Red Onions, Elodea, or Decalcified Chicken Eggs?

Selecting & Sequencing

Representations for Teaching Diffusion & Osmosis
Author(s): Deanna Lankford and Patricia Friedrichsen
Source: The American Biology Teacher, 74(6):392-399.
Published By: National Association of Biology Teachers
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1525/abt.2012.74.6.7

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 ARTICLE Red Onions, Elodea, or Decalcified
Chicken Eggs? Selecting &
Sequencing Representations for
Teaching Diffusion & Osmosis

D E A N N A L A N K F O R D,
PAT R I C I A F R I E D R I C H S E N

ABSTRACT representations is important and requires teachers to have significant

Diffusion and osmosis are important biological concepts that students often struggle to content knowledge as well as an understanding of what constitutes an
understand. These are important concepts because they are the basis for many com- effective representation (Roth et al., 2005). Below are guidelines for
plex biological processes, such as photosynthesis and cellular respiration. We examine effectively using representations as teaching tools:
a wide variety of representations used by experienced teachers to teach diffusion and
osmosis. To help teachers select appropriate representations for their students, we briefly 1. Use representations as demonstrations or student explorations
describe each representation and discuss its pros and cons. After teachers select represen- during instruction to enhance understanding (Cook, 2006).
tations, we offer recommendations for sequencing them. We recommend beginning with
2. Engage students with animations to visualize dynamic phenomena
macroscopic-level representations that easily allow students to visualize the phenom-
(Cook, 2006).
enon, then moving to microscopic-level representations (cell-level), and finally exploring
the phenomenon at the molecular level using virtual representations. 3. Have students explore multiple representations of the same phe-
nomena, stressing common features across the representations to
Key Words: Osmosis; diffusion; representations; models; sequencing. avoid confusion (Cook, 2006).
4. Start with familiar, concrete representations (macroscopic level)
that connect with students’ prior knowledge (e.g., wilting lettuce)
Students often struggle to understand diffusion and osmosis and, as a
(Moreno et al., 2011).
result, have difficulty predicting the direction of osmosis, visualizing
individual particles undergoing diffusion and osmosis, and making sense 5. Sequence representations from the most concrete (real objects)
of vocabulary terms. Diffusion and osmosis are challenging concepts to the most abstract (formulas and textbook readings) (Olson,
2008).
for students because visualizing the movement of individual particles
at the cellular level and predicting the direction 6. After exploring the actual phenomenon, use
of osmosis requires students to understand and virtual representations (i.e., simulations) to
integrate concepts in physics, chemistry, and
Representations provide explore the phenomenon at the molecular
level.
biology (Odom & Barrow, 2007). Conceptual concrete models to support
understanding is important and provides a basis In the following sections, we apply these guide-
for explaining complex biological processes, students’ visualization of lines to examine commonly used and innova-
including photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and tive representations for teaching diffusion and
homeostasis (Zuckerman, 1993; Odom, 1995).
abstract processes. osmosis (see Table 1). We are not suggesting
Here, we examine commonly used demonstra- that teachers use all of the representations; our
tions, laboratory activities, and innovative computer simulations to offer goal is to help teachers select and sequence representations. We recom-
guidelines for selecting and sequencing representations for teaching dif- mend that the sequence begin with macroscopic representations, move
fusion and osmosis. on to microscopic, and ultimately focus on virtual representations to
examine diffusion and osmosis at the molecular level. We provide the
J Using Representations pros and cons for each representation in the table below to make that
task easier.
Representations provide concrete models to support students’ visual-
ization of abstract processes. Hands-on representations offer students J Representations for Diffusion
opportunities to make and test predictions, engage in problem solving,
and integrate new understanding with their existing knowledge (Roth Diffusion is the tendency for molecules of any substance to spread
et al., 2005; Cook, 2006; Hubber et al., 2010). Selecting appropriate out into available space, moving from regions of greater to lesser

The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 74, No. 6, pages 392–399. ISSN 0002-7685, electronic ISSN 1938-4211. ©2012 by National Association of Biology Teachers. All rights reserved.
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DOI: 10.1525/abt.2012.74.6.7

