Attendance 31/10/2020

Chapter 1
Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism

Aim: impart an understanding of

electromagnetic principles
Important as electromagnetism underpins the
operation of many electrical machines
Linkage between electrical and mechanical
worlds
 Electromagnetism

Describes the relationship between electricity

and magnetism
Is essentially the foundation for all of electrical
engineering
Use electromagnets to generate electricity,
store memory on our computers, generate
pictures on a television screen, diagnose
illnesses, and etc
 Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism works on the principle

that an electric current through a wire
generates a magnetic field
▪ In a bar magnet, the magnetic field runs from
the north to the south pole.
▪ In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the
wire.
▪ If we wrap that wire around a metal object,
we can often magnetize that object. In this
way, we can create an electromagnet.
 Electromagnetism

▪ Magnetism is a force field that acts

on magnetic materials but not on
other materials.
▪ Magnetic field around a bar magnet
▪ Two “poles” dictated by direction of
the field
▪ Opposite poles attract (aligned
magnetic field)
▪ Same poles repel (opposing
magnetic field)
Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism

Field Detector
▪ Can use a compass to
map out magnetic field
▪ Field forms closed “flux
lines” around the
magnet
▪ Magnetic flux measured
in Webers (Wb)
▪ Symbol Φ
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Flux
▪ Magnetic flux lines are assumed to have the
following properties:
▪ Leave the north pole (N) and enter the south pole
(S) of a magnet.
▪ Like magnetic poles repel each other.
▪ Unlike magnetic poles create a force of attraction.
▪ Magnetic lines of force (flux) are assumed to be
continuous loops.
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field conductor

▪ A magnetic field also forms
round a conductor along
which a current is flowing
▪ Field can be described using
“right hand screw rule”
 Electromagnetism

Right Hand Rule

▪ Thumb indicates
direction of
current flow
▪ Finger curl
indicates the
direction of field
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field: Coil

▪ A series of coils produces a field
similar to a bar magnet – but weaker!
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field : Coil

▪ Placing a ferrous material
inside the coil increases the
magnetic field
▪ Ferrous acts to concentrate
the field also notice field
lines are parallel inside
ferrous element
▪ ‘flux density’ has increased
 Electromagnetism

Flux Density
 Electromagnetism- Permeability

Permeability μ is a measure of the ease by

which a magnetic flux can pass through a
material (Wb/ATm)
Permeability of free space, μo = 4π x 10-7 H/m
Relative permeability, µr:
 Electromagnetism- Reluctance

Reluctance: “resistance” to
flow of magnetic flux

l
@ S=
0r A

Associated with “magnetic circuit” –

flux equivalent to current
What’s equivalent of voltage?
 Electromagnetism

Magnetomotive Force
▪ Coil generates magnetic
field in ferrous toroidal
▪ Driving force F needed to
overcome toroidal
reluctance
▪ Magnetic equivalent of
ohms law
 Electromagnetism

Circuit Analogy
 Electromagnetism- Magnetomotive Force

Magnetomotive Force (MMF)

▪ The MMF is generated by the coil
▪ Strength related to number of turns and
current, measured in Ampere turns (At)
 Electromagnetism- Field Intensity

• The longer the magnetic path the greater the

MMF required to drive the flux
• Magnetomotive force per unit length is known as
the “magnetizing force” H

• Magnetizing force and flux density related by:

 Electromagnetism

Free space, electrical conductors (aluminium or copper), insulators:

 r = unity.
Ferromagnetic materials (iron, cobalt and nickel):
 r = several hundred - several thousand
A large value of  r : a small current can produce a large flux density
B(T)

Saturation

B = 0  r H
H(A/m)

Magnetization curve (B-H characteristic)

