̂ , then.
⃗ = q(2a)(𝑖)
Now, P 4πε0 (r 2 + a2 )3/2
1 2Pr In vector notation,
⃗ =
∴ E ⋅ ̂
(𝑖)
4π ε0 (r 2 − a2 )2 ⃗P
1
⃗ =−
E ⋅
4πε0 (r 2 + a2 )3/2
In vector notation,
For dipole is of small length, a << r; then in
1 2P⃗r
⃗ =
E ⋅ equation a2 can be neglected as compared to r 2 .
4 π ε0 (r 2 − a2 )2
𝟏 ⃗
𝐏
For dipole is of small length, a << r; ⃗ =−
Therefore, 𝐄 ⋅
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟑
Therefore,
3. Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field
𝟏 ⃗𝐫
𝟐𝐏
⃗ =
𝐄 ⋅ [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟑
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric
2. Electric Field on Equatorial line of Dipole
⃗ making an angle θ with the direction of the
field E
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟐𝟎]
field.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q separated by a distance 2a.

APNI KAKSHA 0 APNI KAKSHA 1

(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES (Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Φ = E × curved surface area of cylinder Thus, we find that the magnitude of the electric field dϕ = Ed S
or Φ = E × 2πrl … (i) at a point due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is Therefore, total electric flux through the
According to Gauss' theorem, we have independent of its distance from the sheet of charge. gaussian surface is given by
q 6. Electric Field due to charged Spherical (b) When point P lies on the surface of
Φ= … (ii) Shell [𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] spherical shell
ε0
Now, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and For this case also we will draw a Gaussian surface of
centre O. Let +q be the charge on the spherical just outside the shell, this will enclose charge
q = λl
⃗
Force on charge −q at A = −qE shell. q of shell completely,
λl
⃗
& force on charge +q at B = qE ∴ Φ= For all the three surfaces the Gaussian surface Then according to Gauss' theorem,
ε0
will be a sphere. q 1 q
⃗ net = F
So, F ⃗ +q + F
⃗ −q = 0 From the equations (i) and (ii), we have E × 4πR2 = or E = ⋅ ( for r = R)
ε 0 4πε R2 0
Also both forces are equal and opposite and will λl 𝟏 𝛌 In a medium of dielectric constant K, the
E × 2πrl = or 𝐄 = ⋅
produce torque on dipole ε0 𝟐𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 electric field is given by
τ = either force × perpendicular distance 𝟏 𝐪
𝐄= ⋅
between the two forces 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐊 𝐑𝟐
5. Electric Field due to infinite Charged
= qE(AN) = qE(2asin θ) = q(2a)Esin θ Plane sheet. [𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖]
τ = pEsin θ or τ = pEsin θ (c) When point 𝑷 lies inside the spherical shell
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive
⃗ = q(2a), (electric dipole moment) (a) When point P lies outside the shell In such a case, the gaussian surface will be
Here, P charge having a uniform surface charge density σ
⃗ be the electric field at the point P due to inside the shell and will not enclose any
Also since the dipole rotates in clockwise Let E
on both sides of the sheet. charge and hence according to the Gauss'
̂ direction so, the charged spherical shell.
(−𝑘) The Gaussian surface will be a cylinder as shown in theorem,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (shown
Consider a small area element dS 0
In vector form 𝛕 ⃗
⃗ ×𝐄
⃗ =𝐩 figure. E × 4πr 2 = or 𝐄 = 𝟎 (for r < R )
shaded) around the pointP. ε0
4. Electric Field Due to line charge If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then Then, the electric flux through area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] electric flux crossing through the gaussian surface, ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
is given by dϕ = E d S = E ds cos θ
A thin infinitely long straight line charge having a ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is normal to the surface so θ = 0,
Since dS
uniform linear charge density λ placed along YY ′ . dϕ = E dS
The Gaussian surface for line charge will be Now total Electric flux is ∮S dϕ = ∮S E dS = E∮S dS
cylindrical and from symmetry all the flux will pass Now, ∮S d S = surface area of spherical shell of
from curve surface area. radius r = 4πr 2
Let E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, ∴ Φ = E × 4πr 2 … (i)
then electric flux through the Gaussian surface is the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is q,
Φ = E × area of the end faces (circular caps) of the so according to the Gauss' theorem,
given by
q
cylinder or Φ = E × 2 A …… (i) Φ= … (ii)
q ε0
According to Gauss' theorem, we have Φ =
r = radius of cylinder ε0 From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
l = length of cylinder Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q 𝟏 𝐪
σA E × 4πr 2 = or 𝐄 = ⋅ ( for r > R)
q = σA ∴ Φ= ……(ii) ε0 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐
ε0

From the equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝛔𝐀 𝛔
𝐄×𝟐𝐀= 𝐨𝐫 𝐄 =
𝛆𝟎 𝟐𝛆𝟎

