(Part - 1) - Variations in Psychological Attributes Class 12 Psychology

4/28/24, 4:27 PM (Part - 1) - Variations in Psychological Attributes Class 12 Psychology
Revision Notes (Part - 1) - Variations in Psychological Attributes
Introduction
Intelligence is a key psychological attribute that interests psychologists, as people vary in their
abilities to comprehend complex concepts, adapt to their surroundings, learn from experiences,
engage in reasoning, and overcome challenges.
Yes, there are a few difficult words in the given statement. Some of them include:
Human Intelligence
Individual Differences in Human Functioning

Every person is unique, as they possess a specific blend of various traits that exist within them
in varying degrees or intensities.
Individual differences refer to the uniqueness and variations in people's behavior patterns and
characteristics.
Situationism proposes that the behavior of an individual is influenced by the circumstances and
situations they are placed in.
At times, situational factors are dominant to the extent that people with different personality
traits exhibit similar responses.
https://edurev.in/t/99848/Part-1-Variations-in-Psychological-Attributes-Class-12-Psychology 1/20
The situationist perspective places more emphasis on the influence of external factors on
human behavior rather than individual differences in traits and personality.
Assessment of Psychological Attributes

To comprehend the characteristics of an individual, the initial stage is to conduct an assessment. This
involves measuring and evaluating the psychological attributes of a person using multiple methods
as standards of comparison.
The assessment process can be categorized as either Formal or Informal:
An informal assessment, such as when we say "Ritesh is dominant", is based on our perception
and evaluation of dominance without using any defined technique to measure it. As a result, this
type of assessment can vary significantly between assessors due to subjective interpretation.
In contrast, a formal assessment involves using a specific technique or measuring standards to
evaluate an attribute. It is objective, standardized, and organized. Formal assessment also
involves measuring an attribute in relation to its practical application in a given situation. For
example, if Ritesh is formally assessed as dominant, interventions may be necessary to modify
his behavior when working with his team at work, and so on.
Try yourself: Which of the following best describes the purpose of psychological
assessment?
a. To diagnose mental disorders and prescribe medication
b. To evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities using systematic

testing procedures
c. To provide therapy and counseling services to individuals
d. To study the biological basis of human behavior
View Solution
Some of the domains of these attributes

Psychological attributes are multi-dimensional, requiring assessment in cognitive, emotional, and
social domains for a comprehensive understanding.
1. Intelligence
It refers to a person's overall capacity to comprehend, reason logically, and effectively utilize
available resources when facing a challenge or situation.
It indicates a person's general cognitive ability and competence.
2. Aptitude
It refers to an individual's inherent potential to acquire skills.
Aptitude assessment helps predict a person's ability to perform in a specific role if provided
with the appropriate environment and training.
For instance, training a person with good language aptitude could lead to them becoming an
accomplished writer.
3. Interest
It is an individual's preference or inclination towards engaging in a particular activity.
Assessing a person's interests can aid in determining which occupation or activity would make
them feel comfortable and satisfied.
4. Personality
It refers to a person's relatively consistent and enduring traits that set them apart from others.
A personality test can provide insight into how an individual is likely to behave in the future,
such as whether they are dominant, submissive, moody, withdrawn, or emotional.
5. Values
They are an individual's lasting beliefs about an ideal mode of behavior.
It includes a set of standard rules and guidelines that a person adheres to when living their life.
Understanding a person's values can help determine the kind of decisions they are likely to
make in specific situations, such as those involving politics, religion, social issues, or economics.
Assessment Methods
Several methods are used for psychological assessment:
1. Psychological Test
It is an objective and standardized method of measuring an individual's psychological attributes,
such as mental capacity, behavior, and aptitude, among others.
These tests are used in various fields, such as clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection,
placement, and training.
2. Interview
It is a one-on-one conversation in which a counselor or interviewer seeks information from the
client.
This method is often used by door-to-door salesmen to survey individuals about a product,
journalists interviewing important political figures, or employers assessing potential employees.
3. Case Study
It involves conducting a detailed examination of an individual's psychological attributes by
collecting information through interviews, observation, and questionnaires.
This method is used to assess various attributes and draw learnings. For instance, studying an
eminent leader's case study to learn about their personality, aptitude, and values.
4. Observation
It involves employing a systematic and objective procedure to record behavioral phenomena
occurring naturally in real-time.
Observation methods are useful in studying real events and situations. However, their
interpretation can be subjective and controlled by the observer to some extent.
For example, studying the mother-child relationship by objectively observing them for a specific
duration.
5. Self-report
It is a method in which an individual provides factual information about themselves or their
opinions, beliefs, and attitudes.
Intelligence
Intelligence is a crucial attribute used to distinguish individuals from each other. However, the
psychological definition of intelligence differs greatly from its common definition.
The common definition of intelligence includes qualities such as mental alertness, quickness to
learn and understand relationships, and having a sharp wit.
On the other hand, the Oxford definition characterizes intelligence as the ability to perceive,
learn, understand and acquire knowledge.
Theories of Intelligence
Psychologists have suggested various intelligence theories, which can be categorized as
psychometric/structural or information-processing approaches.
The Psychometric or Structural approach