 Magnetic leakage and
Fringing

• Magnetic leakage/ leakage flux

• Flux not passing through in the magnetic material or in air
useful
gap fluxs,  a
» In air gap – useful fluxes
• Occurs at the magnetic source air gap,
(useful fluxs)
– As shown in figure →
magnetic
totalflux leakage Source, NI
leakage _ factor,a = flux, l
usefulflux
Total
flux, T
 Magnetic leakage and Fringing
• Fringing
• Occurs at the air gap
• Flux intends to bulge outwards
» Increasing the effective area
» Reduce the flux density
As shown in Figure in previous slide
(still useful flux)
• More information on Fringing & leakage flux

23
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Circuit


i
lc
+
N F S
-

Equivalent circuit
E R
Analogy between magnetic
circuit and electric circuit
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

Term Symbol Term Symbol
Magnetic flux  Electric current I

Flux density B Current density J

Magnetic field strength H Electric field strength E

Magnetomotive force F Electromotive force E

Permeability  Permittivity e

Reluctance S Resistance R
 Electromagnetism

Series Magnetic Circuit l

c


with air gap i Sc

+
N lg F
-
Sg

lc lg
Sc = ; Sg =
 c Ac  0 Ag
Ni
 = → Ni = H c l c + H g l g
SC + S g
Flux density
c g
Bc = ; Bg =
Ac Ag
 Electromagnetism

Circuit Analogy
 Electromagnetism

Series composite magnetic circuit

with different material Sa

iron steel 
i
Sb
+
N F
-
cobalt Sc

la lb lc
Sa = ; Sb = ; Sc =
 a Aa b Ab  c Ac
Ni
= → Ni = H a la + H blb + H c lc
S a + Sb + Sc
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism

Example 3
A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring
having a mean circumference of 600mm and a uniform cross-
sectional area of 500mm2. if the current through the coil is 4A,
calculate
(a) the magnetic field strength
(b) the flux density
(c) the total flux
( 1333.33A/m, 1.676mT,0.838µWb)
 Electromagnetism

Example 4
Calculate the magnetomotive force required to produce a flux
of 0.015Wb across an air gap 2.5mm long, having effective
area of 200cm2
(1492At)
 Electromagnetism

Example 5
A mild-steel ring having a cross- sectional area of 500 mm2 and
a mean circumference of 400mm has a coil 0f 200 turns
wound uniformly around it. The relative permeability of the
mild steel for the respective flux density is about 380.
Calculate
(a) the reluctance of the ring
(b) the current required to produce a flux of 800µWb in the
ring
(1.68 x 106 At/Wb, 6.7A)
 Electromagnetism

Example 6
The Figure represents the magnetic
circuit of a relay. The coil has 500
turns and the mean core path is lc = lg
360 mm. When the air-gap lengths
are 1.5 mm each, a flux density of  Movable
0.8 Tesla is required to actuate the i part
relay. The core is cast steel with the
field intensity 510 At/m. Find the N
current in the coil.
(4.19 A)
Compute the values of permeability
and relative permeability of the core.
(1.57 x 10-3 Wb/Am, 1250)
If the air-gap is zero, find the current
in the coil for the same flux density
(0.8 T) in the core. (0.368 A)
 Electromagnetism

❑ Example 7
(a) consider fringing effect (2.012A) (b) neglect fringing effect
 Electromagnetism

❑Example 8
If the iron in example 7 is cut at a length of
2mm, calculate the current required to produce
a flux of 1mWb in the air gap. The leakage factor
is 1.3. The relative permeability of the material
at this condition is 300 and fringing effect can be
neglected (25.2A).
 Electromagnetism

Example 9
A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series
each of uniform cross-sectional area (A). They are:

(a) a length of 80 mm and A= 50 mm2

(b) a length of 60 mm and A = 90 mm2
(c) an air gap of length 0.5 mm and A = 150 mm2

A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b) and the flux density in the air gap
is 0.3 T. Assuming that all the flux passes through the given circuit, and the
relative permeability is 1300, estimate the coil current to produce such a
flux density
(45.43mA)
• Example 10
An iron has a mean length of 750mm and cross
sectional area of 500 mm2 is wound with
magnetization coil that has 120 turns. By using
the following data, calculate the current
required to build a flux of 630 uWb in the ring
B (T) 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.26
H (A/m) 260 450 600 700
 Electromagnetism

