RC-I Serviceability Limit State

CHAPTER 5
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
Introduction
In normal design practice, reinforced concrete structures are designed for the ultimate limit
state (ULS) in bending, shear, axial load and torsion. It is necessary in practice to ensure that
the structure can not only withstand the forces at the ultimate limit state but also that it behaves
satisfactorily at working loads. The main aspects to be satisfied at serviceability limit state
(SLS) are deflection and cracking.
5.1 Elastic Analysis of RC Sections
Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic theory, with stresses in both concrete and
steel assumed to be proportional to strain. During elastic analysis, it is usually necessary to get
the section properties like; neutral axis depth (x) and moment of inertia (I). From these; strains,
stresses and internal moments can be calculated using elastic theory. A reinforced concrete
section has different section properties depending on the level of the load they are subjected to,
that is; whether it is uncracked or cracked.
Uncracked Section
As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than the mean tensile strength of concrete,
fctm, the stress-strain relationship is the same as that of an elastic, homogeneous beam. The only
difference is the presence of another material, i.e. the steel reinforcement. As it can be shown
in the Figure, in the elastic range, for any given value of strain, the stress in the steel is 'n' times
that of the concrete, where n = Es/Ec is the modular ratio.

Figure 5.1: Uncracked transformed section.

For calculation purpose, the actual steel and concrete cross-section could be replaced by a
fictitious section (transformed section) thought of as consisting of concrete only.
For uncracked section, the actual steel area is replaced with an equivalent concrete area of n*As
(minus the “holes”) located at the level of the steel as shown in Figure 5.1. Once the
transformed section has been obtained, the beam is analyzed like an elastic homogeneous beam.
For the general case of a doubly reinforced section, the equations for the uncracked neutral axis
depth and moment of inertia are;

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0.5  bh 2  Ast (n  1)d  Asc (n  1)d c

Xu  (5.1)
bh  Ast (n  1)  Asc (n  1)
bh3
Iu   bh(0.5h  X u ) 2  Ast ( n  1)(d  X u ) 2  Asc (n  1)( X u  d c ) 2 (5.2)
12
Therefore, the moment that will cause the section to crack, Mcr, will be;
f I
M cr  ctm u (5.3)
h  Xu
If the applied moment, M, is greater than the cracking moment, Mcr, then the section is cracked.
Cracked Section
When the tensile stress in the concrete exceeds fctm (or if M > Mcr), cracks form in the tension
zone of the section. At this stage, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way
to the neutral axis as shown in Figure 5.2 below.

Figure 5.2: Cracked transformed section.

For the general case of a doubly reinforced section, the equations for the cracked neutral axis
depth and moment of inertia are;
 Ast n  Asc (n  1)  2b  Ast nd  Asc (n  1)d c    Ast n  Asc (n  1)
2

Xc  (5.4)
b
bX c 3
Ic   Ast n(d  X c ) 2  Asc (n  1)( X c  d c ) 2 (5.5)
3
5.2 DEFLECTION
5.2.1 Deflection Limits
The selection of limits to deflection which will ensure that the structure will be able to fulfill
its required function is a complex process and it is not possible for a code to specify simple
limits which will meet all requirements and still be economical. It is the responsibility of the
designer to agree suitable values with the client, taking into account the particular requirements
of the structure. Limits are suggested in the code but these are for general guidance only; it
remains the responsibility of the designer to check whether these are appropriate for the
particular case considered or whether some other limits should be used.
There are two basic issues which are considered to influence the choice of deflection limits.
These are appearance and function.

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Appearance is important because it is found that the occupants of structures find it upsetting
if the floors appear to be sagging. Visual sagging may give the incorrect impression to members
of the public that there is something wrong with the structure and that it is unsafe even though
the structure is safe. These impressions tend to be subjective.
Some research has been carried out on this highly subjective aspect of deflection control and it
is generally accepted that sag will be unnoticeable if the central deflection of a beam relative
to its supports is less than L/250.
Function is more difficult to cover as the range of possibilities is large. Examples of situations
where deflections may lead to impairment of function are listed below.
 Deflection of beams or slabs leading to cracking of partitions supported by the member
considered. Excessive deflection can lead to unsightly cracking in such partitions.
 Damage to glazing:-Deflecting members can impose loads on glazing (causing breakage)
 Jamming of doors :-Deflecting members can distort door frames
 Interference with deflection-sensitive machinery or apparatus:- Varying deflections can
lead to misalignment of machinery or apparatus mounted on the member considered.
 Ponding on roof slabs :-As slabs deflect, the volume of ponded water increases, leading to
the potential for further deflection. In car parks the water may contain de-icing salts leading
to potential durability problems
 Induced deformation in columns:-Deflection of beams can lead to rotation of external
columns
 Change in cladding load paths :-Deflection in the supporting member may lead to inner
cladding supports carrying less load and the outer supports carrying more load than
assumed during the cladding design
 Damage to brittle finishes.
 Unacceptable vibrations or an upsetting feeling of ‘liveliness’ in the structure.