It views intelligence as a collection of abilities and measures an individual's performance through a
single cognitive ability index.
1. Uni or One Factor Theory
By Alfred Binet
Intelligence comprises a single set of abilities that are applicable to any problem an individual
may face in their environment.
2. Two Factor Theory

By Charles Spearman
Proposes that intelligence consists of a general factor (g-factor) comprising mental operations
that are fundamental and universal to all performances, and specific factors (s-factors)
consisting of domain-specific abilities that enable individuals to excel in their respective fields
such as singing, dancing, or cooking.
3. The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

Developed by Louis Thurstone
Proposes that intelligence comprises seven independent primary abilities, which are:
(a) Verbal Comprehension: The ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas.
(b) Numerical Abilities: The skill to perform numerical and computational tasks with speed and
accuracy.
(c) Spacial Relations: The ability to visualize patterns and forms.
(d) Perceptual Speed: The speed of perceiving details.
(e) Word Fluency: The ability to use words fluently and flexibly.
(f) Memory: The ability to recall information accurately.
(g) Inductive Reasoning: The skill to derive general rules from presented facts.
4. The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence
Proposed by Arthur Jensen

Operates at two levels:
Level I: Associative learning, where the output is similar to the input, such as rote learning and
memory.
Level II: Cognitive competence, which involves higher-order skills that transform the input to
produce an effective output.
5. The Structure of Intellect model

By J.P. Guilford
Classifies intellectual traits into three dimensions:
i. Operations: what the respondent does, including cognition, memory recording, memory
retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
ii. Contents: the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are
performed, including visual, auditory, symbolic (letters and numbers), semantic (words), and
behavioral (information about people's behavior, attitudes, needs).
iii. Products: the form in which information is processed by the respondent, classified into units,
classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.
Try yourself: Which theory views intelligence as a single set of abilities that can be applied to
any problem an individual may face in their environment?
a. Two Factor Theory by Charles Spearman
b. The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities by Louis Thurstone
c. Uni or One Factor Theory by Alfred Binet
d. The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence by Arthur Jensen
View Solution
The Information-Processing Approach

