Unit -5

Mobile Ad-hoc Networks and

Wireless Sensor Networks
16 marks
MANET
• A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a
network as needed, without any support from any existing internet
infrastructure or any other kind of fixed stations.
• A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or MSs(also
serving as routers) connected by wireless links, the union of which forms a
communication network modeled in the form of an arbitrary communication
graph.
• This is in contrast to the well-known single hop cellular network model that
supports the needs of wireless communication between two mobile nodes
relies on the wired backbone and fixed base stations.
• In a MANET, no such infrastructure exists and network topology may be changed
dynamically in an unpredictable manner since nodes are free to move and each
node has limiting transmitting power, restricting access to the node only in the
neighboring range.
• MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which
information packets are transmitted in a store and forward manner from a
source to an arbitrary destination, via intermediate nodes as given in the figure:
MANET topologies
The dynamic collection of mobile nodes creating short-lived networks with the
absence of mixed infrastructure is called as MANET.
Every node in MANET has wireless transmitter and receiver with proper antenna.
All nodes act as routers connected by wireless links.

• Topology Formation:
1. Neighbour Discovery:
 The performance of Ad-hoc Network depends on the interaction among
communicating entities in a given neighbourhood.
 Thus, in general, before a node starts communicating, it must discover the
set of nodes that are within its direct communication range.
 Once this information is gathered, the node keeps it in an internal data
structure so that it can be used in different networking activities such as
routing.
 The behaviour of an Ad-hoc node depends on the behaviour of its
neighbouring nodes because it must sense the medium before it starts
transmitting packets to the nodes in its interfering range, which can cause
collision at the other nodes.
 Node discovery can be achieved with periodic transmission of beacon
packets or with promiscuous snooping on the channel to detect the
communication activity.
 2.Packet Forwarding Algorithms:
• An important part of a routing protocol is the packet forwarding algorithm
that chooses the one to be used to forward the data packet among
neighbouring nodes.
• The forwarding algorithm implements a forwarding goal that may be, for
instance, the shortest average hop distance from source to destination.
• In this case, the set of potential nodes may include only those in direct
communication range from the current node or also the set of possible
nodes in the route to the destination.
 Characteristics of MANET
• Dynamic topologies: nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus the network
topology may be changed randomly and unpredictably and primarily consists of
bidirectional links. In some cases where the transmission power of two nodes is
different, a unidirectional link may exist.
• Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links: wireless links continue to
have significantly lower capacity than infrastructure networks.
• Energy-constrained operation: some or all of the MSs in a MANET may rely on
batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. For these nodes or
devices, the most important system design optimization criteria may be energy
conservation.
• Limited physical security: MANETs are generally more prone to physical security
threats than wire line networks. The increased possibility of eavesdropping,
spoofing, and denial of services (DoS) attacks should be considered carefully. To
reduce security threats, many existing link security techniques are often applied
within wireless networks.
Applications of MANET

• Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly communications set-up,
and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for use in battlefield management.
• Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters in
which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring communications quickly
is essential.
• Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote location must
access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video conference assistance from a surgeon
for an emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may need to instantaneously relay back
to the hospital the victim's X-rays and other diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.
• Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical Information
Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new type of application referred
to as tele- geo processing.
• Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of building,
streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also "virtually" see the
internal layout of buildings, including an emergency rescue plan, or find possible points of
interest.
• Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet or remote areas
because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-mile wire line internet access
in these areas to all subscribers.
• Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc network in
providing emergency services and other information. This is equally effective in both urban and
rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data that is beneficial in a given situation
Pros and Cons of MANET –
• Pros:
• Separation from central network administration.
• Each nodes can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing
autonomous nature.
• Self configuring and self healing nodes, does not require human
intervention.
• Cons:
• Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference
conditions, etc.
• Lack of authorization facilities.
• More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
MANET architecture