Figure 5.3: Deflection induced damage to non-structural parts (partition walls)

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Of the above list, damage to brittle partitions is probably the most common problem and the
one which code limits are generally formulated to avoid. A number of typical cases of damage
to partitions caused by deflections are illustrated in the Figure here.
It is difficult to define limits which will avoid such cracking entirely, ES EN-2 puts a deflection
limit of L/500 to minimize damage to partitions and adjacent parts of the structure.
5.2.2 Precamber
A slab or beam can be precambered to reduce the effect of deflection below the horizontal (see
Figure 5.4). However, in practice too much precamber is generally used and the slab remains
permanently cambered. This is because of the difficulty in accurately calculating deflection. A
precamber of up to half the quasi-permanent combination deflection could be used, but a lower
value is recommended. Precamber does not reduce the deflections affecting partitions or
cladding.

Figure 5.4: Precamber to compensate for some or all of the deflection.

5.3 Checking Deflections
According to ES EN-2, the limit state of deformation can be checked by either:
- Limiting the span-to-depth ratio or
- Calculating the deflection and comparing it with the limit value.
Both methods are discussed in detail here.
5.3.1 Span-to-Effective Depth Ratio
As we will see in the next section (deflection calculation), the calculation of deflection is a
tedious operation and the results will be of limited reliability. Most codes therefore do not
require explicit calculations to be carried out to check deflections except in special cases. The
commonest method for controlling deflections is to use limiting ratios of span-to-effective
depth and this is the approach adopted by ES EN-2.
Span-to-effective depth ratios should not be used to give estimates of deflection, but they are
generally based on limiting overall deflections to L/250 and post-installation-of-partitions
deflections to L/500. They are not suitable for unusual structural arrangements, such as large
holes in flat slabs or irregular patterns of loading, or where an accurate assessment of the
deflection is required. They are also not applicable to post-tensioned elements.
The basic logic of the use of span/depth ratios to control deflections is straightforward. They
were derived from theory and the conservative assumptions made in the analysis were then
moderated to allow for more realistic conditions.
Consider a simply supported elastic beam supporting a uniformly distributed load of w per unit
length and assume that the maximum permissible stress in the material is σ.

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The maximum moment and deflection at the critical section (at mid span) are:
wL2 5wL4
M 
8 384EI
Recall that; M S where, S = the section modulus
wL2 8 S 5L4 8 S 5 L2 S
S  w      
8 L2 384EI L2 48EI
Let βh = I/S, where β is a constant and h is the gross depth of the section.
5 L2  5 L
Substituting and rearranging:     
48E h L 48 E h
Since, for a given section shape (like rectangular or T) and material, the term 5σ/48βE is a
constant (let’s call it λ), this can be rewritten as:
  L
   
 L h
Thus, for an elastic material, limiting the span/depth ratio will limit the ratio of the deflection
to the span. But in reinforced concrete members, the stress is calculated at the steel location (at
the effective depth, d) and it is logical to write the above equation as:
  L
   
 L d 
Reinforced concrete does not strictly fit the assumptions on which the above analysis is based.
However the differences are not as large as might at first appear. There are two problems to
consider: the permissible stress σ and the basic stiffness properties of the section, which may
be considered to be equivalent to βE. To solve these issues, experiments were conducted on a
“standard beam” and “standard slab” and adjustement factors are prepared for the parameters
that affect the L/d ratio.
The L/d ratios of ES EN-2 and the adjustements to be made are shown and discussed below.

Table 5.1: Basic span-to-depth ratios.

Table 5.1 is generated using equation 5.6-a and 5.6-b, assuming a steel grade of S-500 and
concrete grade of C30/37.

