The

AN EVOLUT
UM ION
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 INTRODUCTION
TIMELINE
CLIMATE AND HUMAN EVOLUTION
NUTRITIONAL INFLUENCES ON HUMAN
EVOLUTION
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE AND NUTRITION ON

OBJECTIVES HUMAN BODY

NEANDERTHAL MORPHOLOGY AND
LIFESTYLE
MODERN HUMAN BODY AND
MORPHOLOGY
SUMMARY
The process by which human beings evolved
on Earth from now-extinct primates.
Humans are Homo sapiens
family Hominidae
Hominini tribe
The only living member of the hominin tribe
evolved around 315,000 years ago in Africa

Hominin evolution is characterized by two

main trends

1. Transition to bipedalism
2. Increase in brain size
TIMELINE
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 mya)
Features include a chimp-sized body and
brain capacity but with more human-like
characteristics in the skull and teeth.

Orrorin tugenensis (6.1 - 5.8 mya)

Lived in dry conifer forest, with arm
adaptations for tree climbing
Teeth are human-like; femur shows direct
evidence of bipedalism
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (5.8 - 5.5 mya)
Subspecies of Ardipithecus ramidus found along the Afar rift
Chimpanzee-sized, about four feet tall, with canine teeth more
similar to later hominid species than chimpanzees
Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 - 4.2 mya)
Teeth and other bones are somewhat more chimp-like than
Lucy’s (A. afarensis)
Adapted to soft diet since it has thinner dental enamel than
other hominids
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2 - 3.8 mya)
Combination of traits found in both apes and humans
Skeletal remains show evidence of bipedalism
Australopithecus afarensis (3.8 - 2.7 mya)
Small canine teeth like all other early
humans, and a body that stood on two
legs and regularly walked upright

Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5 - 3.2 mya

Flat-faced, small-brained bipedal
species
Inhabited Africa at the same time as A.
afarensis
Australopithecus africanus (3.0 - 2.4 mya)
Larger in body size and brain (420-500 cc)
than A. afarensis
Teeth are larger than modern humans but
resemble ours in shape and enamel more
than chimps’

Paranthropus aethiopicus (2.7 - 1.9 mya)

Features include huge eye sockets, a
large sagittal crest, a very small brain
(410cc), and very large teeth
Australopithecus garhi (2.6 - 2.5 mya)
Some scientists suggest A. garhi as a
transition species between
Australopithecines and Homo

Paranthropus boisei (2.3 - 1.4 mya)

Nicknamed “Nutcracker Man” for its massive
jaws and teeth
Adult males were less than 4 and a half feet
tall and had brain capacities ranging from
500-550cc
Paranthropus robustus (2.0 - 1.0 mya)
Larger skulls with distinctive dorsal crest
likely belonged to males, while smaller
specimens likely represent females

Homo rudolfensis (2.3 - 1.9 mya)

Arched dome of the skull looks human-
like, but small brain capacity (slightly
more than 750cc) and relatively large
teeth resemble Australopithecine
characteristics
Homo ergaster (2.0 - 1.5 mya)
Estimated to have been 5 feet, 4 inches tall; as
an adult, would have stood slightly over 6 feet
tall with a brain capacity of about 850cc
First Homo species to have roughly the same
body proportions as modern humans, with
one male reaching 6 feet, 3 inches tall
 Homo habilis (2.0 - 1.6 mya)
Males stood a little over 5 feet tall and females
were significantly smaller
Face has little forehead; Teeth are much larger
than those of modern humans but smaller
than those A. africanus
Homo georgicus (1.8 mya)
While having many features in common with
H. habilis and H. erectus, H. georgicus has a
brain capacity ranging between 600 to 750cc
Homo erectus (2.0 mya - 50,000 years ago)
Most likely direct ancestor of modern
humans, competing with H.
rudolfensis, H. ergaster, and H. habilis

Homo antecessor (800,000 - 200,000 years ago

Bones show scratch marks from stone tools, indicating
butchering or de-fleshing
Estimated height of about 5 and half feet tall, with males
possibly weighing upwards of 200 pounds
Teeth show little development from erectus/ergaster, but ear
structures are modern
Homo heidelbergensis (500,000 - 200,000 years ago
Had a larger brain capacity
than H. ergaster and
associated with more
advanced tools
Averaged 6 feet in height,
more robust and muscular
than modern humans
Homo neanderthalensis (300,000 - 28,000 years ago
Bodies were modern but with
thicker arm and leg bones,
suggesting immense strength
and rugged conditions
Homo floresiensis ( 18,000 years ago)
Classified as a dwarf sub-species of
Homo erectus
Females were about 1 meter tall, with a
brain size of 417cc, human-like teeth,
and were bipedal
Homo sapiens (20,000 - present)
Have lighter skeletons compared to
earlier humans
Modern human faces have less
pronounced brow ridges and
prognathism, and smaller jaws with
smaller teeth
Climate and Human Evolution
Climate Fluctuations