• MANET is an autonomous system of mobile host connected by wireless

link. In cellular network communication between two Mobile Host (MH)
completely rely on the wired backbone and fixed base station.
• There are two approaches to providing network connectivity in a MANET
namely, Hierarchical network architecture and Flat-routed architecture

• 1. Hierarchical Network Architecture:

• A hierarchical network design involves dividing the network into discrete
layers. Each layer, or tier, in the hierarchy provides specific functions that
define its role within the overall network. This helps the network designer
and architect to optimize and select the right network hardware, software,
and features to perform specific roles for that network layer.
 MANET architecture

• Hierarchical models apply to both LAN and WAN design. A typical

enterprise hierarchical LAN campus network design includes the following
three layers:
• I. Access Layer: Provides workgroup/user access to the network.
• II. Distribution Layer: Provides policy-based connectivity and controls
the boundary between the access and core layers.
• III.Core Layer: Provides fast transport between distribution switches
within the enterprise campus.
• 2. Flat-Routed Architecture: • The benefit of dividing a flat network into
smaller, more manageable blocks is that local traffic remains local.
• Only traffic that is destined for other networks is moved to a higher layer.
The flat network has now been divided into three separate broadcast
domains.
 Design challenges in MANET

• The design challenges in MANET are as follows:

• 1) Dynamic Topology
• 2) Bandwidth Optimization
• 3) Security threats/ risks
• 4) Scalability
• 5) Power Consumption:
• 6) Restricted Wireless Transmission Range
• 7) Time-varying Wireless Link Characteristics
• 8) Battery Constraints
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

• Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less

wireless network that is deployed in a large number of
wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor
the system, physical or environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor

that manages and monitors the environment in a particular
area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the
Internet to share data.
WSN can be used for processing, analysis,
storage, and mining of the data.
• Applications of WSN:

1.Internet of Things (IoT)

2.Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
3.Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
4.Noise Level of the surrounding
5.Medical applications like patient monitoring
6.Agriculture
7.Landslide Detection
Clustering in wireless sensor networks

• Sensor nodes in an environment collect data and transmit it to a sink

either directly or collaboratively through other nodes.
• Many sensor applications cluster the sensor nodes to achieve
scalability, robustness and reduced network traffic.
• A sample scenario of clustering is shown in Figure 1. Here, clusters
are provided with cluster heads and these cluster heads transmit the
aggregated data to the base station or the sink.
 Classify Clustering algorithm of WSN

• There have been several different methods to classify the algorithms used
for WSNs Clustering.
• Four of the most common classifications are
• Heterogeneous algorithms
• Homogeneous algorithms
• Centralized algorithms
• Distributed algorithms
• Clustering algorithms
• Static algorithms
 Characteristics Of WSN

• Power consumption constraints for nodes using batteries or energy

harvesting
• Ability to cope with node failures, communication failures, and harsh
environmental conditions
• Mobility and heterogeneity of nodes
• Scalability to large scale of deployment
• Power efficiency, responsiveness, and reliability of the network
 Sensor node

Definition:
• A Sensor Network is composed of a large number of sensor nodes,
which are tightly positioned either inside the phenomenon or very close
to it.
• A wireless sensor network (WSN) can be defined as a network of low-
size and low-complex devices denoted as nodes that can sense the
environment and communicate the information gathered from the
monitored field through wireless links.

• Sensor node: A basic unit in a sensor network, with on-board sensors,

processor, memory, wireless modem, and power supply.
• It is often abbreviated as node.
• When a node has only a single sensor on board, the node is sometimes
referred as a sensor
Sensor node
 Sensor node

• Sensors: Sensors are used by wireless sensor nodes to capture data from
their environment. They are hardware devices that produce a measurable
response to a change in a physical condition like temperature or pressure.
• Sensors are classified into two categories: Passive and Active
sensors.
• Passive sensors sense the data without actually manipulating the
environment by active probing. They are self-powered, that is, energy is
needed only to amplify their analog signal.
• Active sensors actively probe the environment, for example, a sonar or
radar sensor, and they require continuous energy from a power source
 Sensor node