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During deflection check, the basic L/d should be calculated using these equations, because at
this stage we already have all the parameters inside the equations (from ULS design).
L  o  o  
3/2

 K 11  1.5 fck  3.2 fck  1  If   o (5.6-a)

d     

L  o 1  
 K 11  1.5 fck  fck  If   o (5.6-b)
d      12 o 
Where L/d = the limiting span/depth ratio.
K = factor to take into account the structural system (get this from Table 5.1)
ρo = reference reinforcement ratio. o  0.001* fck (5.7)
As,cal
ρ = calculated tension reinforcement ratio.  (5.8)
bd

As,cal
ρ' = calculated compression reinforcement ratio.   (5.9)
bd
In general, the adequacy of the provided depth can be checked by verifying that;
 L  L
     (5.10)
 d allow  d actual
Where, (L/d)actual = actual span length divided by the actual effective depth, d.
The allowable ratio, (L/d)allow, is calculated and corrected as follows.
 L
   N  F1  F2  F3 (5.11)
 d allow
N = basic span-to-effective depth ratio, calculated from equation 5.6-a or 5.6-b.
F1 = factor to account for flanged sections. For rectangular sections, F1 = 1.
  be 
1  0.1 1
For T-sections F1    bw  (5.12)

0.8
F2 = factor to account for brittle partitions in association with long spans. Generally F2 = 1, but
if brittle partitions are liable to be damaged by excessive deflection, F2 should be determined
as follows:
 in beams and other slabs with effective span Leff > 7m; F2 = 7/Leff
 in flat slabs in which the longer span Leff > 8.5m; F2 = 8.5/Leff
F3 = factor to account for service stress in tensile reinforcement σs.
 310
  As,cal   SLS load 
F3    s where,  s  f yd     (5.13)
1.5 A  s , pro   ULS load 

Where, As,cal = calculated tension reinforcement. As,pro = provided tension reinforcement.
SLS load = gk  2qk ULS load = 1.35gk  1.5qk
Note that the inverse of the ratio of the provided to the calculated steel should not be greater
than 1.5, that is As,pro/As,cal ≤ 1.5.

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5.3.2 Deflection Calculation

Deflection check via the span-to-effective depth ratios is a perfectly adequate approach for all
normal situations. But there are situations where the span-to-effective depth ratios method can
not be used and hence a direct calculation of deflection is necessary. These situations are;
 When an estimate of the value of the deflection is required.
 When deflection limits of L/250 for quasi-permanent actions or L/500 for partition and/or
cladding loads are not appropriate.
 When the design requires a particularly shallow member, direct calculation of deflection
may provide a more economic solution.
 To determine the effect on deflection of early striking of formwork or of temporary loading
during construction.
5.3.2.1 Model of behaviour
Figure-5.5 gives an idealised picture of the load–deformation characteristics of a reinforced
concrete beam. It is convenient to consider the curve to be made up of three phases:
Phase 1 (uncracked): In this phase, the tensile strength of the concrete has not been exceeded.
The section behaves elastically and its behaviour can be predicted on the basis of an uncracked
section but with allowance made for the reinforcement.
Phase 2 (cracked): In this phase, the concrete has cracked in tension. The concrete in
compression and the reinforcement may, however be considered to remain elastic. The
behaviour of the tension zone is complex. At a crack the concrete in tension carries no stress.
However, between cracks, bond transfers stress from the reinforcement to the concrete so that,
with increasing distance from a crack, the tension carried by the concrete increases. The
behaviour illustrated in the Figure for this phase reflects the average state, where the tension
zone carries some tension. This is perfectly satisfactory for deflection calculations since it
requires the integration of the behaviour over the length of the beam.
Phase 3 (Inelastic): In this phase, either the steel has yielded or the concrete is stressed to a
level where the assumption of elasticity ceases to be reasonable or both. This phase is generally
only reached at loads well above those likely to occur in normal service and so is not of interest
for serviceability calculations.
It is the behaviour in phase 2 which causes difficulties and all current design approaches are
empirical and approximate. It is possible to go some way towards defining the characteristics
of a prediction method since certain limits to behaviour can be defined. These are:
(a) At the instant of cracking, when the tensile strength of the concrete is just attained, the
response of the member must lie on the Phase 1 line.
(b) Since cracking effectively reduced the stiffness of the member, behaviour after cracking
must lead to curvatures greater than the Phase 1 curvature.
(c) The maximum possible curvature corresponds to the condition where the concrete in tension
carries absolutely no stress. This is the response that would be calculated on the basis of a
cracked transformed section. The curvature corresponding to this is indicated on the Figure.