It involves studying the cognitive functions that underlie intelligent behavior, with a focus on how
intelligent individuals reason and solve problems. It seeks to describe the processes involved in such
activities.
1. Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a singular entity, but rather, that distinct types
of intelligences exist. These intelligences are independent of one another, but may work together at
times to find solutions to problems. To help remember these types of intelligences, Gardner
developed the acronym MISLLB.
Through his studies of exceptionally talented individuals, Gardner identified eight types of
intelligences:
People with Linguistic intelligence (word smart, articulate, poets, writers) excel in the
production and use of language skills.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence (scientific thinking, problem solving) is characterized by the
ability to think logically, critically, abstractly, and solve mathematical problems using symbols.
Examples include Nobel Prize-winning scientists and mathematicians.
Spatial intelligence (visual images, patterns) involves forming, using, and transforming mental
images. Examples of those with spatial intelligence include pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,
architects, interior decorators, and surgeons.
Musical intelligence (sensitivity to rhythm, sound patterns) allows individuals to produce,
create, and manipulate music patterns.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence (using the body flexibly and creatively) is seen in athletes,
dancers, sportsmen, gymnasts, and surgeons, among others.
Interpersonal intelligence (an ability to understand to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours) :
This is the ability to understand the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as to
bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
Intrapersonal (an ability to understand of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This refers
to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to
effectively relate to others.
Naturalist intelligence (sensitivity towards the natural world) involves an awareness of one's
relationship with the natural world, including the beauty of flora, fauna, and ecology. Examples
include hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, environmentalists, and animal activists.
2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed that intelligence is the ability to adapt, shape, and select the
environment to achieve personal goals as well as those of society and culture.
He classified intelligence into three basic types:
Componential Intelligence: Analyzing information to solve problems. These individuals think
analytically and critically. Componential intelligence has three components, each serving a
different function:
Knowledge acquisition: Learning, encoding, combining, and comparing information (Find
stage).
Metacomponents: Controlling, evaluating, monitoring, and planning (Cognitive processing-
analyze and solve stage).
Performance components: Taking action and actually executing the planned task (Operational
skill-transfer stage).
Experiential Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve new problems. These
individuals make new discoveries and inventions. They have the ability to filter crucial
information for a given situation.
Contextual Intelligence: This intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental
demands and adjust to the situation. Street smarts and business sense are some of the
manifestations of this intelligence. Those who possess this intelligence can adapt to the
environment or modify it according to their needs, and are hence more successful.
3. PASS Model of Intelligence: (Planning, Attention Arousal and Simultaneous- Successive

model)
Given By J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, Kirby. According to this model, intellectual activity involves the
interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain. These
units are responsible for the following:
Arousal and Attention: Arousal plays a role in attention by helping individuals focus on stimuli.
However, too much or too little arousal can interfere with attention. For example, when a
teacher informs you about an upcoming test, this stimulates you to pay attention to the relevant
chapters, and arousal helps you focus on reading, learning, and revising.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Simultaneous processing allows individuals to
perceive relationships between different concepts and integrate them into meaningful
patterns, such as understanding relationships among abstract figures or solving jigsaw puzzles.
On the other hand, successive processing occurs when individuals remember things
sequentially, such as learning digits and alphabets.
Planning: Planning is an essential component of intelligence. After information is attended to
and processed, planning is activated to think of possible courses of action to reach the goal and
evaluate their effectiveness. Additionally, this aspect of intelligence helps review gaps in the
plan and develop alternative plans if necessary.
Individual Differences in Intelligence

The study of identical or fraternal twins, siblings raised together or apart in different environments
helps us understand that intelligence is influenced by two factors:
Nature - Heredity, genes
Nurture - Environment, nutrition
Research findings show that the correlation of intelligence in different samples is as follows:
Identical twins raised together show a correlation of almost 0.9
Identical twins separated in childhood show a correlation of 0.72
Fraternal twins raised together show a correlation of 0.6
Siblings raised together show a correlation of 0.5
Siblings raised apart show a correlation of about 0.25
Moreover, studies reveal that adopted children tend to display intelligence more similar to their
biological parents than their adoptive ones. However, as they grow older, their intelligence
moves closer to that of their adoptive parents.
Hence, psychologists generally agree that intelligence is a result of the complex interaction between
heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
Try yourself: Which of the following best describes the role of heredity in an individual's
development?
a. Heredity solely determines an individual's traits and abilities
b. Heredity has no influence on an individual's development
c. Heredity sets a range within which the environment shapes an individual's