• Microcontroller: The controller performs tasks, processes data and

controls the functionality of other components in the sensor node. While
the most common controller is a microcontroller, other alternatives that
can be used as a controller are: a general purpose desktop
microprocessor, digital signal processors, FPGAs (Field Programmable
Gate Array) and ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits).
• Digital signal Processors may be chosen for broadband wireless
communication applications, but in Wireless Sensor Networks the wireless
communication is often modest: i.e., simpler, easier to process modulation
and the signal processing tasks of actual sensing of data is less
complicated.
• Transceivers: Sensor nodes often make use of ISM band, which gives
free radio, spectrum allocation and global availability. The possible
choices of wireless transmission media are radiofrequency (RF), optical
communication (laser) and infrared
 Sensor node

• Memory: Flash memories are used due to their cost and storage
capacity. Memory requirements are very much application dependent.
• Power source: Two power saving policies used are Dynamic Power
Management (DPM) and Dynamic voltage Scaling (DVS). DPM conserves
power by shutting down parts of the sensor node which are not currently
used or active. A DVS scheme varies the power levels within the sensor
node depending on the non-deterministic workload
 Different types of WSN architecture

• Depending on the environment, the types of networks are decided.

• Hence different types of WSNs include
• Terrestrial WSNs,
• Underground WSNs,
• Underwater WSNs,
• Multimedia WSNs
• Mobile WSNs.
•
 Different types of WSN architecture

•
 Terrestrial WSNs:
• Terrestrial WSNs:
 Terrestrial WSNs:
• Terrestrial WSNs:

• Terrestrial WSNs are capable of communicating base stations efficiently,

and consist of hundreds tothousands of wireless sensor nodes deployed
either in unstructured (Ad hoc) or structured (Preplanned) manner.
• In an unstructured mode, the sensor nodes are randomly distributed within
the target dropped from a fixed plane that is
• The preplanned or structured mode considers optimal placement, grid
placement, and 2D, 3Dplacement models.
• In this WSN, the battery power is limited; however, the battery is equipped
with solar cells as a secondary power source.
• The Energy conservation of these WSNs is achieved by using low duty
cycle operations, minimizing delays, and optimal routing, and so on.
 Energy efficiency in WSN

• Wireless sensor node is microelectronic device means it is equipped with

a limited number of power source.
• Nodes are dependent on battery for their power. Hence power
conservation and power management is an important issue in wireless
sensor network.
• Due to this reason researchers are focusing on the design of power aware
protocols and algorithm for sensors network.
• Protocol used: Hierarchal routing protocols are considered more energy
efficient when compared with flat and location-based routing protocols. A
number of hierarchal based energy efficient routing protocols have been
referred to in the literature review such as LEACH, TEEN and APTEEN,
PEGASIS, MECN and SMECN, SOP, HPAR , VGA , Sensor Aggregate ,
TTDD , Energy Efficient Self-Healing , Energy Efficient Position Based ,
and CELRP.
Energy consumption in WSN
 Energy consumption in WSN

• A huge effort has been made to design and implement an efficient energy
management scheme to save the limited energy available for each sensor
node.
• The energy consumption can be further classified into: i) duty-cycling ii)
mobility-based and iii) data-driven.
• Through the duty cycle method, the sensor node can alternate between
sleep and active modes in order to minimize the power consumed in the
active mode.
• In the mobility-based method, a mobile node is employed to collect the
sensed data from stationary sensor nodes, and therefore minimize the
power consumed in multi-hop forwarding of data.
• The data-driven methods are based on prediction and aggregation
algorithms to minimize the power consumed in the transmission process.
• Components of WSN:
1.Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and
which is used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into
electrical signals.
2.Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to
the WLAN access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver,
external memory, and power source.
3.WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly,
generally through the internet.
4.Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a
software called as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to
the users for further processing of the data which can be used for
processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
ISO equivalent protocol layer architecture for WSN
• Physical Layer:
• The physical layer provides an edge for transferring a stream of bits above
physical medium. This layer is responsible for the selection of frequency,
generation of a carrier frequency, signal detection, Modulation and data
encryption.