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Figure 5.5: Idealized load–deformation characteristics of a reinforced concrete member

In practice, experiments show that, at the cracking moment, the behaviour lies on the Phase 1
line and, as the load is increased above the cracking load, the response tends towards the fully
cracked response. Therefore, the actual behaviour after cracking must lie between that
calculated for an uncracked section and that calculated for a fully cracked section.
According to ES EN-2, members which are expected to crack, but may not be fully cracked,
will behave in a manner intermediate between the uncracked and fully cracked conditions and,
for members subjected mainly to flexure, an adequate prediction of behaviour is given by;
P  1    PU   PC (5.14)
Where,
P is the deformation parameter considered. Thich can be; a strain, a curvature or a rotation.
PU and PC are the values of the parameter calculated for the uncracked and fully cracked
conditions respectively.
ζ is a distribution coefficient (allowing for tensioning stiffening at a section) given by:
2
 
  1    cr  (5.15)
 s 
If the section is uncracked, ζ = 0.
β is a coefficient characterising the influence of the duration of loading or of repeated loading
on the average strain. Take; β = 0.5 for sustained loads or many cycles of repeated loading.
β = 1 for a single short-term load.
σsr is the stress in the tension reinforcement calculated on the basis of a cracked section under
the loading conditions causing first cracking at the section considered.
σs is the steel stress under the loading considered calculated on the basis of a cracked section.
Note: σsr/σs can be replaced by Mcr/M for flexure or Ncr/N for pure tension, where Mcr is the
cracking moment and Ncr is the cracking force.

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Therefore, for long-term deflection, the equation for the distribution coefficient simplifies to;
2
M 
  1  0.5  cr  (5.16)
 M 
If the section is uncracked, ζ = 0.
The basic concept of the method is illustrated in the Figure below. Considering a length of a
beam bounded by two cracks, the assumption is made that some length close to the cracks is
fully cracked while the remainder is assumed to be uncracked. Considering the whole crack
spacing, S, it can be seen that:
the length S is considered fully cracked and
the length (1-ζ)∙S is considered uncracked.

Figure 5.6: Model of behaviour in phase 2

For the simple case of pure flexure, the rotation over the length S is given by:
  1    S u   S c (5.17)
Where, ψu and ψc are curvatures of the uncracked & cracked sections respectively.
Hence, the average curvature will be:
  1    u   c (5.18)

5.3.2.2 Accounting for Factors That Affect Deflection

There are numerous factors that affect deflection and a reasonable assessment of deflection can
only be achieved if attention is given to the factors that affect it. These factors are also often
time-related (e.g. creep and shrinkage) and interdependent, which makes the prediction of
deflection difficult. The most important factors and how to deal with them during deflection
calculation are discussed below.
Tensile strength of concrete: The tensile strength of concrete, fctm, is an important property
because the member will crack when the tensile stress in the extreme tension fibre exceeds fctm.
Cracking: Deflection of concrete sections is closely linked to the extent of cracking and the
degree to which cracking capacity is exceeded. The occurrence of cracking is determined by
the moments induced in the section and the tensile strength of the concrete, which increases
with age. Once the section has cracked, its stiffness is permanently reduced.
Creep: Creep is the time-dependant increase in compressive strain in a concrete element under
constant compressive stress. Creep is usually considered in the design by modifying the elastic
modulus using a creep coefficient ϕ(∞,t0). The final creep coefficient, ϕ(∞,t0), depends on;
- the age of concrete at loading, t0

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- the ambient relative humidity, RH

- the notional size of the member, h0, given by;
2A
h0  c (5.19)
u
Where: Ac = the concrete cross-sectional area
u = the perimeter of the part of the cross section that is exposed to drying.
The cement strength class (R, N & S) is required in the assessment of creep, however, at the
design stage it is often not clear which class should be used. Note that the letters R, N & S
stand for “the cement’s early strength gain” ; R = Rapid, N = Normal and S = Slow.
ES EN-2 gives advice on the calculation of creep coefficients in detail in Annex B. It also gives
a graphical method for the determination of the final creep coefficient ϕ(∞,t0). (See Equation
5.28 and Figure 5.8)
In deflection calculations, creep is taken into account by using an effective value for the
modulus of elasticity of the concrete, Ec,eff, as discussed below.
Elastic modulus of concrete: The elastic modulus of concrete is influenced by aggregate type,
workmanship and curing conditions. The effective elastic modulus under sustained loading will
be reduced over time due to the effect of creep. For long-term deflection calculation, the
effective long term elastic modulus, Ec,eff, should be used. That is;
Ec 28
Ec ,eff  where Ec 28  1.05 Ecm (5.20)
1   ( , t 0 )