development
d. Heredity and environment have equal influence on an individual's development
View Solution
Assessment of Intelligence
In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to measure
intelligence.
Mental Age (MA) is a measure of intellectual development relative to people of the same age,
while Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
If a person's MA is higher than their CA, they are considered bright and more intelligent.
If their MA equals their CA, they are considered to have average intelligence.
If their MA is lower than their CA, according to Binet and Simon, the person is called "retarded".
In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, introduced the Intelligence Quotient (IQ),
which is calculated as the person's Mental Age divided by their Chronological Age and
multiplied by 100. The multiplier of 100 is used to avoid decimal values.
An IQ score of 100 is obtained when the MA equals the CA.
If the IQ is higher than 100, the child's mental age is considered to be higher by that number of
points compared to their chronological age.
If the IQ is lower than 100, the child is considered to have a low IQ.
IQ scores tends to approximate a bellshaped curve, called

the normal curve.
Variations of Intelligence
1. Intellectual Deficiency
The definition of intellectual disability is having significantly below average intellectual functioning
along with deficits in adaptive behavior, which is evident during the developmental period.
This definition covers three main features:
Below average intellectual functioning, resulting in slower comprehension compared to peers
of the same age.
Difficulties with adaptability and effectively coping with the environment, which may hinder the
ability to hold a job or manage a family independently.
Manifestation during the developmental period.
The severity of intellectual disability varies based on the level of IQ deficiency:

Mild: IQ 55-70
Moderate: IQ 35-55
Severe: IQ 20-35
Profound: IQ < 20
Individuals with mild to moderate intellectual disability can often benefit from special education and
training, whereas those with severe to profound intellectual disability may require more long-term
support and assistance throughout their lives.
2. Intellectual Giftedness
Exceptional performance resulting from exceptional potential with an IQ score of more than 130
can be identified through the concepts of talent and giftedness. While these terms are often used
interchangeably, they have distinct meanings. Giftedness refers to exceptional overall ability and
superior performance in diverse areas, while talent pertains to exceptional ability in a particular
domain such as social, spiritual or aesthetic. Highly talented individuals are sometimes called
prodigies. Talent is a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high commitment.
Important characteristics of gifted children:
Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving.
High speed in processing information.
Superior generalization and discrimination ability
Advance original and creative thinking
High level intrinsic motivation, self esteem.
Independent and non-conformist thinking
Preference for solitary academic activities.
Type of Intelligence Tests

1. Individual or Group tests
2. Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests

Intelligence tests can be entirely verbal, entirely written, entirely performance-based, or a
combination of all three.
Verbal tests require test-takers to provide verbal responses, either orally or in written form.
These tests can only be administered to people who are literate.
Non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations, where subjects examine an incomplete pattern
and choose figures to complete the pattern. These tests can be administered to individuals of
any culture group or literacy level. One example of a non-verbal test is Raven's Progressive
Matrices (RPM).
Performance tests require test-takers to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a
task, and written language is not necessary. Therefore, these tests can be administered to
individuals with low literacy and of any culture. An example of a performance test is Koh's Block
Design, which contains wooden blocks.
3. Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

Culture-fair or culturally appropriate tests are designed to avoid discrimination against
individuals from different cultures. These tests evaluate experiences that are common across all
cultures or do not require the use of language. Non-verbal and performance tests are helpful in
reducing the cultural bias that is often present in verbal tests.
In contrast, culture-biased tests are intended for a particular population and produce results
that are biased towards a specific group, culture, or population due to cultural factors.
4. Intelligence Tests in India

If a child performs poorly on an intelligence test, it could result in feelings of shame, which can
have a negative impact on their performance and self-esteem.
Moreover, the test results could lead to discriminatory treatment by parents, teachers, and
other members of society. Intelligence tests do not measure creative abilities or practical
intelligence, and they may not be strongly associated with success in life.
Additionally, administering a test that favors high or middle-class populations could
underestimate the intelligence quotient of children from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Difficult Words
1. Comprehend: Understand or grasp the meaning of.
2. Adapt: Adjust or modify in response to changes.
3. Reasoning: The process of thinking logically.
4. Overcome: Successfully deal with or overcome challenges.
5. Functioning: The operation or activity of something.
6. Situationism: The perspective that behavior is influenced by circumstances and situations.
7. Trait: A distinguishing quality or characteristic.
8. Assessment: The process of evaluating or measuring psychological attributes.
9. Cognitive: Related to mental processes such as thinking, learning, and memory.
10. Aptitude: Inherent potential to acquire skills.
11. Inclination: A person's preference or tendency towards something.
12. Enduring: Lasting over a long period.
13. Standardized: Made uniform or consistent.
14. Eminent: Distinguished or prominent.
15. Phenomena: Observable occurrences or events.
16. Subjective: Based on personal opinions or interpretations.