APNI KAKSHA 2 APNI KAKSHA 3

(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE (Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Special cases. Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very
𝑞+ 𝑞−
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] 1. When point P lies on the axial line of the small as compared to the area of the plates).
AB is a diploe with charge −q and +q. P be any dipole. θ = 0∘ and cos θ = cos 0∘ = 1. Area of plates = A Dielectric
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0
point at a distance r from its center O, where Therefore, medium
𝑞+ 𝑞−
electric potential due to the dipole is to be 1 P
Vaxial = ⋅ … (iii)
determined. 4πε0 (r 2 − a2 )
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0
∠POB = θ as shown in fig In case a << r, then
Therefore, net potential at point P due to the dipole, 𝟏 𝐩 Let the space between the two plates of the
𝐕axial = ⋅ … (iv)
1 q 1 q 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐 capacitor is filled with a dielectric medium of
V = V1 + V2 = − ⋅ + ⋅
4πε0 PA 4πε0 PB 2. When point P lies on the equatorial line of the dielectric constant K.
1 1 1 Here the electric field between the two plates is Then, the electric field between the two plates is
or V = ⋅ q[ − ] … (i) dipole. θ = 90∘ and cos θ = cos 90∘ = 0
4πε0 PB PA related to the potential gradient as given by
Therefore, the equation (ii) gives
Draw BN perpendicular to OP and AM dV σ q q
𝐕equi = 𝟎 … (v) E= (in magnitude) E= = (∵ σ = )
perpendicular to PO. dr ε0 K ε0 KA A
From right angled ΔAMO, we have 8. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole, V is potential difference between the two plates. If V is potential difference between the two plates of
OM OM when Placed in Uniform Electric Field V
E = d (For uniform field,
dV V
= d) the capacitor separated by a distance d,
cos θ = = or OM = a cos θ dr
OA a [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] then V = Ed
Or V = Ed … … … (i)
In case the length of the dipole is very small as So substituting the value of E, we have
Let the Dipole be kept along a direction making an Also Let σ be the surface charge density of the
compared to distance r, then qd
angle θ with the direction of an external uniform plates, then the electric field between the two plates V=
PA ≈ PM = PO + OM = r + acos θ ε0 KA
electric field E. The, torque acting on the dipole is is given by
Similarly, PB = r − a cos θ σ σ σ
So if C is the capacitance of the parallel plate
given by τ = PE sin θ E = 2ε + 2ε = ε (Sum of fields due to both plates)
In the equation (i), substituting for PA and PB, we 0 0 0 capacitor, then
then work done is rotating the dipole against q q
have (ε0 is absolute permittivity of the free space.)
natural rotation by dθ C= =
In the equation (i), substituting for E, we have V qd
1 1 1 ε0 KA
V = ⋅ q[ − ] dW = τ ∗ dθ = PE sinθ dθ σ q
4πε0 r − acos θ r + acos θ V = d (σ = )
So, Total work done will be ε0 A 𝛆𝟎 𝐊𝐀
1 r + acos θ − r + acos θ or 𝐂=
= ⋅q[ ] θ2 qd 𝐝
4πε0 r 2 − a2 cos2 θ θ ∴V=
W=∫ PEsin θdθ = PE ∗ |1 − cos θ|θ21 ε0 A 11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
1 2acos θ θ1
= ⋅q⋅ 2 If C is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor, [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎]
4πε0 (r − a2 cos2 θ) or W = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
Since q(2a) = P, the electric dipole moment of the then, A battery is connected across the two plates of the
This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of
dipole, the above equation becomes 𝐪 𝐪 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 capacitor, the work is done (or energy is supplied)
its potential energy. and so 𝐂= = = … (ii)
𝐕 𝐪𝐝/𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝐝 by the battery in charging the capacitor.
𝟏 𝐏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕= ⋅ … (ii) W = ΔU = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2 ) The work done in charging a capacitor is stored in
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐫 𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉) 10. Capacitance of Capacitor, when a
Let θ1 = 90∘ and θ2 = θ. Then, the capacitor in the form of electric energy.
Dielectric Slab completely fills the Space
Uf − Ui = PE(cos 90∘ − cos θ) Let Capacitance of capacitor = C.
between Plates
or Uf = − PE cos θ the small amount of work done by the battery to
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
⃗ ⋅𝐄
In vector notation, 𝐔 = −𝐏 ⃗ The capacitor shown has two conducting plates store small charge dq is given by
q q
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor placed parallel to each other kept between Potential d W = Vdq = dq (∵ V = )
C C
[𝟐/𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very Therefore, amount of work done in delivering
The capacitor shown has two conducting plates small as compared to the area of the plates). charge q to the capacitor is given by
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential Area of plates = A

APNI KAKSHA 4 APNI KAKSHA 5

(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE (Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
12. Drift Velocity Therefore the, above equation becomes
𝑞+ 𝑞− This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the [𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d = 0 + ⃗aτ = ⃗aτ
form of the electric (Using the equation (iii), we have)
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0 The velocity gained by any electron before the
1 q2 ⃗
𝐞𝐄
W = ΔU = … (i) successive collision is called Drift Velocity. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛖𝐝 = − 𝛕
2C 𝐦
Let u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 , u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 , … . . , u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n are random thermal velocities 13. Relation between Drift Velocity and
since Ui = 0 so,
of n electrons in a conductor, then their average Electric Current
1 q2
U= … (i) thermal velocity i.e. [𝟏/𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes) u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + ⋯ . +u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n Let, length of conductor = L & area of cross-section
=0 … (i)
1
n = A. then, volume = A L
V or U = 2 CV 2 … (ii)
Let n be the number of free electrons per unit
q
q q In the equation (ii), substituting for C (= ), volume, n =N/V
q 1 q 1 q2 1 q2 V
W = ∫ dq = ∫ qdq = | | = So, total charge on all the free electrons
0 C C 0 C 2 0 2C we have
= q = Ne = n AL e … (i)
This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the 1 𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
U = 2 q V so, 𝐔=𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐪 𝐕 Time taken by the free electrons to cross the length
𝐂
form of the electric potential energy. Therefore, of the conductor
energy stored in the capacitor, l
Since charge on an electron is −e, each free electron t= … (ii)
1q 2 υd
W = ΔU = … (i) in the conductor experiences a force q
2C Also we know, I =
t
⃗F = −eE
⃗ … (ii)
since Ui = 0 so,
If m is mass of the electron, then acceleration is
1 q2
U= … (i) given by
2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes ⃗F ⃗
eE
a⃗ =
=− … (iii)
1 m m
or U = CV 2 … … … . (𝑖𝑖) So final velocity attained after drifting for
2
τ1 (relaxation time)
q
In the equation (ii), substituting for C (= V), Using the equations (i) and (ii), we have
υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + a⃗τ1 ′
we have Similarly velocities acquired by the other electrons n Ale
I= or I = n Aυd 𝑒 … (iii)
1 l/υ d
U = 2 q V so, in the conductor will be
eE
⃗⃗⃗⃗
υ1 = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + a⃗τ2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
υ3 = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + a⃗τ3 , … . υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗n = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n + ⃗aτn Also υd = τ
m
𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 Le υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d is the average drift velocity of all
𝐔=𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐪 𝐕 So, 𝐈 =
𝐧 𝐀𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝐄 … (v)
𝐂
electrons. So, 𝐦

υ1 + υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + ⋯ . +υ ⃗⃗⃗⃗n 14. Electric Current and Current Density
υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d =
n [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
(u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + a⃗τ1 ) + (u ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + ⃗aτ2 ) + (u ⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + a⃗τ3 ) + ⋯ . +(u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n + ⃗aτn ) Current density ( j ) is a vector
=
n If the current flowing through the conductor is
τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + ⋯ . +τn uniform over its cross section, then current may be
Now,
n
defined as
is called average relaxation time and is denoted by
I = j ⋅ ⃗A, …(i)
τ.
⃗ = area vector representing the area of
Where A
u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + ⋯ . . +u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n
=0 cross-section.
n

APNI KAKSHA 6 APNI KAKSHA 7

(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY (Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY

For non-uniform cross-section, the current through and 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 … (iv) E1 r2 + E2 r1 r1 r2
or V=( )− I( ) … (ii)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗A is given by
a small area d If the series combination of the two cells provides r1 + r2 r1 + r2

dI = j ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA the current I through an external resistance R, then Let E is effective e.m.f. and r, the effective internal Now, potential difference across P, Q, R, X are
Hence, the current through the whole cross-section E resistance of the parallel combination of the two VA − VB = I1 P … (i)
I=
of the conductor is given by R+r cells [ Fig.], VD − VC = I1 Q … (ii)

I = ∫ j ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA … (ii) Substituting for E and r, we have VA − VD = I2 R … (iii)
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 VD − VC = I2 X … (iv)
If current density j is normal to the cross-sectional 𝐈=
𝐑 + (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 ) When the bridge is in balanced state, VB = VD.
⃗ , then then it follows that
area i.e. if ĵ is parallel to A
16. Cells in Parallel So, putting values
I =jA V = E − Ir … (iii)
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏] VA − VB = I2 R … (v)
Putting I = n Aυd 𝑒 Comparing the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
When cells are of different e.m.f and internal 𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐫𝟏
VB − VC = I2 X … (vi)
𝐣 = 𝐧𝛖𝐝 𝐞 … (iii)
𝐄= … (iv) From the equations (i) and (v), we have
resistances. 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
15. Cells in Series
Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 I1 P = I2 R … (vii)
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗] and 𝐫= … (v)
and r2 of cells . In parallel combination terminal 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 From the equations (ii) and (vi), we have
When cells are of different EMF’s. & internal
resistances. potential V is constant across two cells (between A I1 Q = I2 X
Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1 Dividing the equation (vii) by (viii), we have
& B) that provides a current I. 17. Wheat Stone Bridge
and r2 of cells . In series I = Constant [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] 𝐏 𝐑
If I1 and I2 are the currents due to the two cells, =
Then, the terminal potential difference across the 𝐐 𝐗
then P, Q, R and X are 4 resistances. A galvanometer G
first cell,
I = I1 + I2 … (i) and a tapping key K1 (called galvanometer key) are
connected between points B and D.

V1 = E1 − Ir1
Similarly, the terminal potential difference across
the second cell,
V2 = E2 − Ir2
If V is the potential difference between the points A
and B, then For 1st cell
V = V1 + V2 = (E1 − Ir1 ) + (E2 − Ir2 ) V = E1 − I1 r1
or V = (E1 + E2 ) − I(r1 + r2 ) … (i) E1 − V Also Battery E is connected between A & C
or I1 = Let I = current in the main circuit.
Let E be the battery with internal resistance r that r1
can replace both E1 and E2 which withdraws same For 2nd cell I1 = Current through resistance P & Q
E2 − V I − I1 = I2 (say) = Current through resistance
current I between A & B then, I2 =
r2 R & X.
Substituting for I1 and I2 in eq (i), we have For balanced wheat stone bridge, points B and D are
E1 − V E2 − V at the same potential & Ig = 0
I= +
V = E − Ir … (ii) r1 r2 Let VA , VB , VC and VD be electric potentials of points
E1 E2 1 1 A, B, C and D respectively.
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we have or I = ( + ) − V ( + )
r1 r2 r1 r2
𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 … (iii)

APNI KAKSHA 8 APNI KAKSHA 9

(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM (Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform (ii) υn = υsin θ 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈𝐚𝟐
Magnetic Field 𝐁 = ⋅
(Component of velocity perpendicular to B) 𝟒𝛑 (𝐚𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
Force experienced by charged particle mυn 𝐦𝛖𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
So, r = = … (v) Special cases.
𝐅 = 𝐪(𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁) … (i) Bq 𝐁𝐪
1. Magnetic field at the center of the loop. (x=0)
⃗⃗F is always perpendicular to v The period of the circular path is given by
⃗ , so force will act as
2πr 2π mυsin θ 2πm 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈
centripetal force. T= = × or T = 𝐁= ⋅
υn υsin θ Bq Bq 𝟒𝛑 𝐚
(a) When 𝛖 ⃗.
⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐁
20. Force between two infinitely Long Parallel
The force ⃗F on the charged particle acts as the
centripetal force and makes it to move along a Current Carrying Conductors
circular path. [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
m = mass of the charged particle & Consider two infinitely long conductors X1 Y1 and X 2 Y2
r = radius of the circular path, then
placed parallel to each other at a distance r apart with
Let P be the point on the axis of the loop at a distance
I1 and I2 current flowing through them in the same
OP = x from its centre O, Let AB = dl be small current
direction.
element of the loop.
Also ∠BCP (or ∠ACP ) is equal to 90∘ . Let B1 & B2 be magnetic fields of wire 1 & 2 so,
The charged particle moves along circular path in XY- μ 2I1 μ 2I2
According to Biot Savart's law, the magnetic field due B1 = 4π0 ⋅ , B2 = 4π0 ⋅
plane due to the velocity component υn , it also r r
to the current element AB at point P is given by The wire 1 will experience Magnetic force due to field
advances linearly helical path.
μ0 I ⃗⃗⃗
dl × r of wire 2 & Vice versa
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗B =
d ⋅ ,
4π r3
2 **L is the length of wires on which F is calculated
mυ ⃗⃗⃗ and r is 90∘ , the magnitude of
The angle between dl
⃗ × ⃗B) | =
| q(υ μ 2I
r So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F1,2 = I1 (L B2 ) = 4π0 ⋅ r2 × I1 × L (−𝑖̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by
dB
Since υ ⃗ are at right angles to each other, so
⃗ &B
μ0 Idl (Force on wire 1 due to magnetic field of wire 2)
|q(υ ⃗
⃗ × B)| = Bqυ dB= ⋅ … (i)
4π r 2
mυ2
or Bqυ = Another element A′ B ′ = dl located just opposite to the
r
𝐦𝛖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗′ . = Mag Field due to the current
element AB. dB
𝐫= … (ii)
𝐁𝐪 element A′ B ′.
The period of circular motion of the charged particle If ∠OPC = ∠OPC ′ = θ, then ∠ZPL = ∠Z′ PM = θ.
Now, Pitch = the distance travelled by the charged
is given by
particle, along the direction of magnetic field in a time On resolving the cos θ components gets cancelled out
2πr 2π mυ 𝟐𝛑𝐦
T= = × or 𝐓 = … (iii) it completes one revolution. and only sin θ gets added so,
υ υ Bq 𝐁𝐪
pitch of the helical path = υB × T μ0 Idl
Also angular frequency of the charged particle B = ∮ dBsin θ = ∮ ⋅ sin θ
2πm 4π r 2
2π 2π 𝐁𝐪 = υcos θ × μ0 𝐈
ω = = or 𝛚 = … (iv) Bq = ⋅ 2 sin θ∮ dl
T 2πm 𝐦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅𝟏,𝟐 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
4π r
Bq 2πmυcos θ or = ⋅ (−𝒊̂) … (i)
or pitch of the helical path = … (vi) ∮ dl = 2πa 𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
(b) When 𝛖 ⃗ and 𝐁⃗ are inclined to each other. Bq μ 2I
The charged particle is moving with velocity υ ⃗
μ0 𝐈 μ0 2π𝐈a Also ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F2,1 = I2 (L B1 ) = 4π0 ⋅ r1 × I2 × L (𝑖̂)
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop ∴ B = ⋅ sin θ (2πa) = ⋅ sin θ
4π r 2 4π r 2
inside the uniform magnetic field B making an (Force on wire 2 due to magnetic field of wire 1)
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] μ0 2π𝐈a a μ0 2π𝐈a2
angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field. ∴ B = ⋅ × = ⋅
Consider a circular loop of radius a, centre O and 4π r 2 r 4π r 3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅𝟐,𝟏 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
The velocity ⃗υ of the charged particle can be resolved or = ⋅ (𝒊̂)
carrying a current I as shown. μ0 2π𝐈a 2 𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
into the following two components: ∴B = ⋅
(i) υB = υcos θ (Component of velocity along B) (No 4π (a2 + x 2 )3/2 This shows that Force per unit length on both wires is
contribution in force) Also for ‘N’ turns equal and opposite.
APNI KAKSHA 10 APNI KAKSHA 11