Loading: In concrete structures, deflections increase with time under sustained loads due to
creep and shrinkage and the greater part of the deflection is normally due to sustained loads.
Therefore, ES EN-2 takes the view that deflections should be calculated under the quasi-
permanent load combination, which is the best estimate of the sustained load during the lifetime
of the structure. Therefore, the load combination can be written as; w  gk  2qk .
The corresponding bending moments can be calculated at any location. For manual calculation,
it is usually the critical location that is considered. That is, at mid-span of a simply supported
member and at the support of a cantilever member.
wL2 wL2
For simply supported; M  For cantilever; M 
8 2
From bending moment & section properties, the flexural curvature (ψ) can be calculated as;
M M
  1     (5.21)
Ec,eff Iu Ec,eff I c

Shrinkage: Uniform shrinkage of an unrestrained, unreinforced member will simply lead to an

overall shortening without either curvature or stresses being induced. Reinforcement, which
does not shrink, will restrain the shrinkage to some degree. This will lead to compression in
the reinforcement and tension in the concrete. Where the reinforcement within the section is
unsymmetrical, the restraint provided by the reinforcement will also be unsymmetrical and a
curvature will be induced. In shallow members this curvature can be large enough to produce
significant deflections which will need to be taken into account in any calculations.

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The method given in ES EN-2 for the calculation of shrinkage deformations can be derived for
uncracked sections as follows. Consider, for simplicity, the simply supported rectangular beam
shown in the Figure below. If this beam is constrained to shorten by the amount of the free
shrinkage L∙εcs, a compressive stress of εcsEs will be induced in the reinforcement. This is
equivalent to a force, Ncs, equal to εcsEsAs.
Where: εcs = free shrinkage strain Es = modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement As = area of
reinforcement.
If the system is now released, the beam will deform under the released force in the steel. This
leads to a curvature, known as shrinakge curvatire ψcs. For uncracked section, it is:
N e  E Ae n S
 csu  cs  cs s s   csu  cs u
Ec ,eff I u Ec ,eff I u Iu
Where: n = the effective modular ratio n  Es / Ec ,eff
e = distance between the neutral axis and the rebar
Iu = moment of inertia of the uncracked section
Su = first moment of area of the rebar about the centroid of the concrete section (As*e).
Similarly, for a cracked section, substitute the cracked neutral axis depth xc and the cracked
moment of inertia Ic. Note that, for a general case of a doubly reinforced section, the equations
for S are;
Uncracked, Su  Ast (d  X u )  Asc ( X u  d c ) (5.22)

Cracked, Sc  Ast (d  X c )  Asc ( X c  d c ) (5.23)

The mean shrinkage curvature ψcs, is calculated using the distribution coefficient as;
S S
 cs  1     cs n u    cs n c (5.24)
Iu Ic

Figure 5.7: Deformation due to shrinkage of a rectangular beam.

The calculation of the shrinkge strain is given in clause 3.1.4(6) of ES EN-2. Accordingly, the
total shrinkage strain εcs, is given by;
 cs   cd   ca (5.25)
Where,
εca = the autogenous shrinkage strain. εca = εca(∞), for long-term deflection. (Use Table 5.2)
εcd = the drying shrinkage strain  cd  kh  cd,0
kh = Coefficient based on notional size, h0. (Use Table 5.3)
εcd,0 = Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage. (See Annex-B of ES EN-2 or use Table 5.2)

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5.3.2.3 Calculation Methods

There are two ways to calculate the deflection. They are;
Rigorous method: The rigorous method for calculating deflections is the most appropriate
method for determining a realistic estimate of deflection. However, it is only suitable for use
with a computer (Excel spreadsheet or Finite Element Software).
The deflection of a member is calculated by double integration of the curvature over the length
of the member and introduction of appropriate boundary conditions. The most general way of
achieving this is by calculation of the curvature at intervals along the member and then
calculating the deflection by numerical integration (E.g. trapezoidal method).
Simplified method: The use of numerical integration is tedious for hand calculation. Hence, a
simplified method for calculating deflection is usually used for hand calculation. This method
can also be used to roughly verify deflection results from computer software.
A simplification that may normally be made is to calculate the curvature at only one point,
usually the point of maximum moment, and then assume that the shape of the curvature diagram
is the same as the shape of the bending moment diagram. The deflection, Δ, can then be
calculated using;
  kL2 tot (5.26)

