Subject:WMN

Class & Code IF6IA/B-22622

UNIT2
GPRS and Mobile Data communication (12M)

History Of GPRS:
GPRS was one of the main advances that empowered a cell system to interface with
Internet Protocol systems, accomplishing across the board reception in the mid-
2000s.
The capacity to peruse the web from a telephone whenever through “dependably on”
data networking, while underestimated in a great part of the world today, was as yet
an oddity when it was introduced. Indeed, even now, GPRS keeps on being utilized in
parts of the world where it has been too expensive even to consider upgrading cell
organize framework to move up to newer alternatives.
According to a study on the history of GPRS development Bernhard Walke and his
student, Peter Decker, are the inventors of GPRS – the first system providing universal
mobile Internet access.

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service.

General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step
toward internet access
❖ It is the modified version of GSM architecture.
❖ GPRS is a packet-oriented mobile data mechanism, that can carry data packets
as well.
❖ In GSM architecture, only voice signals can be transported, so being an
enhanced version GPRS is able to transmit voice as well as data packets.
❖ It uses the same physical radio channel as GSM does, the only difference is it
has a new logic defined for the radio channel.
❖ GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has
additional entities that allow packet data transmission.
❖ This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM network providing packet
data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps.
❖ Along with the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple
users to share the same air interface resources concurrently

Function of GPRS
• A mobile generation called GPRS is used to talk information via mobile
networks.
• It allows clients to access the internet and different data services on their cell
gadgets.
• Due to its low prices and environmental friendliness, GPRS is a famous option
for consumers.

Features of GPRS

• GPRS is a wireless communication service that allows data to be transmitted

over a cellular network.
• GPRS uses packet-switching technology to transmit data, which means that
data is divided into small packets and sent over the network in a more efficient
way.
• GPRS offers always-on connectivity, which means that a user can stay
connected to the network at all times, without having to establish a connection
every time they want to send or receive data.
• GPRS provides faster data transfer rates compared to the earlier generation of
cellular networks, such as GSM.
• GPRS enables new applications and services to be developed, such as mobile
internet browsing and email.
• GPRS is a precursor to modern cellular data technologies, such as 3G and 4G.

• Advantages of GPRS
• A high-speed data transfer cost is offered to mobile devices through General
Packet Radio Service or GPRS.
• Web browsing, email sending and receiving, and online shopping are just a few
of the online services that GPRS users can access while they are on the move.
• Because GPRS is always operational, customers can access the internet quickly
and without any problems without utilizing dial-up.
• GPRS offers a cost-effective approach to transmitting statistics because it only
charges for the volume of data transferred, not for the amount of time spent
online.
• GPRS offers users a flexible option because it functions well with a variety of
mobile devices.
• GPRS tries to make maximum use of the existing physical structure of GSM. It
has introduced a new entity named GPRS support nodes(GSN) whose
responsibility is to route and deliver a data packet. GSN is of two types:
• Serving GPRS Support Node (SGNS)
• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGNS)

GPRS architecture

• Mobile Station(MS)
 • GPRC requires enhanced mobile stations, as existing mobile stations were
designed according to the GSM network, and they were unable in handling
enhanced data packets.
• A variety of high-speed mobile stations are available to support enhanced data
packets.
• These mobile stations are also capable of handling the GSM architecture to
make voice calls.
• Base Station Subsystem (BSC)
• In GSM architecture there is one component called BSC. But in GPRS there is
one component is added to BSC called PCU. PCU stands for Packet Control
Unit.
• If the signal comes to BSC and that signal contains data, then PCU routes to
the SGSN.
• The interface is used between BSC and PCU is the FRI interface.
• After the signal comes to SGSN, it delivers the data packet to the GGSN. GGSN
routes the data packet to the data network (PDN- Predefined Data Network).
• GPRS Support Nodes
• GPRS support nodes are of two types:
• 1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
It is responsible for the following tasks:
• Packet Delivery
• Mobility management
• apply/ sign off of terminals
• localization
• LLC (Logical Link Control) management
• Authentication
• billing
• 2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
It is responsible for the following tasks:
• Mediator between GPRS backbone and external data networks.
Saves current data for the SGSN address of the participant as well as their profile and
data for authentication and invoice

• Internal Backbone Network

• It is an IP-based network that is used to support the working of GPRS and this
is responsible to carry new packets between different GSNs.
• The tunneling is used between SGNSs and GGSNs to exchange information
without informing the internal backbone.

• Mobility Support
• GPRS has the following mechanism to support mobility in the network:
 1. Attachment Procedure
2. Location and Handoff Management

• Routing Area
• GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area.
• This concept is similar to Location Area in GSM, except that it generally
contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than location areas, less
radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.

• SMS in GSM
• GSM introduced a mechanism of Short Messaging Service(SMS) which is similar
to peer-to-peer Instant messaging.

• Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as

summarized below:

GSM Network Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Element
Mobile Station New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services.
(MS) These new terminals will be backward compatible with
GSM for voice calls.
BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base
Transceiver Station(BTS).
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software
upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the
packet control unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data
traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new

Nodes (GSNs) core network elements called the serving GPRS support
node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).

Databases All the databases involved in the network will require

(HLR, VLR, software upgrades to handle the new call models and
etc.) functions introduced by GPRS.
 GPRS Services
Services Offered:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. Push-to-talk over cellular
3. Instant messaging and presence
4. Multimedia messaging service(MMS)
5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint services

GPRS - Quality of Service

Based on different GPRS applications there are different GPRS QoS services. Applications can be real-time
multimedia,Web browsing and e-mail

GPRS allows defining QoS profiles using the following parameters :

• Service Precedence
• Reliability
• Delay and
• Throughput

GPRS Network Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes
(GSNs) and, Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to

external networks.

It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel

packets through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving
GPRS Support Node.

The GGSN also collects charging information connected to the use of the
external data networks and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS

mobiles, registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management,
and collecting information on charging for the use of the air interface.

❖ Routing IN GPRS

• Data routing or routing of data packets to and fro from a mobile user, is one
of the pivot requisites in the GPRS network. The requirement can be divided
into two areas:

• Data packet routing

• Mobility management.

• Data Packet Routing

• The important roles of GGSN involve synergy with the external data
network.

• The GGSN updates the location directory using routing information supplied
by the SGSN about the location of an MS.

• It routes the external data network protocol packet encapsulated over the
GPRS backbone to the SGSN currently serving the MS.

• It also decapsulates and forwards external data network packets to the

appropriate data network and collects charging data that is forwarded to a
charging gateway (CG).

• There are three important routing schemes:

• Mobile-originated message - This path begins at the
GPRS mobile device and ends at the host.
• Network-initiated message when the MS is in its home
network - This path begins at the host and ends at the
GPRS mobile device.
• Network-initiated message when the MS roams to
another GPRS network - This path begins at the host of
visited network and ends at the GPRS mobile device.
• The gprs network encapsulates all data network protocols
into its own encapsulation protocol called the gprs
tunnelling protocol (gtp).
• The GTP ensures security in the backbone network and
simplifies the routing mechanism and the delivery of data
over the GPRS network
• The GPRS network encapsulates all data network protocols into its
own encapsulation protocol called the GPRS tunnelling protocol
(GTP). The GTP ensures security in the backbone network and
simplifies the routing mechanism and the delivery of data over the
GPRS network.

• Mobility Management
In GPRS, three mobile station (MS) mobility management states,
i.e., idle, ready, and standby are defined in order to accommodate
bursty traffic characteristics of data services, and thus, GPRS results
in efficient management of radio resources and signaling networks.
 Logical CHANNELS IN GPRS

GPRS Channels

Let us go through GPRS logical channels. Logical channels are named and used in
GPRS network are PBCCH, PPCH, PAGCH,PNCH,PRACH, PACCH,PTCCH,PDTCH.
These channels are divided as mentioned below based on their functions.

Broadcast channel-
Packet Broadcast Central Channel (PBCCH)
Common control channels- Packet Paging Channel (PPCH)
Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH)
Packet Notification Channel (PNCH)
Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH)
Dedicated control channels-Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH)
Packet Timing Advance Common Control Channel (PTCCH)
Dedicated traffic channel-Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH)
GPRS Logical Channel functions are described below.
PDTCH- Used for data traffic, bidirection between MS(Mobile Subscriber) and
BSS(base station subsystem)
PBCCH- Used for Broadcast signalling control, from BSS to MSs
PRACH- Used for random access, from MSs to BSS
PAGCH- Used for Access Grant indication, from BSS to MSs
PPCH-Used for Paging, from BSS to MSs
PNCH- USed for notification purpose, from BSS to MSs
PACCH- Used for Associated control, bidirectional
PTCCH- Used for timing advance control, bidirectional

Wireless LANs(WLAN)

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a wireless network that allows
devices to associate and communicate wirelessly.

Just like a traditional wired LAN in which the device transmits over Ethernet cables, the
devices using the WLAN transmit through WiFi.

Mobile users can connect to a WLAN through wireless connection. The IEEE 802.11 group
of standards describe the technologies for LANs.

Though WLAN looks dissimilar to the traditional LAN, it works in the same way

• First, new devices are configured with the help of DHCP.

• Then, they can connect with other devices on the network in the same manner they would work
on a wired network.
• The main difference is how the data is passed on. In LAN, data is transferred through physical
cables in a series of Ethernet packets. However, in WLAN, packets are transferred across the air.
• Wireless routers provide wireless connection to the devices whose WiFi are ON and
in the range of the router’s signal. Devices can be laptops, tablets, smartphones,
and other wireless devices.
• Also, wireless routers frequently connect to the cable modem or the devices to
connect to the Internet easily.
 Advantages of WLANs
• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.

• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from
the network at a greater ease than wired LANs.

• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the
network is not bounded by the length of the cables.

• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.

• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with
more interference from nearby systems.

• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more
prone to errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.

• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

WLAN APPLICATIONS
• Wireless LANs have a great deal of applications.

• Modern implementations of WLANs range from small in-home networks to

large, campus-sized ones to completely mobile networks on airplanes and
trains.

• Users can access the Internet from WLAN hotspots in restaurants, hotels,
and now with portable devices that connect to 3G or 4G networks
 (WLAN)IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

• Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless
routers that form the base stations or access.
• Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.

Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating
at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:

• Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points.
• Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

RFID(Radio Frequency Identification)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is the application of radio waves to read and
capture information stored on tags affixed to objects.

RFID readers are installed at tracking points and can read information from tags when
they come into range, which can be of several feet radius.

A tag need not be within direct line-of-sight of the reader to be tracked. RFID is used to
check identities and track inventory, assets and people.

RFID tags can be attached to a variety of objects like cash, clothing, baggage, parcels,
and even implanted in animals and people.

Working Principle

There are two parts in a RFID system−

• a tag or label
• a reader

RFID tags are affixed on the object and have a transmitter and a receiver embedded on
it. It contains the serial number that uniquely identifies a specific object. The tags have
two parts−

• a microchip to store and process information, and

• an antenna to receive and transmit a signal.
The RFID reader (also called interrogator) captures the information encoded on the tag
using an antenna.

It is a two-way radio transmitter-receiver that emits a signal for the tag. The tag
responds by sending the information embedded in its memory. The reader captures the
results and transmits to the RFID computer program, which then performs the necessary
processing.

Types of RFID tags

RFID tags are categorized into three types according to power−

• Passive tags− They use the radio wave energy of the reader to transmit its ID to the reader.
• Active tags− They are equipped with an on-board battery and transmit their ID periodically.
• Battery – assisted Passive− They have a small battery on-board and are activated only within
the range of an RFID reader.

According to readability, RFID tags are as follows−

• Read-only tags− They have a factory-assigned ID which serves as a key into a database.
• Read/write tags− In these tags, object-specific data can be written and retrieved by the system
user.
• Field programmable tags− These are written once by the system, thereby they can be read
multiple times.
• Blank tags− They may be electronically written by the user.

Types of RFID readers

RFID readers are categorized into two types according to power−p>

• Passive readers− They can only receive signals from active tags.
• Active readers− They can transmits interrogator signals to both passive, active as well as battery-
assisted tags and also receives replies from them.

According to position, RFID readers are of two types−

• Fixed readers− They are used to create a highly defined and tightly controlled interrogation area.
Tags are read when they enter this area. Active readers are deployed here.
• Mobile readers− They are used for creating handheld tag reading devices. They may be also
installed in moving vehicles.

RFID-fEATURES
• A unique ID

• Automatic recognition

• Can detect ‘hidden’ objects

• Multiple tags can be read at once

• Rugged and weatherproof

• security

RFID-Advantages

• Low maintenance cost

• Can handle large amount of data

• It provides secure and reliable data

• Detection process is automatic

RFID-Disadvantages

• it is costly because active rfid is battery dependent

• It is susceptible to virus

• It is effected by metal and liquid products.

RFID-Application

• Security & Control Applications

• Toll Road Applicatiosns

• Baggage Applications

• Assets tracking

• Animal tracking

• Automotive
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data communication.
• It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for
exchanging data over smaller distances.
• This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed,
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
• Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7.
• Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters.
• It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version.
• The spreading technique that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread
spectrum).
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected
piconets is called scatternet.

What is Bluetooth?

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio
waves.It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be
within the estimated communication range to connect. When two devices start to share
data, they form a network called piconet which can further accommodate more than
five devices.
Points to remember for Bluetooth:
• Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
• Bluetooth is Wireless.
• Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
• Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
• Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost
any device to any other device.
• The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet
2. Scatternet
Piconet:

Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say
that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters.
The communication between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or
one-to-many. Possible communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-
slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets
converted to the active state.

Scatternet:

It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act
as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a
message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the
other piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node is referred to as a
bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.

Bluetooth protocol stack:

 1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including
frequency, the use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs
modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical
characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of physical
links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth
system and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the
connection establishment within a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing
and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already
established links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It
is responsible for creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating
them gracefully upon command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known
as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication
between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages
the data packets received from upper layers into the form expected by lower
layers. It also performs segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery
Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-
enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio
Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It
also provides emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and
adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS
07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to
exchange objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service. The basic function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and
group management for the gateway serving multiple devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Types of Bluetooth

Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
• In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the
use of mobile phones.
• Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 • Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their
laptop or phone.
• Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via
Bluetooth with mobile phone or laptop.
• Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one can
connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions of
the address.