392 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER VOLUME 74, NO. 6, AUGUST 2012
Table 1. Representation continuum.
Representation Macroscopic Microscopic Virtual
Food dye in hot or cold water
X
t
Represents rates of diffusion in relation to energy within the solvent
Cologne in a latex balloon
X
DIFFUSION

t
Particles of cologne diffuse through balloon

India ink in a drop of water
t
Diffusion observed with microscope X
t
Rate of diffusion changes as slide warms
Molecular Logic
t
Computer program simulates diffusion under conditions X
manipulated by students
Potato slices
t
Observe direction of osmosis X
OSMOSIS

MACRO

t
Potato slices placed in saline or distilled water

Lettuce leaves
t
Observe direction of osmosis X
t
Lettuce leaves placed in distilled water or a saline solution
Elodea leaves or red onion cells
t
Osmosis observed in cells within Elodea leaf or red onion
X
t
Leaf/onion peel is exposed to a 20% sucrose solution or
distilled water
Decalcified chicken eggs
t
Osmosis observed in decalcified chicken eggs X
CELLULAR LEVEL

t
Eggs exposed to corn syrup or distilled water

OSMOSIS

Dialysis tubing
t
Osmosis and diffusion observed X
t
Semipermeable membrane observed
Baggies
t
Osmosis and diffusion observed X
t
Semipermeable membrane observed
Molecular Logic
t
Computer simulation of osmosis in virtual cells
X
t
Virtual environment manipulated
t
Observation of osmosis at molecular level

concentrations, and is ultimately driven by random molecular motion
(Campbell & Reece, 2001). Our goal is to provide teachers with repre-
sentations of diffusion that address the dynamic nature of the process and
emphasize the role of random molecular motion. Diffusion is a critical
concept and serves as a basis for understanding osmosis. We suggest ini-
tially building student understanding with concrete (i.e., macroscopic)
followed by abstract (i.e., virtual) representations of diffusion prior to
teaching osmosis (see Table 2).
J Macroscopic Representations
Diffusion of Food Dye in Water
Diffusion of food dye in water is easy for students to observe and provides
a concrete experience with the phenomenon. Relative rates of diffusion
can be contrasted if two beakers are used. One beaker should contain
heated water and the other should contain cold water to emphasize the
critical role of kinetic energy. Portrayed as a dynamic process affected by
levels of kinetic energy within the system, this representation supports
students’ understanding of diffusion as a process driven by molecular
motion and influenced by kinetic energy. It is important to note, how-
ever, that while diffusion is occurring, students are also observing advec-
tion or motion resulting from currents forming within the heated water.
Diffusion alone cannot account for all the movement of the food dye
in heated water. We suggest engaging students in a discussion focused
on diffusion of food dye as well as the influence of larger-scale motion
resulting from currents in the heated water.
Diffusion of Cologne through a Latex Balloon
This representation is a great way to engage students with diffusion
through a semipermeable membrane. Before inflating a balloon, add sev-
eral drops of cologne, then inflate and seal the balloon. The cologne
evaporates within the balloon, mixing with trapped air, and gradually

THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER DIFFUSION & OSMOSIS 393

Table 2. Representations for diffusion.
Representations for Diffusion
Representation Description Evidence of Diffusion Pros Cons
Food dye in Drops of food dye are Slow diffusion of food dye Minimal teacher Students infer
water placed in a beaker of very into cold water. preparation; materials explanation for rates
cold water. are easily accessible. of diffusion.
Rapid diffusion of food dye
Drops of food dye are into hot water.
placed in a beaker of very
MACROSCOPIC

hot water.
Balloon and Several drops of cologne Cologne diffuses through Minimal teacher Emphasizes diffusion
cologne are placed in a balloon, the balloon into the preparation; accessible of gases rather than
which is inflated and classroom. Students detect materials. liquids.
passed among the the scent while passing
students. the balloon. Emphasizes Students infer
diffusion through explanation of
This representation includes a semipermeable diffusion through
diffusion of a substance membrane. a semipermeable
through a semipermeable membrane.
membrane.
India ink and A single drop of India ink Heat from the microscope Movement of carbon Prepare students to
MICROSCOPIC

water is place in several drops bulb increases the kinetic particles in India ink use microscopes.
of water on a microscope energy of the system, model diffusion.
slide. resulting in increasingly Expense and
rapid molecular motion availability of
and diffusion of the ink in India ink.
the water.
Molecular Teachers and students Manipulation of computer Visualization of Requires Internet
Logic Project access Molecular Logic software to visualize diffusion at molecular connection and
VIRTUAL

database through URL: diffusion at molecular level. computers.