Where, ψtot = the total curvature  tot    cs (5.27)

ψ = the flexural curvature

ψcs = the shrinkage curvature
L = the span length of the member
k = a constant which depends upon the shape of the bending moment diagram.
Values for k are given in Figure 5.9, taken from the UK code, BS8110 Part2:1985.
 A step-by-step procedure for the simplified method is given on the next page.
 All necessary Tables and Figures are given on the pages after that.
Note that for deflection calculation (using for any method), it is assumed that you already have
the following parameters.
 Section dimensions and reinforcement details from the ultimate limit state design.
 Age of concrete at first loading (t0).
 Relative humidity and cement class.

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5.3.2.4 Calculation Steps (Simplified Method)

1) Calculate the moment, M, due to quasi-permanent actions at the critical section.
2) Calculate concrete properties; fcm , fctm , Ecm , Ec28. (Use Table-5.2)
2 Ac
3) Calculate the notional size (in mm) of the cross-section, h0. h0 
u
4) Calculate the creep coefficient, ϕ(∞, t0). Use Equation 5.28 or Figure 5.8.
Ec 28
5) Calculate the long term elastic modulus, Ec,eff. Ec ,eff 
1   ( , t 0 )
Es
6) Calculate the effective modulus ratio, n. n where, Es = 200GPa
Eeff
7) Calculate the neutral axis depth & moment of inertia for uncracked condition.
f I
8) Calculate the cracking moment, Mcr. M cr  ctm u
h  Xu
9) Check if the section is cracked. (If M > Mcr, then the section is cracked).
10) If it is cracked, calculate the neutral axis depth & moment of inertia for cracked condition.
2
M 
11) Calculate the distribution coefficient, ζ.   1  0.5  cr  if uncracked, ζ=0
 M 
M M
12) Calculate flexural curvature, ψ.   1    
Ec,eff Iu Ec,eff I c

13) Calculate the autogenous shrinkage strain, εca=εca(∞). Use Table 5.2.
14) Calculate the drying shrinkage strain, εcd.  cd  kh  cd,0
εcd,0 = Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage. Use Table 5.2
kh = Coefficient based on notional size, h0. Use Table 5.3
15) Calculate the total shrinkage strain εcs.  cs   cd   ca
16) Calculate the first moment of area of the reinforcements using;
Su  Ast (d  X u )  Asc ( X u  d c ) Sc  Ast (d  X c )  Asc ( X c  d c )
Su S
17) Calculate the curvature due to shrinkage strain, ψcs.  cs  1     cs n    cs n c
Iu Ic
18) Calculate the total curvature, ψtot.  tot    cs
19) Calculate the deflection, Δ.   kL2 tot (See Figure 5.9 for values of k)
20) Compare Δ with the limit, Δmax. where Δmax = L/250

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Serviceability Limit State

−6
Properties of concrete Note: f in MPa E in GPa ε in micro (10 )
C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
fck 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
fcm 28 33 38 43 48 53 58
fctm 2.21 2.56 2.9 3.21 3.51 3.8 4.07
Ecm 30 31.5 32.8 34.1 35.2 36.3 37.3
Ec28 31.5 33 34.5 35.8 37 38.1 39.1
εca (∞) 25 37.5 50 62.5 75 87.5 100
εcd,0 RH=50, Cem=R 745.6 705.7 667.9 632.1 598.3 566.3 536
εcd,0 RH=80, Cem=R 415.8 393.6 372.5 352.6 333.7 315.8 298.9
εcd,0 RH=50, Cem=N 543.7 512.1 482.2 454.2 427.7 402.8 379.3
εcd,0 RH=80, Cem=N 303.2 285.6 269 253.3 238.5 224.6 211.6
εcd,0 RH=50, Cem=S 440.6 412.9 386.9 362.5 339.7 318.3 298.3
εcd,0 RH=80, Cem=S 245.7 230.3 215.8 202.2 189.5 177.5 166.4
Table 5.2: Concrete properties for deflection calculation.

h0 kh
100 1
200 0.85
300 0.75
400 0.725
≥ 500 0.7
Table 5.3: Values of Kh
To calculate the creep coefficient ϕ(∞,t0) accurately, use the following equations. You can also
get approximate value of ϕ(∞,t0) from Figure 5.8 (shown on next page).
 (, t0 )  RH   ( fcm )   (t0 ) (5.28)

Each parameter is calculated as follow;