(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM (Physics) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 = I(AB
F ̂ = (Ia)B(1) = BIa(−î)
⃗ | sin 90∘ (−i) 22. Self-Induction L = Lengths of both solenoids S1 and S2 , such that
Field [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗] The phenomenon, according to which an opposing the solenoid S2 surrounds the solenoid S1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
⃗⃗⃗⃗4 = I(CD
F ̂ = (Ia)B(1) = B I a (î)
⃗ ||sin 90∘ (i)
induced e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of completely
A rectangular coil ABCD with side a & b , carrying a
⃗ loop = ⃗F1 + ⃗F2 + ⃗F3 + ⃗F4 = 0.
So, F change in current or magnetic flux linked with the n1 , n2 = number of turns per unit length of the
⃗
current I is suspended in a uniform magnetic field B coil itself, is called self-induction. solenoids S1 and S2 respectively.
acting in the plane of the paper from left to right. it is also called back e.m.f .
⃗F1 , F
⃗ 2, F
⃗ 3 and F
⃗ 4 be the forces acting on arms Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
DA, BC, AB and CD of the coil respectively in the
Let L = Length of coil,
magnetic field. A = Area of cross section,
Here AB = a , BC = b, CD = a , DA = b n = number of turns per unit length = N/L
Also 𝜽 is the angle between Normal to plane and I = current passing through solenoid (coil)
magnetic field. Then, magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by
B = μ0 nI ϕ21 ∝ I1
It follows that the force on arm DA, As the two forces⃗⃗⃗⃗F3 & ⃗F4 have different lines of The magnetic (self) flux passing through each turn or ϕ21 = M21 I1 , … (i) ( M21 is the coefficient of
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × B
F1 = I(DA ⃗,
action, they constitute a torque, whose magnitude is of the coil = B × area of each turn = μ0 nI × A mutual induction of S2 due to S1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F1 = I(DA ̂
⃗ | sin(90∘ + θ) ĵ = BIbcos θ (j) given by Total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid, Also, B1 = μ0 n1 I1 (mag field produced inside the
Similarly, solenoid S1 due to I1
So, total magnetic flux linked with the solenoidS2 ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × ⃗B,
F2 = I(BC 𝛕 = either force × 𝐊𝐃,
ϕ21 = B1 A × n2 L = μ0 n1 I1 × A × n2 L
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F2 = I(BC ⃗ | sin(90∘ − θ) (−ĵ) τ = BaI × bsinθ = μ0 n1 n2 AI1 L (ii)
= IbBcos θ (−ĵ) τ = BIAsinθ (Area = A = a× b) On comparing(i)& (ii) M21 = μ0 n1 n2 AL
Also, I⃗⃗⃗A = ⃗M
⃗⃗ = the magnetic dipole moment of the Similarly
ϕ12 ∝ I2 or ϕ12 = M12 I2 , … (iii)
current loop. Therefore,
ϕ = Magnetic flux linked with one turn × total (M1,2 is the coefficient of mutual induction of S1
τ = M B sinθ number of turns due to S2 )
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝐁
⃗ =𝐌
𝛕 Now, total number of turns in the solenoid = nL Also, B2 = μ0 n2 I2 (mag field produced inside the
∴ ϕ = μ0 nIA × nL or ϕ = μ0 n2 LA I … (i) solenoid S1 due to I1
Note : If the coil has N turns, then
If L is the self-inductance of the solenoid, then Therefore, total magnetic flux linked with the
𝛕 = 𝐍 BIA 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
ϕ= LI … (ii) solenoid S1 ,
On comparing ϕ12 = B2 A × n1 L = μ0 n2 I2 × A × n1 L
𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀 or ϕ12 = μ0 n1 n2 AI2 L … (iv)
𝐋= … (iii)
𝐋 on comparing (iii) & (iv) M12 = μ0 n1 n2 AL
23. Mutual Induction Therefore,
The phenomenon according to which an opposing 𝐌𝟐𝟏 = 𝐌𝟏𝟐 = 𝐌 (say)
e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of change in Hence, coefficient of mutual induction between the
current or magnetic flux linked with a neighboring two long solenoids,
coil is called mutual induction. 𝐌 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐀l

Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoids

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
. Let I1 & I2 be the current flowing in given
coils(solenoids).