http://molo.concord.org/ level and impact of kinetic
(database of biological energy on the rate of
representations at the diffusion.
molecular level).

diffuses through the latex membrane, resulting in a pervasive scent
within the classroom. The representation provides an introduction to
semipermeable membranes, making connections between the apparent
odor of the cologne and passage of only certain materials through the
latex membrane. Diffusion of gases is emphasized in this representation,
and it is important to note that gases, like liquids, diffuse from regions
of greater to lesser concentration. It is also important to note that air
currents within the classroom may influence the diffusion of cologne
particles.
J Microscopic Representations
Diffusion of India Ink
Place a single drop of India ink in several drops of water on a microscope
slide. India ink consists of particles of carbon in suspension and provides
an opportunity for students to observe the diffusion of particles over
time. As the slide is warmed by the microscope light, students can see
changes in the rate of diffusion. For this representation, pairs of students
can use microscopes to observe diffusion or, if a digital microscope is
available, the teacher may choose to project the slide for the whole class.
India ink is available at art supply stores.
J Virtual Representations
Virtual Diffusion Representations at an Atomic Level
The Molecular Logic (MoLo) Project (Concord Consortium, 2001) is a
collection of simulations created to support students’ understanding of
biological phenomena at the molecular level (http://molo.concord.org/).
The site provides activities for students to explore and manipulate diffu-
sion and investigate the relationship between kinetic energy and the rate
of diffusion at the molecular level. We recommend the following MoLo
diffusion activities:
UÊ The Molecular Dynamics Introductory Activity Assessment (models/
DiffusionAssessment/diffusionAssessment2.cml) is an excellent
activity that builds upon the cologne/balloon representation. In
this activity, students manipulate the room temperature to observe
changes in the random movement of cologne molecules in the air.
UÊ Thermal (Brownian) Motion: Atoms and Molecules are Always
Moving (http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/40.html). Stu-
dents observe the effect of temperature change on Brownian move-
ment at the molecular level. This brief activity includes a historical
account of Robert Brown’s discovery and connects Brownian move-
ment to why refrigeration slows food spoilage.