17. Self-report: Providing information about oneself.
18. Psychometric: Relating to the measurement of psychological traits, abilities, or processes.
19. Uni or One Factor Theory: Alfred Binet's theory suggesting intelligence comprises a single set
of abilities.
20. Hierarchical: Arranged in a hierarchy, or levels of importance or complexity.
21. Associative learning: A form of learning in which one stimulus becomes associated with
another through repeated pairing.
22. Cognitive competence: The ability to effectively use higher-order cognitive skills.
23. Triarchic: Involving or consisting of three parts.
24. Componential Intelligence: Analyzing information to solve problems, involving knowledge
acquisition, metacomponents, and performance components.
25. Experiential Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve new problems.
26. Contextual Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental demands and adjust to
situations.
27. Neurological systems: Systems related to the functioning of the nervous system.
28. Simultaneous Processing: Perceiving relationships between different concepts and integrating
them into meaningful patterns.
29. Successive Processing: Remembering things sequentially.
30. Arousal: Activation or readiness of the nervous system.
31. Metacomponents: Controlling, evaluating, monitoring, and planning cognitive processes.
32. Functional units: Components responsible for specific functions in the brain.
33. Hereditary: Relating to traits passed down from one's ancestors through genes.
34. Correlation: A statistical measure indicating the extent to which two variables change
together.
35. Chronological Age: The biological age of an individual measured from birth.
36. Retarded: A term historically used to describe individuals with lower intellectual functioning;
now considered outdated and replaced with terms like "intellectual disability."
37. Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A measure of a person's intelligence relative to their age group,
calculated as Mental Age divided by Chronological Age, multiplied by 100.
38. Bell-shaped curve: Referring to a normal distribution or Gaussian distribution in statistics.
39. Intellectual Deficiency: Below-average intellectual functioning along with deficits in adaptive
behavior.
40. Adaptive Behavior: The ability to effectively cope with the environment.
41. Normal Curve: A symmetrical bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of scores in a
normal population.
42. Intellectual Giftedness: Exceptional performance resulting from exceptional potential, often
identified by an IQ score above 130.
43. Prodigies: Individuals, often children, with exceptional talents or abilities.
44. Culture-Fair Tests: Tests designed to avoid discrimination against individuals from different
cultures.
45. Culture-Biased Tests: Tests intended for a particular population and biased towards a specific
group or culture.
46. Discriminatory Treatment: Unfair or prejudicial treatment based on certain characteristics.

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Revision Notes (Part - 1) - Variations in Psychological Attributes

Individual Differences in Human Functioning

Assessment of Psychological Attributes

a. To diagnose mental disorders and prescribe medication

b. To evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities using systematic

c. To provide therapy and counseling services to individuals

d. To study the biological basis of human behavior

Some of the domains of these attributes

The Psychometric or Structural approach

2. Two Factor Theory

3. The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

4. The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence

Proposed by Arthur Jensen

5. The Structure of Intellect model

a. Two Factor Theory by Charles Spearman

b. The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities by Louis Thurstone

c. Uni or One Factor Theory by Alfred Binet

d. The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence by Arthur Jensen

The Information-Processing Approach

2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

3. PASS Model of Intelligence: (Planning, Attention Arousal and Simultaneous- Successive

Individual Differences in Intelligence

a. Heredity solely determines an individual's traits and abilities

b. Heredity has no influence on an individual's development

c. Heredity sets a range within which the environment shapes an individual's

d. Heredity and environment have equal influence on an individual's development

IQ scores tends to approximate a bellshaped curve, called

The severity of intellectual disability varies based on the level of IQ deficiency:

Type of Intelligence Tests

2. Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests

3. Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

4. Intelligence Tests in India

16. Subjective: Based on personal opinions or interpretations.

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