APNI KAKSHA 12 APNI KAKSHA 13

(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT (Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C. small amount of heat produced in the resistance R 26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] in time dt is given by [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Let I = I0 sin ωt is current in any circuit R Also phase angle ϕ From right angled△ OAE, we
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0
have
R AE VL − VC IX L − IX C
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0 tan ϕ = = =
OA VR IR
𝟏
𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 𝛚𝐋 − 𝛚𝐂
or 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = = … (iv)
𝐑 𝐑
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit
dH = I 2 Rdt = (I0 sin ωt)2 Rdt = I02 Rsin2 ωtdt The small amount of electrical energy consumed in
Let E and I be the instantaneous values of e.m.f. and circuit is given by the work done by battery. So,
The amount of heat produced in the resistance in
Let the small amount of charge that will pass current in the LCRcircuit; and VL , VC and VR be the d W = EIdt = (E0 sin ωt)I0 sin(ωt + ϕ) dt
time T/2 (half time period) can be obtained by
through the circuit in time dt is given by instantaneous values of the voltages across = E0 I0 sin ωt(sin ωtcos ϕ + cos ωtsin ϕ)dt
integrating the above equation between the limits
inductor L, capacitor C and resistor R respectively. = E0 I0 (sin2 ωtcos ϕ + sin ωtcos ωtsin ϕ)dt … (i)
dq = Idt or dq = I0 sin ωtdt t = 0 to t = T/2 i.e.
Then, VL = IX L ; VC = IX C and VR = IR Now, cos 2ωt = 1 − 2sin2 ωt Or
The amount of charge that will pass through the T T
2 2 Here, X L = ωL and X C = 1/ωC are reactances due 1 − cos 2ωt
circuit in time T/2 (half time period of a.c.) is the sin2 ωt =
H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωtdt = I0 2 R ∫ sin2 ωtdt to inductor and capacitor respectively. Where ω is 2
total integral value of above equation from t = 0 to 0 0 the angular frequency of given supply. Also, sin 2ωt = 2 sin ωt cos ωt or
t = T/2 i.e.
T/2 sin 2ωt
1 − cos 2ωt sin ωt cos ωt =
T T = I0 2 R ∫ dt 2
2
2 2
0 In the equation (i), substituting for sin2 ωt and
q = ∫ I0 sin ωtdt = I0 ∫ sin ωtdt I0 2 R sin ωtcos ωt, we have
0 0
or H = 1 − cos 2ωt sin 2ωt
2
d W = E0 I 0 ( cos ϕ + sin ϕ) dt
cos ωt T/2 I0 T/2
T/2 T/2 2 2
= I0 |− | = − |cos ωt|0 = (∫ dt − ∫ cos 2ωtdt) … (i) E0 I 0
ω 0 ω 0 0 = (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt
I0 2π T 2π 2
=− |cos ⋅ − cos ⋅ 0| In the equation (i), substituting the values of the The electrical energy consumed in the circuit in
2π T 2 T
T two integrals obtained above, we have time T (period of a.c.) can be obtained by
I0 T I0 T I0 2 R T I0 2 R T integrating the above equation between t = 0 to
=− |cos π − cos 0| = − (−1 − 1). H= ( − 0) = ⋅ … (ii)
2π 2π 2 2 2 2 t = T i.e.
OE = √OA2 + AE 2 = √OA2 + OD2 (Pythagoras)
I0 T If Iv is virtual or r.m.s. value of a.c., then by T
or q= or E = √VR 2 + (VL − VC )2 E0 I 0
π W=∫ (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt
definition, 2
If Im is mean value of a.c., then by definition Substituting the values of VR′ , VL and VC , we have 0
T
T H = Iv 2 R ⋅ … (iii) E = √(IR)2 + (IXL − IX C )2 + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt
q = Im ⋅ 2
2 E0 I 0
From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have = I√R2 + (X L − X C )2 W= [cos ϕ(T) − cos ϕ(0) + sin ϕ(0)]
2
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have E
T I0 2 R T I0 2 or I= … (i) E0 I 0 T
T I0 T 𝟐𝐈𝟎 Iv2 R ⋅ = ⋅ or Iv 2 = √R2 + (X L − X C )2 or W= cos ϕ
2 2 2 2 2
Im ⋅ = or 𝐈𝐦 = = 𝟎 ⋅ 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝐈𝟎 E
2 π 𝛑 Let , I=Z … (ii) The average power of the a.c. circuit is given by
𝐈𝟎
25. Root Mean Square (rms) or Virtual Value or 𝐈𝐯 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝐈𝟎 W E0 I 0 T 1 E0 I 0
√𝟐 From the equations (i) and (ii), we have Pavg = = cos ϕ × = cos ϕ
T 2 T 2
of A.C. [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏] 𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 E0 I 0
Let I = I0 sin ωt is current in any circuit ⋅ cos ϕ
= √R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 … (iii) √2 √2
The current through the resistance remains The equation (iii) gives impedance of LCR-circuit. 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄𝐯 𝐈𝐯 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 … (ii)
constant for an infinitesimally small time dt so the
APNI KAKSHA 14 APNI KAKSHA 15

(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

ϕ = π/2 . 28. Mirror Formula 29. Linear Magnification
𝑅 Pav = Ev , Iv cos π/2 = Ev Iv (0) = 0 [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎]
Here cos ϕ = 𝑍 is called the power factor of circuit. [𝟐𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
& Ev & Iv are RMS value of voltage and current
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit, For Concave spherical mirror The ratio of the size of the image formed by a
Let the points P, F and C be the pole, focus and spherical mirror to the size of the object is called
Special cases :
(i) circuit having R only. For such a circuit, ϕ = 0. 0 centre of curvature of a concave spherical mirror. the linear magnification.
Pav = Ev Iv cos 0 = Ev Iv (1) = Ev Iv AB = Object
𝐈
Now, triangles A′ B ′ F and ENF are similar. 𝐦= … (i)
(ii) circuit having L only. For such a circuit, 𝐎
A′ B ′ A′ F
ϕ = π/2 . ∴ = . Magnification produced by a concave mirror
NE NF
Pav = Ev , Iv cos π/2 = Ev Iv (0) = 0 Fig. shows the formation of the image A′ B ′ of an
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit, object AB by a concave spherical mirror. Since the
ϕ = −π/2 triangles ABP and A′ B ′ P are similar, we have
Pav = Ev Iv cos(−π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 A′ B′ PA′
AB
= PA
Applying the new
Cartesian sign
conventions, we have
As aperture of the concave mirror is small, the
A′ B ′ = −I
points N and P lie very close to each other and
consequently NF ≈ PF. Also, NE = AB. AB = +O
A′ B ′ A′ F PA = −u
∴ =
AB PF PA′ = −υ
Since all the distances are to be measured from the (∵ distance of image is measured against incident ray)
pole of the concave mirror, we have Therefore, the above equation becomes
A′ F = PA′ − PF −I −υ I υ
A′ B ′ PA′ − PF = or = − … (ii)
O −u O u
∴ = … (i)
AB PF From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Also, triangles ABP and A′ B ′ P are similar. 𝐈 𝛖
A′ B ′ PA′ 𝐦= =− … (iii)
∴ = … (ii) 𝐎 𝐮
AB PA Also by Mirror formula
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
1 1 1
PA′ − PF PA′ + =
= … (iii) u υ f
PF PA
Multiplying by υ , we get
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions, we
υ υ υ υ υ
have + = => = −1
u υ f u f
PA = −u (Object distance) υ υ υ−f
= −1=
PA′ = −υ(Image dist. ) and PF = −f (focal length) u f f
In the equation (iii), substituting for PA, PA′ and PF, So,