Series Parallel Magnetic Circuit

 2
i

Kirchoff Laws : N 

1 =  2 +  3
loop 1: NI = H1l1 + H 3l3 1

loop 2 : H 3l 3 = H 2 l 2 


+
F 1 S3 2 S2
-
 Electromagnetism

Series Parallel  

Magnetic Circuit i
N

Kirchoff Laws :
 3 = 1 +  2  

loop 1: NI = H 3l3 + H1l ` S3

NI = H 3l3 + H 2 l 2
S1 1 2 S2
loop 2 : +
F
-
 Electromagnetism

Series Parallel  

Magnetic Circuit with Air 

i
Gap N

Kirchoff Laws :
 3 = 1 +  2 
g


loop 1: NI = H 3l3 + H s ls + H1l1 1


S3 2
S1 S2

loop 2 : NI = H 3l3 + H s ls + H 2 l 2 +
F
-
 Example 11
• An iron core as shown in figure below has a square cross sectional area
2cmx2cm and relative permeability = 1000. A coil of 500 turns is wound in
the centre limb and carries a current, I = 2A.Calculate the flux density at
each of the air gap.
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field Intensity and Ampère’s Law

B = H
 0 = 4  10−7 Wb Am
r =
0
Ampère’s Law:

 H  dl =  i
 Electromagnetism

Ampere’s Law
 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field Around a Long Straight

Wire

I
B = H =
2r
 Electromagnetism

• Ampere’s Law
 Electromagnetism

Flux Linkages and Faraday’s Law

 =  B  dA  = N
A

Faraday’s law of magnetic induction:

d
e=
dt
Faraday’s law
 Electromagnetism

Lenz’s Law states that the polarity of the

induced voltage is such that the voltage would
produce a current (through an external
resistance) that opposes the original change in
flux linkages
Lenz’s Law
 Electromagnetism

Electromagnetic
Induction S
A B G
▪ Faraday has made the great
discovery of electromagnet
induction, namely a method of
obtaining an electric current with
the aid of magnetic flux.
▪ When a conductor cuts or is cut
by a magnetic flux, an e.m.f is
generated in the conductor. S N G

C
 Electromagnetism

Direction of e.m.f
▪ Fleming’s right-hand rule
First finger
Flux
Thumb
Motion of conductor

▪ Lenz’s law Second finger

e.m.f
• The direction of an induced
e.m.f is always such that it
tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the
change of flux responsible for
inducing that e.m.f
 Electromagnetism

If a conductor cuts or is cut

by a flux of dΦ webers in dt
seconds, e.m.f generated in X

conductor

The average e.m.f induced S N

in one turn is Motion

C
e.m.f induced in a coil:
 Electromagnetism

The emf induced in electric circuit

di
e = −L
dt
Equating expressions of e.m.f induced in magnetic circuit and
electric circuit: di d
−L = −N
dt dt

d change of flux linkages

L=N =
di change of current
L is the self-inductance in Henry, or simply the inductance.
F l
For = and S=
S 0r A
 Electromagnetism- Mutual Inductances

Mutual Inductances

 
S
Self-inductances of A and B are
A B G

N A A N A2  A N A2
LA = = =
IA I ANA S
N B B N B2
LB = =
IB S
 Electromagnetism- Mutual Inductances

I AN A IB NB
S= =
A B
N B A N N 
M = = A B A
IA IANA
NANB
M =
S
N A2 N B2
L A LB = = M 2

S2
Mutual Inductance:
M = L A LB
 Electromagnetism- Mutual Inductances

Mutual Inductance:
M = L A LB
When there is flux leakage occurs

M = k LA LB
where k = is coupling coefficient = 0 – 1
k = 1 when the magnetic leakage is zero
 Electromagnetism- Mutual Inductances

Example 12
A ferromagnetic ring of cross-sectional 800mm2 and of mean
radius 170mm has two windings connected in series, one of
500 turns and one of 700 turns. If the relative permeability is
1200, calculate the self-inductance of each coil and the
mutual inductance of each assuming that there is no flux
leakage.
( 0.283H, 0.552H, 0.395H)
 Electromagnetism- Mutual Inductances