100  RH
 If fcm ≤ 35MPa; RH  1 
10  3 h0

 (100  RH )1   35 
0.7
 35 
0.2

If fcm > 35MPa; RH  1   2 where 1    2   

 10  3 h0   fcm   fcm 

16.8
  ( fcm ) 
fcm
C
1  9 
  (t0 )  where t0,mod  t0,actual  1 
 2  (t .   0.5
0.1  (t0,mod )0.2  0, actual )1 2

C = −1 for cement Class S
C = 0 for cement Class N
C = 1 for cement Class R

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Serviceability Limit State

Figure 5.8: Method for determining the creep coefficient ϕ(∞, t0) for concrete under normal
environmental conditions (valid for ambient temperatures between -40°C & +40°C and a mean
relative humidity between RH = 40% & RH = 100%)

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RC-I Serviceability Limit State

Figure 5.9: Values of k for various bending moment diagrams.

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Department of Civil Engineering
RC-I Serviceability Limit State

5.4 CRACK WIDTH

5.4.1 Cracking Limits
Cracking is normal in reinforced concrete structures. However, any prominent crack greatly
detracts from the appearance and might even affect the proper functioning of the structure.
Excessive cracking and wide deep cracks affect durability and can lead to corrosion of
reinforcement.
For each exposure classes, the recommended values of the limiting crack width, Wmax, as per
ES EN-2 are given in the Table below.
Exposure Class Wmax (mm)
X0, XC1 0.4
XC2, XC3, XC4
0.3
XD1, XD2, XS1, XS2, XS3
Table 5.4: Recommended values of limiting crack width, Wmax.
Note For X0 & XC1 exposure classes, crack width has no influence on durability and this
limit is set to guarantee acceptable appearance. In the absence of appearance conditions
this limit may be relaxed (increased).
The value given above is valid for ensuring appearance and durability under quasi-
permanent loads but does not include any special requirement such as water tightness
in structures retaining aqueous fluids.
In building structures subjected to bending without significant axial tension, specific measures
to control cracking are not necessary if the overall depth of the member is ≤ 200mm.
5.4.2 Cracking Control
Two methods are available to ensure crack widths limits are not violated. They are:
 Control of cracking without direct calculation.
 Control of cracking with calculation.
In normal cases, control of cracking can be ensured without direct calculation. This is done by
using either the maximum bar spacing values given in Table 5.5 below OR the maximum bar
diameter values given in Table 5.6 below (but not both).
Maximum bar spacing (mm) for crack
Steel Stress
widths of Wk
[MPa]
Wk=0.4mm Wk=0.3mm Wk=0.2mm
160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 —
360 100 50 —
Table 5.5: Maximum bar spacing for crack control.

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Maximum bar size (mm) for crack

Steel Stress
widths of Wk
[MPa]
Wk=0.4mm Wk=0.3mm Wk=0.2mm
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
450 6 5 —
*
Table 5.6: Maximum bar diameter, ϕ s, for crack control.
In both tables, the steel stress, σs, corresponds to the stress in steel at service loads (SLS). It
can be calculated using;
 gk  2 qk 
 s  f yd   (5.29)
 1.35g k  1.5qk 
In both tables, the values are calculated assuming;
cover = 25mm; fct,eff = fctm = 2.9MPa; hcr = 0.5h; (h-d) = 0.1h
k1 = 0.8; k2 = 0.5; kc = 0.4; k = 1; kt = 0.4 and k’ = 1
The maximum bar diameter ϕ*s from Table 5.6 should be modified as follows:
For cases of Bending (at least part of section in compression):
 fct ,eff  Kc hcr 
s  s*    (5.30)
 2.9   2(h  d ) 
For cases of uniform axial tension:
 fct ,eff  hcr 
s  s*    (5.31)
 2.9   8(h  d ) 
Where:
ϕs = the adjusted maximum bar diameter
ϕ*s = the maximum bar size from Table 5.6
h = the overall depth of the section
hcr = the depth of the tensile zone immediately prior to cracking.
d = the effective depth to the centroid of the outer layer of reinforcement