we have 𝐟− 𝛖
𝐦=
−υ − (−f) −υ υ−f υ υ υ 𝐟
= or = or − 1 =
−f −u f u f u
1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
or − = or + =
f υ u 𝐮 𝛖 𝐟
The above relation between u, υ and f is called
mirror formula.
APNI KAKSHA 16 APNI KAKSHA 17
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface Since angles β and γ are small, we have μ2 = refractive index of outer medium & 32. Refraction through a Prism
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑] r = tan γ − tan β … (v) μ1 = Refractive index of lens , [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
Let us consider a convex spherical refracting From right angled triangles ANC and ANI, we have Suppose that O is a point object placed on the KTS = δ is called the angle of deviation.
surface with AN AN AN AN principal axis of the lens. The surface XP1 Y forms
tan γ = ≈ and tan β = ≈
μ2 = refractive index of medium 2 & NC PC NI PI the real image I1 (assuming that material of the lens
In the equation (v), substituting for tan β and tan γ extends beyond the face XP1 Y as such). It can be
μ1 = Refractive index of medium 1,
we have obtained* that
Let P = pole, C = center of curvature and μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1
AN AN + = … (i)
PC = Principal axis of the convex surface. r= − … (vi) P1 O P1 I1 P1 C1
PC PI
When object lies in the rarer medium and image Since the lens is thin, the point P1 lies very close to
By Snell’s law
formed is real. the optical centre C of the lens. Therefore, we may
μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r write
O = Object. Draw AN as perpendicular and take Since ∠TQO = ∠NQP = i and ∠RQO = r1 , we have
Since the angles i and r are also small, the above P1 O ≈ CO; P1 I1 ≈ CI1 and P1 C1 ≈ CC1
angle α, β & γ respectively in triangles. ∠TQR = i − r1
𝛍𝟏 𝛍 𝛍𝟐 −𝛍𝟏
equation becomes So, + 𝐂𝐈𝟐 = … (ii) Also,
Let ∠AOP = α; ∠AIP = β and ∠ACP = γ. 𝐂𝐎 𝟏 𝐂𝐂𝟏
μ1 i = μ2 r The image formed by first refraction will act as ∠TRO = ∠NSE = e and ∠QRO = r2 . Therefore,
In triangle AOC, we have
From the equations (iv) and (vi), substituting the virtual object for 2nd surface refraction. ∠TRQ = e − r2
i=α+γ (exterior angle property) … (i)
values of i and r, we have μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1
− + = … (iii) in triangle TQR, by exterior angle property
P2 I1 P2 I P2 C2
AN AN AN AN δ = ∠TQR + ∠TRQ = (i − r1 ) + (e − r2 )
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( − ) Again P2 I1 ≈ CI1 , P2 I ≈ CI and P2 C2 ≈ CC2
PO PC PC PI or 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 ) … (i)
μ1 μ1 μ2 μ2 Therefore, eq (iii) may be written as
or + = − 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏 In triangle QRO, the sum of the angles is 180∘ .
PO PC PC PI − + = … (iv)
μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1 𝐂𝐈 𝐂𝐈
𝟏 𝐂𝐂 𝟐 Therefore,
or + = … (vii)
PO PI PC Adding the eq (ii) and (iv), we have r1 + r2 + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (ii)
Applying new cartesian sign conventions: μ1 μ2 μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1 μ2 − μ1
Since angles α, β and γ will be small. As such, these + − + = + In quadrilateral AQOR,
CO CI1 CI1 CI CC1 CC2
angles may be replaced by their tan α etc. PO = −u (object distance) A + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (iii)
μ1 μ1 1 1
PI = +v (image distance)and or + = (μ2 − μ1 ) ( + ) … (v) From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
Therefore, equation (i) may be written as CO CI CC1 CC2
i = tan α + tan γ … (ii) PC = +R (Radius of curvature) Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: r1 + r2 = A … (iv)

From right angled triangles ANO and ANC, we have Therefore, the equation (vii) becomes CO = −u (object distance) In the equation (i), substituting for (r1 + r2 ) we
AN AN μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏 CI = +v (Final image distance) have 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − 𝐀 … (v)
tan α = NO and tan γ = NC + = or − =
−u +v +R 𝐯 𝐮 𝐑 CC1 = +R1 and CC2 = −R 2 (Radii of curvature) Also, when δ = δm ; (in minimum deviation
In the equation (ii), substituting for tan α and tan α, μ1 μ1 1 1 position),
31. Lens Maker's Formula + = (μ2 − μ1 ) ( + )
we have −u +v +R1 −R 2 e = i and r2 = r1 = r = A/2 (say)
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
AN AN Dividing both sides of the above equation by μ1 , we
i= + … (iii) Also, setting δ = δm and e = i in the equation (v),
NO NC have
we have
NO ≈ PO and NC ≈ PC Since μ2 /μ1 = μ, we have
A + δm = i + i or i = (A + δm )/2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, the equation (iii) becomes − = (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − ) … (vi)
𝐯 𝐮 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 The refractive index of the material ( a μg or simply
AN AN
i= + … (iv) Also if u = CF1 = −f1 (focal length ), then v = ∞ μ) of the prism is given by
PO PC
Setting the above condition in the equation (vi), we sin i
Now, from triangle ACI, γ = r + β (by exterior angle μ =
have sin r
property) or r = γ − β
1 1 1 1 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐀 + 𝛅𝐦 )/𝟐
− + = (μ − 1) ( − ) ∴ 𝛍=
−f ∞
1 R R 1 2 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀/𝟐
Let us consider a convex lens with refracting 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − ) … (ix)
surface with 𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