Advantage:

• It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

• It can also penetrate through walls.
• It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
• It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:

• It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

• It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
• It has a small range: 10 meters.
• Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
• The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:

• It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.

• It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
• It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
• It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one
cell phone to another cell phone or computer.
• It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness, Military.

WiMax in Computer Network

WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access. This technology is based on
IEEE 802.16.
It is used to provide higher data rates with increased coverage.
It is based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology.
Its range is upto 50 Km. It may provide speed upto 70 Mbps and it can operate in Non-Line-of-
Sight.
 This technology is fast, convenient and cost effective

Architecture:

1. Physical Layer: This layer specifies frequency band, synchronization

between transmitter and receiver data rate and multiplexing scheme.
This layer is responsible for encoding and decoding of signals and manages
bit transmission and reception. It converts MAC layer frames into signals to
be transmitted. Modulation schemes which are used on this layer includes:
QPSK, QAM-16 and QAM-64.

2. MAC Layer:
This layer provides and interface between convergence layer and physical
layer of WiMax protocol stack. It provides point to multipoint communication
and is based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance). The MAC layer is responsible for transmitting data in frames and
controlling access to shared wireless medium. The MAC protocol defines
how and when a subscriber may initiate a transmission on the channel.

3. Convergence Layer:
This layer provides the information of the external network. It accepts higher
layer protocol data unit (PDU) and converts it to lower layer PDU. It provides
functions depending upon the service being used.
Advantages of WiMAX:

1. Wide Coverage Area: WiMAX can cover an area of up to 50 kilometers,

making it suitable for providing broadband access in rural and underserved
areas.
2. High Data Rates: WiMAX can provide data rates of up to 75 Mbps, which is
higher than many other wireless technologies.
3. Scalability: WiMAX can be easily scaled to support a large number of users
and devices.
4. Interoperability: WiMAX is based on an international standard, which allows
for interoperability between different vendors’ equipment.
5. Cost-effective: WiMAX is a cost-effective solution for providing broadband
access in areas where it is not economically feasible to deploy wired
infrastructure.

Disadvantages of WiMAX:

1. Limited Mobility: WiMAX is designed for fixed or nomadic (semi-fixed) use,

not for mobile use.
2. Interference: WiMAX operates in the same frequency range as other
wireless technologies, which can lead to interference.
3. Security Concerns: WiMAX uses a shared spectrum, which can make it
vulnerable to security threats such as eavesdropping and jamming.
4. Limited device availability: WiMAX devices are not as widely available as
devices for other wireless technologies, such as WiFi.
5. Limited penetration: WiMAX signals may have trouble penetrating through
walls, buildings and other obstacles.
Applications:
WiMAX technology is used in a variety of real-life applications, including:
Broadband Internet Access: WiMAX is used to provide high-speed internet access in
rural and underserved areas where traditional wired broadband is not available.
Wireless Backhaul: WiMAX is used to provide a wireless link between a cellular base
station and the core network, eliminating the need for a wired connection.
Mobile Broadband: WiMAX is used to provide mobile broadband services, allowing
users to access high-speed internet on the go.
Public Safety: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for public safety
networks, allowing emergency responders to communicate and share information in
real-time.
Smart Grid: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for smart grid systems,
allowing utilities to remotely monitor and control the power grid.
Telemedicine: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for telemedicine
systems, allowing healthcare professionals to remotely diagnose and treat patients.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) : WiMAX is also used to provide a wireless link
for Voice over IP (VoIP) phone services, allowing users to make phone calls over the
internet.
Video Surveillance: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for video
surveillance systems, allowing security personnel to monitor and record video footage
remotely

Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP)
that allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address.
It ensures that the communication will continue without the user’s sessions or
connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
1. Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the user
carries e.g. Cell phone.
2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as
per its assigned IP address (home address).
3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile node
was originally connected
4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node
(within its home network).
5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting
(away from its home network).
6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node
is currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the
foreign agent which delivers them to the mobile node.
7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to the
mobile node.
8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node
while it is moving away from its home network.
9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an
IP address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to
the MN. Many MN using the FA can share this COA as a common COA.
10. Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired
an additional IP address which acts as COA. This address is now
topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN. Co-located
addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
Working:
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the
correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets
reach the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved
into the foreign network. The foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home
agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established
between the home agent and the foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry
and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by
a mechanism called encapsulation.
Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the
source address is the home address and destination is the care-of-address and sends
it through the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the
tunnel, receives the data packets, decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile
node. The mobile node in response to the data packets received sends a reply in
response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent directly sends the reply to the
correspondent node.