394 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER VOLUME 74, NO. 6, AUGUST 2012
MoLo requires a computer with an Internet connection and data pro-
jector, or a class set of laptops for students to work in pairs. The teacher
should download the software in advance, in case there are Internet
security issues to address at the building level. The MoLo searchable
database reduces the amount of teacher time necessary to find appro-
priate representations. A distinct advantage of a virtual representation
is that students can manipulate the virtual model to visualize molecular
interactions and the effects of environmental conditions (e.g., tempera-
ture) on the rate of diffusion. Furthermore, the website can be used as a
teacher-directed demonstration or student-directed virtual investigation.
Student responses can be captured in two ways: students can print their
responses or, with a free class registration, teachers can access an elec-
tronic file of student responses.
J Representations of Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable mem-
brane driven by a variation in solute concentrations on either side of
the membrane (Campbell & Reece, 2001). The semipermeable mem-
brane allows diffusion of water molecules but prevents diffusion of sol-
utes. The direction of osmosis is driven by relative concentrations of
dissolved solids (e.g., tonicity) on either side of a semipermeable mem-
brane. Hypotonic solutions contain only minimal solute concentrations
and greater concentrations of water. Hypertonic solutions contain greater
solute concentrations and lesser concentrations of water. Hence, water
diffuses from hypotonic (areas of greater water concentration) regions to
hypertonic (areas of lesser water concentration) regions. We recommend
that these terms, if taught at all, be introduced after students develop a
conceptual understanding of the phenomenon.
J Sequence of Representations for
Osmosis
We recommend that teachers initially engage students with macroscopic
representations of osmosis (see Table 3). Potato slices and lettuce leaves
placed in saline or distilled water allow students to observe the phenom-
enon and note resulting variations in turgidity.
J Macroscopic Plant Representations
of Osmosis
Potato Slices
Cut equal-sized slices of a peeled raw potato. Record the initial mass of
the slices before placing one slice in a hypotonic solution (0% NaCl),
one slice in a hypertonic solution (5% NaCl), and the third slice in
Table 3. Plant structures as macroscopic representations.
External
Representation Environment Osmosis
Potato slices or lettuce Hypertonic, Observed through
leaves (placed in hypotonic, changes in
solutions of varying or isotonic turgidity; individual
concentrations) environments cells are not
observed.
THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER
an isotonic solution (0.9% NaCl). Have students record their indi-
vidual predictions, and then share their predictions and explanation
with a classmate. Allow the potato slices to remain in each solution
overnight before observing and massing the slices a second time. The
laboratory works well as a teacher-led demonstration or as a student
investigation.
Lettuce Leaves
Lettuce leaves are placed in solutions of varying salt concentration (0%
NaCl; 5% NaCl; 0.9% NaCl). Students make observations of lettuce leaves
before and after placing leaves in solutions of varying concentrations.
J Cellular-Level Representations
of Osmosis
After investigating the wilting lettuce leaves or potato slices, we recom-
mend engaging students with microscopic and macroscopic representa-
tions of osmosis at the cellular level. Elodea leaf cells, red onion cells,
decalcified eggs, dialysis tubing, and plastic baggies are common micro-
scopic and macroscopic representations at the cellular level. Effective
representations allow students to manipulate the solute concentration
within the environment while making and testing predictions of the
resulting direction of osmosis. Challenge students to make and test pre-
dictions prior to exposing cells to hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic
environments. Findings at the cellular level are used to explain changes
in turgidity within the lettuce leaves and potato slices used earlier. We
explore the pros and cons of each of these cellular-level models in the
following sections.
Elodea Leaf or Red Onion Cells
Elodea leaf cells or the pigmented epidermal layer of a red onion are
excellent microscopic representations of osmosis at the cellular level (see
Table 4). Elodea can be stored in an aquarium prior to use. We sug-
gest that students take younger leaves from the tip of the Elodea branch.
The pigmented epidermal layer of red onion should be carefully peeled
for viewing. Students need to be able to make wet-mount slides and
focus microscopes. Distilled water and a 20% sucrose solution (dissolve
20 g of sucrose in 100 mL of distilled water) provide the hypotonic and
hypertonic solutions, respectively.
There are several challenges with these representations. First, stu-
dents tend to focus on the tissue as a whole, rather than on individual
cells; be sure to focus attention on single cells within the leaf. Second, stu-
dents are often distracted by the chloroplasts in Elodea cells and require
guidance to observe the effect of osmosis on the central vacuole. Third,
review plant structures and remind students that the cell wall remains
Evidence Pro Con
Lettuce leaves/ Changes in Individual cells are
potato slices direction and not visible.
become flaccid in rate of osmosis Students must
the saline solution are linked to infer changes at
and turgid in changes in cellular the cellular level.
distilled water. environment.
DIFFUSION & OSMOSIS 395
Table 4. Microscopic representations for osmosis in living cells.
External
Representation Environment Osmosis Evidence Pro Con
Elodea leaf cells Distilled water Water moves Enlargement of central Elodea is available Microscopes are needed.
or red onion cells into cells. vacuole at pet stores. Red
20% sucrose Water moves Contraction of central onions are sold at Chloroplasts in
solution out of cells. vacuoles; chloroplasts grocery stores. Elodea cells may be a
clustered tightly together distraction for students.
within Elodea cells

Table 5. Macroscopic observation of osmosis in decalcified chicken eggs.

External
Representation Environment Osmosis Evidence Pro Con
Decalcified Distilled water Water moves Egg volume increases; Increase or decrease Eggs are delicate
chicken eggs through the egg appears in egg volume and and may break.
membrane of the significantly larger; mass are easy for
egg. mass increases. students to observe. Only corn
Corn syrup Water moves Egg volume decreases; syrup should
through the egg appears shriveled; Eggs are be used; saline
membrane out of mass decreases. inexpensive and will denature
the egg. easily obtained. membrane.