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(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
33. Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass) Now, CA = u and CA′ = D For a compound microscope two lenses, eyepiece υe = −D and fe = +fe
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑] Therefore, the equation (ii) becomes of focal lenght (fe )and objective of focal lenght (f0 ) In the above equation, substituting for υe and fe , we
A convex lens of short focal length can be used to D are used to achieve greater magnification then have
M= … (iii) D
see magnified image of a small object and is called a u simple microscope. First clear image is formed at D me = 1 + … (iv)
fe
magnifying glass or a simple microscope. u = −u or υ = −D (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
So, putting values in M = mo × me we get
So, 33.a - Magnifying power- When image is formed So,
𝛖𝐨 𝐃
Magnifying power of simple microscope at D (least distance of distinct vision=25cm). Magnifying power of Compound microscope 𝐌= (𝟏 + ) … (vii)
𝐮𝐨 𝐟𝐞
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) Therefore, the above equation becomes by lens 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
= = 34.b - Magnifying power - When image is formed
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) formula 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
Let ∠A′′ C′B ′′ = β be the angle subtended by the at infinity.
1 1 1 1 1 1 υ υ
′ ′ − + = or − = image at the eye. extend A′′ Q equal to We know , M = mo × me & m0 = u0 & me = ue,
Let ∠A CB = β be the angle subtended by the −u −D f u D f 0 e

image at the eye. Cut A′ Q equal to AB(object size) D D D D AB(object size) and join QC Then, ∠A′ ′C′Q = α is For image at infinity 𝒖𝒆 = −𝒇𝒆 & 𝝊𝒆 = −𝑫
or − 1 = or = 1 + … (iv)
and join QC Then, ∠A′ CQ′ = α is the angle u f u f the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when Here fe is the focal length of the eye lens.
subtended by the object at the eye, when it is placed From the equations (iii) and (iv), we have it is placed at the least distance of distinct vision. (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at the least distance of distinct vision. 𝐃 By definition, the magnifying power of the simple at D only so 𝜐𝑒 = −𝐷)
𝐌=𝟏+ … (v)
By definition, the magnifying power of the simple 𝐟 microscope is given by 𝛖𝐨 𝐃
So, 𝐌 = × … (ix)
β 𝐮𝟎 𝐟𝐞
microscope is given by 33.b - Magnifying power (When image is formed
M=
β at infinity). α 35. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type)
M= Since the angles α and β are small, they can be
α [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
replaced by their tangents i.e.
An astronomical telescope is used to see the
tan β
M= … (i) heavenly objects.
tan α
A′′ Q AB An astronomical telescope consists of two lens
Also tan α = C′ A′′ = C′ A′′ (∵ A′′ Q = AB)
systems. The lens system facing the object is called
A′′ B ′′
Also, tan β = ′ ′′ objective. It has large aperture and is of large focal
CA
Multiplying and dividing by A′ B ′ , we have length (f0 ). The other lens system is called eye-
A′′ B ′′ A′ B ′ A′ B ′ A′′ B ′′ piece. It has small aperture and is of short focal
M= × ′ ′= × ′ ′
u = −f and CA′ = −D AB AB AB AB length (fe ) . Also the first clear image is formed at D
A′ B ′ υ
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen Also = uo = m0 = magnification of object lens (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
AB o
at D only) Magnifying power of refracting telescope
( υo & uo = Image & object dist. from object lens)&
In practice, the angles α and β are small. Therefore, Therefore, the above equation gives A′′ B′′ υ 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
= ue = me = magnification of eye lens =
the angles α and β can be replaced by their tangents A′ B ′ e 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞
D D
M= = … (vii) (υe & ue = Image & object distance from eye lens)
i.e. u f
tan β So, 𝐌 = 𝐦𝐨 × 𝐦𝐞 … (ii)
M= … (i) 34. Compound Microscope
tan α [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
From the right angled △ CA′ Q, 34.a - Magnifying power - When image is
A′ Q AB formed at D(least distance of distinct vision).
tan α = ′ = ′ (∵ A′ Q = AB) Now, for the eye lens, the lens equation may be
CA CA
Also, from the right angled △ ABC written as
AB 1 1 1 υe υe Thus, ∠A′ CB ′ = α may be considered as the angle
tan β = − + = or =1−
CA ue υe fe ue fe subtended by object at the eye.
Substituting for tan α and tan β in the equation So putting value for me we have, Let ∠A′ C′ B ′ = β. Then, by definition,
υe
we have me = 1 − … … … … (iii) β
fe M=
AB/CA CA ′ α
M= or M = … (ii) Applying the new Cartesian sign conventions:
AB/CA′ CA Since the angles α and β are small,

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18
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(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS (Physics) WAVE OPTICS
α ≈ tan α and β ≈ tan β 36. Laws of Reflection on Wave Theory Let ML be a beam of light that refracts to second
tan β In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β, [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] medium from XY boundary.
∴M= … (i)
tan α we have Let ML be a beam of light that reflects back from Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is
A′ B ′ surface XY. wave front for refracted beam.
From the right angled △ CA′ B ′ , tan α =
CA′ ′ ′ Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is Let time taken (t) by light to go from the point P to
CA
A′ B ′ = wave front for reflected beam. If c is velocity of P′ and in same time let A reaches to A’ after
and from the right angled ΔC ′ A′ B ′ , tan α = ′ ′ B ′ /CA′
CA light, then time taken (t) by light to go from the refraction.
In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β, ′
point P to P and by light to go from A to A’ will be ∠LAN = i , ∠N ′ AA′ = r (angle of refraction)
we have same as both lie on wave fronts. By using properties of complementary angle
S
A′ B ′ /C′ A′ CA′ ∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r
M= = … (ii)
A′ B ′ /CA′ C ′ A′ We have
Magnifying power - When image is formed at PP′
sin i = AP′ & sin r = AP′
AA′
……… (i)
infinity .
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =c’t
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
c = speed of light in air
at D only)
c’ = speed of light in denser medium
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: c
∠LAN = i , ∠NAA′ = r (angle of reflection) μ= = refractive index of denser medium ……. (ii)
CA′ = +fo and C ′ A′ = −fℯ c′
By using properties of complementary angle so, from equation (i) & (ii)
Substituting for CA′ and C ′ A′ in the equation (ii), we
∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r sin i PP′ ct c
have = = = =μ
We have sin r AA′ c′t c′
𝐟𝐨 PP′ AA′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
𝐌=− sin i = & sin r = AP′ ……… (i) = 𝛍
𝐟𝐞 AP′
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =ct
Hence, the laws of refraction (Snell’s law ) is proved
putting the values in (i)
on the basis of the wave theory.
ct ct
sin i = & sin r =
AP′ AP′
so, sin i = sin r 38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive
or i = r Interference
i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
reflection. (laws of reflection ) Let a source of monochromatic light S illuminates
37. Refraction on The Basis of Wave Theory two narrow slits S1 and S2 . The two illuminated slits
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏] act as the two coherent sources. At the centre O of
the screen, the intensity of light is maximum and it
is called central maximum.
Condition for maximum and minimum.
Let the displacements of the waves from the
sources S1 and S2 at point P on the screen at any
time t be given by
y1 = a1 sin ωt
and y2 = a2 sin(ωt + ϕ),
where ϕ is the constant phase difference between
the two waves.