• Example 13
• A toroid is wound with two coils having N1 =
100 turns and N2 = 200 turns. The reluctance
of the core is 10^7 At/Wb. Determine the self
reluctance and mutual inductance of the coil,
assuming that the flux in the core link both
coils (no magnetic leakage)
 Quiz 1
• The electromagnet shown in figure below can be used to lift a length of
steel strip. The coil has 500 turns and carry a current of 20A without
overheating. The magnet material has negligible reluctance at flux
densities up to 1.4 tesla. Determine the maximum air gap for which a flux
density of 1.4 T can be establish with a coil current of 20A. Neglect
magnetic leakage and fringing of flux at the air gap. (unit in mm)
 Electromagnetism

Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field

▪ Consider a current increasing at uniform rate in a
coil having a constant inductance L henrys.

i
l Cross-sectional
N area

A
 Electromagnetism

Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field

▪ If the current increases by di amperes in dt
seconds, the induced e.m.f
di
e = −L
dt
▪ And if i is the value of the current at that
instant, energy absorbed by the magnetic field
during time dt seconds
di
iL. .dt = Li.di joules
dt
 Electromagnetism

Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field

▪ Hence total energy absorbed by the magnetic field
when the current increases from 0 to I amperes is

 
I
1 2
E = L  i. di = L  i
I
0
0
2
E= 1
2 LI 2 joule
 Electromagnetism

Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field

▪ Since inductance

 AN2
L= Henry
l
▪ Hence
 AN2  2
E= 1
2  I
 l 
= 1
 H 2 Al
?
2
 Energy stored in Magnetic circuit

• Example 14
• Given the self reluctance of coil A is 20mH, coil
B is 10 mH and mutual inductance between A
& B is 5mH. If a current 0.5A flows through
coil A and 2A flows through coil B, calculate:
a) Two possible values of energy stored in the
magnetic field
b) Coupling coefficient
 Electromagnetism- magnetic core loss

The relationship between B and H is not linear for the

types of iron used in motors and transformers.
Electromagnetism

B
W
Wv = =  H dB
Al 0
 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis

The relationship between B and H is complicated

by non-linearity and “hysteresis”
▪ Can be used to calculate µ
 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis

Hysterisis
 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis loop
Uniform distribution

From Faraday's law

Where A is the cross section area

 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis Loss

Field energy
Input power :

Input energy from t1 to t2

where Vcore is the volume of

the core
 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis Loss

• One cycle energy loss

where is the closed area of B-H

hysteresis loop
• Hysteresis power loss

where f is the operating frequency and T

is the period
 Electromagnetism- Hysteresis Loss

Empirical equation

Summary : Hysteresis loss is proportional to f and

ABH
 Electromagnetism- Eddy Current Loss

Eddy current
Along the closed path, apply Faraday's law

where A is the closed area

Changes in B → = BA changes

→induce e.m.f along the closed path

→produce circulating circuit (eddy current) in the core

Eddy current loss

where R is the equivalent resistance along the
closed path
 Electromagnetism- Eddy Current Loss

How to reduce Eddy current loss

– Use high resistively core material
e.g. silicon steel, ferrite core (semiconductor)
– Use laminated core
To decrease the area closed
by closed path

Lamination thickness
0.5~5mm for machines, transformers at line frequency
0.01~0.5mm for high frequency devices
 Electromagnetism- Eddy Current Loss

Calculation of eddy current loss

– Finite element analysis
Use software: Ansys®, Maxwell®, Femlab®, etc

– Empirical equation
 Electromagnetism- Core Loss

Core Loss
▪ Hysterisis loss
• the loss of power in the core due to the hysterisis effect
• Proportional to frequency
▪ Eddy current loss
• power loss occurs when the flux density changes rapidly in
the core
• Proportional to the square of the frequency

Pc = Ph + Pe
where Ph = hysteresis loss
Pe = eddy current loss