Figure 1. Decalcified egg in corn syrup.

constant while the central vacuole will swell or shrink, depending on the
direction of osmosis. Emphasize the storage of pigment within the central
vacuole of red onion cells. Instruct students to draw their observations,
noting differences between the cells within hypotonic and hypertonic
environments. Pairs of students can observe cells through microscopes,
or the teacher could use these representations as a demonstration using
a digital microscope and projecting the images.
Decalcified Chicken Eggs
A chicken egg is an excellent macroscopic representation of osmosis in
animal cells (see Table 5). When the shell of a chicken egg is removed,
a large single cell surrounded by a semipermeable membrane remains
intact. We suggest that students quantify changes in the decalcified eggs
prior to and following exposure to hypertonic (corn syrup) and hypotonic
Figure 2. Egg comparison: (left) hypotonic solution and
(right) hypertonic solution.
(distilled water) environments by carefully massing the eggs, preferably
with an electronic balance, and using water displacement to determine
egg volume. Use corn syrup to create a hypertonic environment rather
than a saline solution because sodium and chloride ions have the poten-
tial to denature the membrane and alter results. A layer of water forms
on the surface of the corn syrup after ~24 hours (see Figure 1). Ask
students to look for this layer prior to removing the egg. The eggs will
vary dramatically; the egg exposed to distilled water will gain significant
mass and volume while the egg in corn syrup will shrivel with the yolk
readily visible (see Figure 2). After observing the eggs and quantifying
changes in mass and volume, challenge students to predict how the eggs

396 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER VOLUME 74, NO. 6, AUGUST 2012
would change if placed in the opposite environment. Reversing the eggs
demonstrates the impact of tonicity on the direction of osmosis. Remind
students to handle eggs carefully; membranes are delicate, although they
remain intact for several days.
Prepare the eggs prior to the lab: place eggs in vinegar (acetic acid)
for approximately 24–36 hours to dissolve the shell. Carefully rinse the
eggs in tap water to remove shell residue. The remaining membrane is
permeable to water, allowing water to diffuse into or out of the egg.
Additional teacher preparation requires providing distilled water and
corn syrup for the hypotonic and hypertonic environments. This repre-
sentation has many advantages, in that chicken eggs are easy for students
to handle and observe, are readily available, and are inexpensive.
Dialysis Tubing & Baggies
Artificial cells made of dialysis tubing or baggies make excellent mac-
roscopic representations for both diffusion and osmosis (Zrelak &
McCallister, 2009). Dialysis tubing must be ordered from a biological
supply house and may be expensive; however, inexpensive store-brand
baggies provide a readily accessible replacement for dialysis tubing. (Test
the brand beforehand to ensure that it is semipermeable.) Teacher prepa-
ration involves making a 5% glucose solution (dissolve 5 g of glucose in
100 cm of water), a 20% corn starch solution (dissolve 20 g of corn starch
in 100 cm of water), and providing baggies or cutting dialysis tubing into
approximately 20-cm lengths and placing the tubing in water prior to
the investigation (see Table 6). Dialysis tubing and baggies are semi-
permeable membranes that restrict passage to small molecules (water,
iodine, and glucose) and prevent passage of corn starch (large polysac-
charide molecules). Use string to tie off dialysis tubing or baggies after
placing 5 mL of the glucose solution and 10 mL of the starch solution
in the tubing/baggie. The direction of osmosis into the bag is obvious as
iodine (a small molecule) diffuses through the membrane with distilled
water and reacts with the starch, turning contents into a dark blue or
black. Use glucose test strips to test for the presence of glucose in the
distilled water and iodine solution prior to the immersion of the dialysis
tubing or baggie and at the close of the investigation. Students will note
a positive test for glucose at the close of the investigation, indicating that
glucose molecules diffused from greater to lesser concentrations.
The strengths of these representations include the following: (a) they
highlight the nature of a semipermeable membrane as water, glucose,
and iodine easily pass through the membrane but starch remains within
the artificial cell; (b) diffusion of substances can be tracked along
concentration gradients (e.g., water, iodine, and glucose all diffuse from
regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration);
(c) the direction of osmosis is clearly evident as the dialysis tubing or
baggie gain mass and volume; (d) the diffusion of iodine is emphasized
by color change; and (e) glucose is detectable in the distilled water out-
side the artificial cell only at the close of the investigation. It is impor-
tant to note that dialysis tubing and baggies can be difficult to tie off,
potentially resulting in a false positive for starch in the beaker solution.
We suggest that students twist and fold over the tubing or baggie before
tying off to prevent leakage.
Virtual Osmosis
Virtual representations of osmosis allow students to visualize it at the
molecular level (see Table 7). MoLo is open-source computer software
and offers several free osmosis simulations (Concord Consortium, 2001).
We recommend the MoLo activity “Osmosis,” which allows students to
manipulate the solute concentrate inside and outside the cell and observe
the results (Figure 3). The representation shows (a) random movement
of particles on either side of the cell membrane, (b) a graph of pressure
inside and outside the cell, and (c) movement of molecules through the
cell membrane (http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/233.html).
Virtual representations require an in-class computer and projector or a
classroom set of student computers. Virtual representations are powerful
tools for engaging students in visualizing osmosis at the molecular level.
J Assessment
Formative assessments are critical tools for gauging the effectiveness of
representations. To assess student thinking, challenge students to make
and test predictions when manipulating representations. Student predic-
tions can reveal misconceptions that will need to be addressed. Student
predictions also provide insight into conceptual understanding during
instruction. Assess student understanding of each representation and
have students identify common features across representations. For
example, baggies and plant cells are both semipermeable structures,
allowing certain materials to pass through.
J Summary
It is important to critically select representations to support stu-
dent learning of abstract concepts, such as diffusion and osmosis. We