• Data link layer

• The data link layer is responsible for multiplexing of data streams, frame
detection, Media Access Control (MAC) and error control.

• Transport layer
• The function of the transport layer is to deliver congestion avoidance and
reliability where a lot of protocols intended to offer this function are either
practical on the upstream.
• Network layer
• The main function of the network layer is routing, it has a lot of tasks
based on the application, but actually, the main tasks are in the power
conserving, partial memory, buffers, and sensor don't have a universal ID
and have to be self-organized.

• Application layer
• The application layer is liable for traffic management and offers software
for numerous applications that convert the data in a clear form to find
positive information.
 Features of IOT

• The most important features of IoT on which it works are connectivity, analyzing,
integrating, active engagement etc.
• Connectivity: Connectivity refers to establish a proper connection between all the things
of IoT-to-IoT platform- it may be server or cloud. After connecting the IoT devices, it needs
a high-speed messaging between the devices and cloud to enable reliable, secure and bi-
directional communication.
• Analyzing: After connecting all the relevant things, it comes to real-time analyzing the
data collected and use them to build effective business intelligence. If we have a good
insight into data gathered from all these things, then we call our system has a smart
system.
• Integrating: IoT integrating the various models to improve the user experience as well.
• Artificial Intelligence: IoT makes things smart and enhances life through the use of data.
For example, if we have a coffee machine whose beans have going to end, then the
coffee machine itself order the coffee beans of your choice from the retailer.
• Sensing: The sensor devices used in IoT technologies detect and measure any change in
the environment and report on their status. IoT technology brings passive networks to
active networks. Without sensors, there could not hold an effective or true IoT
environment.
• Active Engagement: IoT makes the connected technology, product, or services to active
engagement between each other
Architecture of IOT
• IOT technology has a wide variety of applications and use of Internet of
Things is growing so faster. Depending upon different application areas of
Internet of Things, it works accordingly as per it has been
designed/developed. But it has not a standard defined architecture of
working which is strictly followed universally. The architecture of IoT
depends upon its functionality and implementation in different sectors.
Still, there is a basic process flow based on which IoT is built.
•
• So here in this article we will discuss basic fundamental architecture of IoT
i.e.4 Stage IoT architecture
•

• So, from the above image it is clear that there is 4 layers are present that can be divided
as follows: Sensing Layer, Network Layer, Data processing Layer, and Application Layer.

• These are explained as following below.

• Sensing Layer –
The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is responsible for
collecting data from different sources. This layer includes sensors and actuators that
are placed in the environment to gather information about temperature, humidity, light,
sound, and other physical parameters. These devices are connected to the network
layer through wired or wireless communication protocols.
• Network Layer –
The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing communication
and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols and
technologies that enable devices to connect and communicate with each other and
with the wider internet. Examples of network technologies that are commonly used in
IoT include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks such as 4G and 5G.
Additionally, the network layer may include gateways and routers that act as
intermediaries between devices and the wider internet, and may also include security
features such as encryption and authentication to protect against unauthorized access.
• Data processing Layer –
The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and
hardware components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data from IoT devices. This layer is responsible for receiving raw
data from the devices, processing it, and making it available for further
analysis or action. The data processing layer includes a variety of
technologies and tools, such as data management systems, analytics
platforms, and machine learning algorithms. These tools are used to extract
meaningful insights from the data and make decisions based on that data.
Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a data lake,
which is a centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT devices.
• Application Layer –
The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts
directly with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces
and functionalities that enable users to access and control IoT devices. This
layer includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web
portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact with the
• underlying IoT infrastructure. It also includes middleware services that
allow different IoT devices and systems to communicate and share data
seamlessly. The application layer also includes analytics and processing
capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and transformed into
meaningful insights. This can include machine learning algorithms, data
visualization tools, and other advanced analytics capabilities.