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(Physics) WAVE OPTICS (Physics) ATOMS

So superimposed wave will be For Destructive interference. 39. Distance of Closest Approach If m and v are mass and orbital velocity of the
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin(ωt + ϕ) From equation (iv) it follows that the intensity of The value of the distance of closest approach gives electron, then the centripetal force required by the
an estimate of the size of the nucleus. electron to move in circular orbit of radius r is given
y = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ) sin ωt + a2 sin ϕ cos ωt … (i) light at point P will be minimum, if
mv2
by Fc = … (ii)
Let a1 + a2 cos ϕ = Acos θ … (ii) cos ϕ = −1 or ϕ = π, 3π, 5π, …. r
The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe ) between
and a2 sin ϕ = Asin θ … (iii) or ϕ = (2n + 1) π,
the electron and the nucleus provides the necessary
Then, the equation (i) becomes where n = 0,1,2, … centripetal force (Fc ) to the electron.
y = Acos θ sin ωt + Asin θ cos ωt Also, from the equations (vi) and (viii), we have Therefore, from the equations (i) and (ii), we have
or y = Asin(ωt + θ) 2π mv 2 1 e2 1 e2
x = (2n + 1)π = ⋅ or mv 2 = ⋅ … (iii)
λ r 4πε0 r 2 4πε0 r
Also Squaring and adding both sides of the Consider that an α-particle of mass m possesses
𝛌 According to Bohr's quantization condition, angular
equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain initial velocity u, when it is at a large distance from
or 𝐱 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏) momentum of the electron,
𝟐 the nucleus of an atom having atomic number Z. At
h nh
where n = 0,1,2 … . . n the distance of closest approach, the kinetic energy mvr = n or v = … (iv)
2π 2πmr
A2 cos 2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ)2 + a22 sin2 ϕ of the α-particle is completely converted into In the equation (iii), putting the value of v, we have
potential energy. Mathematically,
or A2 = a21 + a22 , nh 2 1 e2
1 1 2e(Ze) m( ) = ⋅
(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ mu2 = ⋅ 2πmr 4πε0 r
2 4πε0 r0
or A2 = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ ….. (iv) 𝐧 𝟐 𝐡𝟐
1 2Ze2 or 𝐫 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ⋅ … (v)
∴ r0 = ⋅ … (i) 𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐦𝐞𝟐
For constructive interference the intensity of light 4πε0 1 mu2
2 Since n = 1,2,3,4 … ,
will be maximum so , A=max Also
The equation (i) is the expression for the distance
So, cos ϕ = 1 of closest approach. Energy of the electron in nth orbit of a hydrogen-like
𝟐𝛑 In Geiger-Marsden experiment, α-particles of atom is given by
So , 𝛟= 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 , or 𝐱 = 𝐧𝛌 where
𝛌
kinetic energy 5.5 MeV were directed towards the 1 2 2π2 Z2 me4
n = 0,1,2,3….. n En = − ( ) ⋅
gold nucleus (Z = 79). By calculating the distance 4πε0 n2 h2
of closest approach r0 , an estimate of the size of the where Z is atomic number of the atom.
nucleus can be made. The calculations show that r0 nh 1 4π me2 2
v= ( ⋅ 2 2 )
comes out to be 4 ⋅ 13 × 10−14 m. Thus, size of the 2πm 4πε n h 0
nucleus is of the order of 10−14 m. 1 2πe2
or v = ⋅ … (vi)
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 4πε0 nh
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] 1
Obviously, Ek = mv 2
In a hydrogen atom, an electron having charge −e 2
revolves round the nucleus having charge +e in a Using the equation (iii), we have
circular orbit of radius r as shown in Fig. 1 e2
Ek = ⋅
4πε0 2r
1 (+e)(−e) 1 e2
Ep = ⋅ =− ⋅
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
The total energy of electron revolving round the
nucleus in the orbit of radius r is given by
1 e2 1 e2
E = Ek + Ep = ⋅ + (− ⋅ )
4πε0 2r 4πε0 r
The electrostatic force of attraction between the 1 e2
or E=− ⋅
nucleus and the electron is given by 4πε0 2r
1 e×e 1 e2 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝛑𝟐 𝐦𝐞𝟒
Fe = ⋅ = ⋅ … (i) or 𝐄𝐧 = − ( ) ⋅
4πε0 r 2 4πε0 r 2 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐

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22
(Physics) NUCLEI
41. Nuclear Density The mass defect can also be expressed in another
Let ρ be the density of the nucleus of an atom, form as explained below:
whose mass number is A. Adding and subtracting the mass of Z electrons i.e.
mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A Zme on the R.H.S. of equation (i), we have
= A a.m.u. = A × 1.660565 × 10−27 kg Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn + Zme ] − mN ( Z X A ) − Zme
If R is the radius of the nucleus, then = [Z(mp + me ) + (A − Z)mn ] − [mN ( Z X A ) + Zme ]
4 4 1 3
Now, mp + me = m( 1 H1 ), mass of hydrogen atom
volume of nucleus = πR3 = π (R 0 A3 )
3 3
& mN ( Z X A ) + Zme = m( Z X A ), mass of the atom
4
= πR 0 3 A A
3 ZX

Taking R 0 = 1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 m, we have Therefore,

4 𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦( 𝟏 𝐇 𝟏 ) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐦( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 ) … (ii)
volume of the nucleus = π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 )3 × Am3
3
mass of nucleus 43. Binding energy.
Density of the nucleus, ρ =
volume of nucleus [𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
A × 1 ⋅ 660565 × 10−27 Thus, the binding energy of a nucleus may be
=
4
π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 )3 × A defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect
3
of the nucleus.
= 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐤𝐠 𝐦−𝟑 (Independent of A)
If Δm is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to
42. Mass Defect
Einstein's massenergy relation, binding energy of
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
the nucleus = Δmc 2 (in joule)
The difference between the sum of the masses of
Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 }
the nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest
mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect. It is − 𝐦𝐍 ( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 )] × 𝐜 𝟐

denoted by Δm. Here,

Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the
nucleus of an atom ZX A. The nucleus of such an
atom contains Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons.
Therefore,
mass of the nucleons = Zmp + (A − Z)mn
If mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A,
then the mass defect is given by
mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A.
mp = mass of proton ,
mn = mass of neutron
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number
1amu × 𝑐 2 =931.5 Mev (All masses are kept in amu)
The mass defect can also be expressed in another
form:

𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐦𝐍 ( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 ) … (i) Δm = [Zm( 1 H1 ) + (A − Z)mn ] − m( 𝐙 X A )

Here, Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦( 𝟏 𝐇𝟏 ) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 }

mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A. − 𝐦( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 )] × 𝐜 𝟐
mp = mass of proton , Here m( 1 H1 ) = mass of hydrogen atom
mn = mass of neutron m( Z X A ) = mass of the atom Z X A
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number

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