Table 6. Representations for osmosis in artificial cells.

External
Contents Environment Diffusion Osmosis Direction Evidence Pro Con
Water, Iodine and Glucose Out of cell Positive Dialysis tubing Dialysis
Dialysis Tubing

glucose, and distilled water glucose test is selectively tubing must

starch solution permeable. be ordered
Iodine Into cell Color change and is costly.
Water Into cell Mass increase

Water, Iodine and Glucose Out of cell Positive Baggies are selec- Use only thin,
Baggie

glucose, and distilled water glucose test tively permeable, store-brand

starch solution Iodine Into cell Color change easily accessible baggies.
and in-expensive.
Water Into cell Mass increase

THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER DIFFUSION & OSMOSIS 397

Table 7. Virtual representations of osmosis.
Cellular External
Representation Contents Environment Osmosis Evidence Pro Con
A virtual cell in Cellular Virtual solute Direction of Illustrates Visualization of Computer and
a solution can contents concentration osmosis varies direction osmosis at the data projector
be manipulated remain within external with changes of osmosis molecular level. are required for
to include constant. environment to the external as students demonstration.
greater or lesser can be environment. manipulate Manipulation of
concentrations of manipulated. solute virtual environment Laptops are
solute. concentration to test predictions required
of the external of the direction of for student
environment. osmosis. investigation.
http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/223.html

Figure 3. MoLo Osmosis model.

recommend that teachers initially engage students with concrete exam-
ples of diffusion and then move to simulations that allow students to see
the movement of individual molecules. Focus on rates of diffusion within
environments with varying levels of kinetic energy to emphasize random
molecular motion along a conc0entration gradient as driving forces for
diffusion. Virtual representations help students visualize diffusion at the
molecular level while manipulating available kinetic energy to observe
resulting changes in the rate of diffusion.
Progressing from diffusion to osmosis builds upon students’ knowl-
edge and experience with the concept of diffusion. Engage students ini-
tially with osmosis through observations of familiar examples, such as
loss of turgor pressure in plants (lettuce leaves or potato slices). Next,
challenge students to collect data and formulate explanations through
explorations of osmosis within microscopic and macroscopic cellular
representations. Virtual representations allow students to visualize the
movement of molecules through cell membranes. Effective molecular-
level representations allow students to manipulate the solute concen-
tration within the environment while making and testing predictions of
the resulting direction of osmosis into or out of the cell (Sanger et al.,
2001). Using models to teach osmosis illustrates how scientists generate,
test, and modify models in an attempt to understand how the natural
world works (Bogiages & Lotter, 2011). Teach the concept of osmosis
through manipulation of models (e.g., living and artificial cells) before
introducing vocabulary terms (e.g., hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic). In
closing, we recommend the use of multiple representations to teach dif-
fusion and osmosis, with careful attention to the sequencing of represen-
tations from concrete (macroscopic) to abstract (virtual representations
at the molecular level).
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meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching,
Atlanta, GA, April 17, 1993. Available online at http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/
ED360176.pdf.
DEANNA LANKFORD is a Research Associate at the University of Missouri Science
Education Center, 321 Townsend Hall, Columbia, MO 65211; e-mail: lankfordd@
missouri.edu. PATRICIA FRIEDRICHSEN is Associate Professor of Learning, Teach-
ing, & Curriculum at the University of Missouri, 321-E Townsend Hall, Columbia,
MO 65211; e-mail: friedrichsenp@missouri.edu.

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