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Minimum Steel Areas

If crack control is required, a minimum amount of reinforcement steel is required in areas where
tension is expected. The minimum reinforcement is calculated using Equation 5.32 below. In
cross sections like T-beams and box girders, it should be determined for the individual parts of
the section (webs, flanges).
As,min s  kc k fct ,eff Act (5.32)
where:
As,min = the minimum area of reinforcing steel within the tensile zone
Act = the area of concrete within tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of the section which
is calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack.
σs = the absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after
formation of the crack. This may be taken as fyk. A lower value may, however, be needed to
satisfy the crack width limits according to the maximum bar size or spacing (as given by tables)
fct,eff = the mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the
cracks may first be expected to occur: fct,eff = fctm or lower, fctm(t), if cracking is expected earlier
than 28 days.
k = the coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses, which
lead to a reduction of restraint forces
k = 1 for webs with h ≤ 300mm or flanges with widths less than 300mm
k = 0.65 for webs with h ≥ 800mm or flanges with widths greater than 800mm
intermediate values may be interpolated
kc = a coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution within the section immediately
prior to cracking and of the change of the lever arm:
For pure tension kc = 1
For bending or bending combined with axial forces:
For rectangular sections and webs of box sections and T-sections:
 c 
kc  0.4 1  *  1 If there is no axial load; kc  0.4
 k1 (h / h ) fct ,eff 
For flanges of box sections and T-sections:
 Fcr 
kc  0.9    0.5
A f
 ct ct ,eff 
Where,
σc = average stress in the concrete due to axial loads (i.e. if the axial load is N, then σc = N/Ac)
h* = h if h < 1m h* = 1m if h ≥1m
k1 = a coefficient considering the effects of axial forces, N, on the stress distribution:
k1 = 1.5 if N is compressive k1  2h* / 3h if N is tensile
Fcr = the absolute value of the tensile force within the flange immediately prior to cracking due
to the cracking moment calculated with fct,eff.
Act = the area of concrete within tensile zone (for this case, area of the flange under tension)

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RC-I Serviceability Limit State

Calculation of Crack Width

Tension cracks due to bending (not shear cracks) form at fairly small values of bending
moment. These cracks exist even at serviceability limit state loads. As long as these cracks
are not unacceptably wide and are well spaced, they are harmless and do not distract from
appearance or encourage corrosion of reinforcement. Cracking is a semi-random phenomenon
and that it is not possible to predict an absolute maximum crack width or the exact spacing of
cracks. Generally the closer the spacing, lesser will be the width of an average crack.
The steel strain is an approximate measure of the crack width. For example, if σsm is the mean
stress in steel, the corresponding mean strain εsm is equal to σsm/Es, where Es is Young’s
modulus for steel. If Sr,max is the maximum crack spacing, then Wk/Sr,max ≈ εsm, where Wk is
the average crack width.
However, it has to be recognized that concrete losses its tensile strength only at cracks.
Between cracks, concrete is still capable of resisting tensile stress. This is known as tension
stiffening. In order to get a more realistic measure of the crack width, it is necessary to modify
the relationship between crack spacing, average crack width and strain in steel by including the
average strain in concrete as well. In other words, Wk/Sr,max ≈ (εsm–εcm) where εcm is the mean
strain in concrete between cracks. This is the basic concept used in ES EN-2 for calculation of
crack widths and spacing. The following equations can be used for calculating crack widths.
Crack width Wk can be calculated using;
Wk  Sr ,max ( sm   cm ) (5.33)
where Sr,max = maximum crack spacing. εsm = mean strain in reinforcement.
εcm = mean strain in concrete between cracks.
The term (εsm–εcm) in the above equation can be calculated from;
s kt fct ,eff 1  neff  s
( sm   cm )    0.6 (5.34)
Es Es eff Es
where σs = stress in tension reinforcement assuming cracked section.
n = modular ratio = Es/Ecm.
ρ,eff = As/Ac,eff
kt = a factor dependent on the duration of the load
kt = 0.6 for short term loading. kt = 0.4 for long term loading.
Ac,eff = effective area of concrete surrounding the tension rebar (see Figure 5.10)
Sr,max can be as follows;
If the rebars in the tension zone are closely spaced (spacing ≤ 5c+2.5ϕ); assuming the section
is under bending and high bond bars are used, Sr,max will be;

Sr ,max  3.4c 0.17 (5.35)
eff
Where, c = cover to longitudinal reinforcement. ϕ = bar diameter.
If the rebars in the tension zone are widely spaced (spacing > 5c+2.5ϕ) or if there is no tensile
rebar within the tension zone;
Sr ,max  1.3(h  x) (5.36)

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 2.5( h  d )

hc ,eff  ( h  x ) / 3
0.5h


Figure 5.10: Effective tension area (typical cases)

Unity University 21 Compiled by: Feysel N.

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