(a) hominin origins, (b) habitual

bipedality, (c) first stone
toolmaking and eating
meat/marrow from large
animals, (d) onset of long-
endurance mobility, (e) onset of
rapid brain enlargement, (f)
expansion of symbolic
expression, innovation, and
cultural diversity.
Organisms and Environmental Change

All organisms encounter some amount of environmental

change. Some changes occur over a short time, and may
be cyclical, such as daily or seasonal variations in the
amount of temperature, light, and precipitation. On
longer time scales, hominins experienced large-scale
shifts in temperature and precipitation that, in turn, caused
vast changes in vegetation – shifts from grasslands and
shrub lands to woodlands and forests, and also from cold
to warm climates.
Adaptation to Change

Savanna Hypothesis - certain adaptations, such as

upright walking or tool-making, were associated with
drier habitat and the spread of grasslands.

Variability Selection Hypothesis - the key events in

human evolution were shaped not by any single type of
habitat (e.g., grassland) or environmental trend (e.g.,
drying) but rather by environmental instability.
Environmental instability
may have been a factor not
only in shaping adaptations
but also in contributing to
the extinction of some
lineages. Environmental
variability associated with
the extinction of large
mammal species has been
proposed for the southern
Kenya region.
Encephalization and Adaptability
 New Tools for Many
Different Purposes Regional Exchange and
Social Networks

Communication and Symbols

 NUTRITIONAL
INFLUENCES/EVIDENCES
ON HUMAN EVOLUTION
5 MAJOR TYPES OF NUTRIENTS

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins
Minerals
6 PRINCIPLE CATEGORIES
Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
macronutrients or proximate principles
of food as they are needed in relatively
large amounts to provide energy to the
body.

Vitamins and Minerals

micronutrients or protective principles
of food as they are needed in much
smaller amounts and govern several
aspects of metabolism.
FOSSIL ANALYSIS
Tooth Morphology
early hominin ancestors, like Australopithecines, sported features
in their teeth that hint at their dietary habits:

Enamel Thickness Tooth surface complexity

this robustness suggests a diet
that included tougher foods like
nuts, seeds, and potentially
abrasive plant materials.
surfaces (incisors) for tearing and
chopping, and grinding surfaces
(molars) for crushing
mixed diet incorporating fruits,
leaves, and tougher items.
FOSSIL ANALYSIS
Jaw structure
jaw size and the attachment points for jaw muscles show a gradual
decrease.

The rise of brain size

around 2 million years ago. There's a significant increase in brain
size. This evolutionary leap is strongly linked to a shift in diet
towards more high-energy foods like:
Meat
Nuts and Seeds
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS
Stone tools
Butchering tools
Cleavers and flakes, with their sharp edges and
pointed tips, likely played a role in dismembering
and preparing meat.

Grinding stones

Flat grinding stones with grooves or indentations

suggest the processing of tougher plant materials
like nuts and seeds.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS
Animal bones
Archaeological sites often contain a
wealth of animal bones. By analyzing
the types and abundance of these
bones, scientists can reconstruct
hunting patterns and dietary staples.

Fire Pits and Cooking

Cooking revolutionized food processing
techniques. It breaks down complex
molecules in tough fibers and starches,
making them easier to digest and
increasing the bioavailability of nutrients
 GENETIC ADAPTATIONS
Lactose Starch Fat
Tolerance Digestion Metabolism
The ability to digest Increased copy numbers Variations in genes
lactose (milk sugar) of the amylase gene in related to fat
beyond infancy is a some populations might desaturation and
relatively recent be linked to the rise of elongation could reflect
adaptation. Populations starchy foods like tubers adaptations to
that relied heavily on and grains in their diet. environments with limited
dairy farming developed access to certain
a genetic variation that essential fatty acids.
allows them to continue
consuming milk as adults.
INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE AND
NUTRITION ON THE VARIOUS
ASPECTS OF THE
HUMAN BODY
Respiratory Skin and
System Musculoskeletal
Digestive Health
System Immune System
Cardiovascular Function
Health Brain Function
 Homo neanderthalensis

EANDERTH
E N AL
TH S
WHAT THE NEANDERTHALS NAME MEAN

Homo, is a Latin word meaning

‘human’ or ‘man’.

in 1856 - Neander Valley in

Germany
‘HUMAN FROM THE NEANDER VALLEY’
AGE

early Homo classic Homo late Homo

neanderthalensis neanderthalensis neanderthalensis
(300,000 years (130,000 years (45,000 years
ago) ago) ago)
BODY SIZE AND
SHAPE
Neanderthals were
generally shorter and
had more robust
skeletons and muscular
bodies than modern
humans

Males averaged about

168 centimetres in height
while females were
slightly shorter at 156
centimetres.
BRAIN

Brain size was larger than the average modern human brain and
averaged 1500 cubic centimeters.
SKULL

long rounded brain case, bulge at the back of the skull

(occipital bun), depression (the suprainiac fossa) for the
relatively flat and receding forehead,
thick rounded brow ridge, large and attachment of strong neck muscles
rounded orbits
 SKULL

Cast of the Gibraltar skull,

discovered in 1848 in Forbe’s
Quarry, Rock of Gibraltar.
SKULL
 SKULL

Cast of the skull of

Homo
neanderthalensis
Amud 1, discovered in
1961 at Amud, Israel.
SKULL
SKULL

Cast of Neanderthal 1, a 45,000-year old skullcap discovered in

1856 in Feldhofer, Grotto, Neander Valley, Germany.
JAWS AND TEETH

jaws were larger and more

robust than those of modern
humans and had a gap called
the retromolar space, behind
the third molars (wisdom
teeth) at the back of the jaw.

jaw lacked the projecting

bony chin that is found in
Homo sapiens.
LIMBS AND PELVIS

limb bones were thick and

had large joints which
indicates they had strongly
muscled arms and legs

pelvis was wider from side

to side than in modern
humans and this may have
slightly affected their
posture
 Homo neanderthalensis

EANDERTH
E N AL
TH S
TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY

Mousterian tools
Chatelperronian tools
FIRE, SHELTER, & CLOTHING
ART & DECORATION
BURIALS
ENVIRONMENT AND DIET
This species
occupied a range
of environments
across Europe and
the Middle East
and lived through
a period of
changing climatic
conditions.
ENVIRONMENT AND DIET There is evidence
that the
Neanderthals
hunted big game
and chemical
analysis of their
fossils shows that
they ate
significant
amounts of meat
supplemented
with vegetation.
Modern Human Body Morphology
 Height

Modern Humans are taller

in height due to attributed
factors such as improved
nutrition, healthcare, and
living conditions.
Body Composition

Modern lifestyles,
characterized by
sedentary behavior
and easy access to
calorie-dense
foods, have led to
changes in body
composition.
 Posture

With the rise of sedentary

activities such as sitting at
desks and using electronic
devices, there has been a
noticeable shift in posture in
modern humans
 Dental Changes

Changes in jaw size

and tooth alignment
have been observed
due to dietary shifts.
 Bone Density

Bone density of modern

humans may be influenced
by factors such as diet,
physical activity, and
genetics.
 Muscle Mass and
Strength

Changes in physical activity

patterns, including reduced manual
labor and increased reliance on
technology, may have led to
decreases in muscle mass and
strength over time.
 Vision
Due to the widespread use
of screens and artificial
lighting has led to an
increase in vision-related
issues in modern humans
 Reproductive Health

The advances in healthcare

have improved maternal and
infant mortality rates.
Summary
SUMMARY

01 The divergence of hominids

from the other primates
02 Hominid evolution spans
millions years and includes
occurred around 6 to 7 million various species of primates.
years ago.

03 Key developments in hominid

evolution include bipedalism,
04
tool use, and brain expansion.
Species like the
Australopithecus and
Paranthropus show early
hominid characteristics.
SUMMARY
05 The genus Homo, including
Homo habilis and Homo
06
erectus, exhibit increased tool
sophistication and brain size.
07 Nutritional changes, like the
shift to a meat-based diet,
08
contributed to brain growth
and the development of
complex cognitive abilities
Climatic changes including the
Ice ages and warmer periods,
influenced early human
adaptations and drove the
evolution of bipedalism.
Neanderthal had robust
bodies, large nasal cavities for
cold air, and were skilled
hunters with complex social
structures.
SUMMARY

09 Modern humans have a more

gracile skeletal structure
10 Human evolution is shaped by
climate, nutrition, and social
compared to earlier interactions leading to the
hominins. diverse species that exist
today.
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