DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

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Student’s Name S.A.S. Lakmal

Student’s Reg No 197828401807

Year/Semester 2024/First Semester

Program BEEE

Subject Name / Power System Protection/ 3233

Subject Code

Lecturer’s Name Mr. Dhanushka Madhusanka

Assignment Title
Assingment 02
Types of Relay

No. of Page
(excluding this page) 15

Required words Actual # of words

Soft copy included Yes Y / No

DECLARATION BY STUDENTS:
I certify that this assignment is my own work in my own words. All resources have been
acknowledged and the content has not been previously submitted for assessment to LINCOLN or
elsewhere. I also confirm that I have kept a copy of this assignment.

Signed: Date: 04/05/2025

 DISTANCE PROTECTIVE RELAY
Distance relays are the most important distance protection elements, which depend on the distance of
the source/feeder point and the point where the fault occurs. The principle of these relays differs from
one form of protection to others because its performance depends on the ratio of voltage and current.
These are said to be double actuator relays because one coil is energized by voltage and the other coil
is energized by the current. This type of relays are most widely used where there is a need for fault
protection, backup protection in transmission and distribution lines at high speeds, and also when the
overcurrent relaying is very slow.

As the distance relay depends on the ratio of voltage and current values, they are classified into
following types. They are,

 Simple impedance relay.

 Impedance relay
 Reactance relay
 Admittance relay
 Mho offset relay
 Polarized Mho relay.

SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY

A simple impedance relay is a type of protective relay used in electrical power systems to detect faults,
particularly in transmission lines.

A simple example of measuring impedance of the line up to the point of fault is shown in Fig. (5.15).
The relay is connected at point R and the two coils of the relay operating and restraining coils receive
current (iF) and voltage (vF) proportional to the fault current IF and the faulted loop voltage VF. Below

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a particular value of Z=V/I the relay operates, whereas above this value of Z the relay restrains; it is
possible to select a setting comparable to the length of the line to be protected.

Strictly speaking the impedance seen by the relay is not proportional to the distance between the relay
and the fault in general, because of the following reasons:

1. Presence of resistance at the fault location.

2. Presence of loads and/or generating sources between the relay and the fault location, etc. Many
a time for selective operation the relay requires the measurement of not only the magnitude but
also the angle of the impedance of the line up to the fault point. Effect of the Ratio Source
Impedance to Line Impedance (ZS/ZL)

The system represented by a single line diagram shown in Fig. (5.16) representing the source and the
line to be protected, R being the relay location.

This simple impedance loop has a voltage V applied to it which actually depends on the type of fault
whether phase fault or ground fault. ZS and ZL are the source impedance and the line impedance
respectively. ZS is a measure of fault MVA at the relaying point, and for faults involving earth, is also
dependent on the method of system earthing behind the relaying point. Z L is a measure of the impedance
of the protected section. IR and VR are the current and voltage applied to the relay respectively. The
voltage VR applied to the relay is thus IRZL for a fault at the reach point, and this may be alternatively
expressed in terms of ZS/ZL ratio:

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The basic operating principle of a simple impedance relay involves measuring the impedance (ratio of
voltage to current) at a specific point in the electrical system.

 In normal operation, the impedance stays within expected bounds.

 When a fault occurs (like a short circuit), the impedance drops because the current increases
while the voltage decreases.

 The relay calculates the impedance using the measured voltage and current, typically using
Ohm's Law: 𝑍=V/I

If the measured impedance falls below a predetermined threshold, the relay triggers a protective action,
such as opening a circuit breaker to isolate the faulted section

Equivalent Relay Component

 Voltage Transformer (VT): Measures the line voltage.

 Current Transformer (CT): Measures the line current.

 Impedance Calculation Unit: Calculates the impedance by dividing the measured voltage by
the measured current.

 Decision Logic/Circuit: Determines whether the measured impedance is within a predefined

threshold for the relay to operate.

 Trip Mechanism: If the impedance indicates a fault, this component sends a signal to trip a
circuit breaker.

Advantage

 Inherently provide distance protection along the transmission line. This means it can detect
faults at varying distances from the relay's location based on the impedance measurement,
making them well-suited for protecting transmission lines.
 They can also be adjusted to cover specific zones, allowing for more flexible and coordinated
protection schemes.
 Fast Operation: Quickly detects faults and initiates a trip to isolate the faulted section.

Application

Impedance relays are commonly used to,

 Transmission Lines: To protect against faults on high-voltage lines, where impedance varies
with distance, enabling fault location.
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  Substations: For protecting specific feeder line and substation.

 Distribution Networks: In medium to high-voltage distribution networks, where they can offer
robust protection against various fault types.

 Backup Protection: It can serve as backup protection for other types of relays.

By incorporating simple impedance relays in these applications, utilities and other organizations can
improve the reliability and safety of their electrical systems.

IMPEDANCE RELAY

The relay that is working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty section and the
position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance relay. It is a voltage
controlled equipment.

The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the impedance of
the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing their contacts. The
impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT and PT
respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts operating then the relay starts
operating.

Operating Principle

In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But when the
fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The line current
is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the impedance decreases
because of which the impedance relay starts operating.

The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer supplies
the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current transformer. The current
transformer is connected in series with the circuit.

Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB. The
Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall below
the impedance Z then the relay starts working.

Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the relay
setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the circuit breaker.
If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.

The operating characteristic concerning the voltage and current is shown in the figure below. The
dashed line in the image represents the operating condition at the constant line impedance.
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The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in the figure below. The positive torque
region of the impedance relay is above the operating characteristic line. In positive torque region, the
impedance of the line is more than the impedance of the faulty section. Similarly, in negative region,
the impedance of the faulty section is more than the line impedance

The impedance of the line is represented by the radius of the circle. The phase angle between the X and
R axis represents the position of the vector. If the impedance of the line is less than the radius of the
circle, then it shows the positive torque region. If the impedance is greater than the negative region,
then it represents the negative torque region.

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Electromagnetic Type Induction Relay

In such type of relay, the torque is induced by the electromagnetic action on the voltage and current.
These torques are compared. Consider the circuit of the electromagnetic type induction relay. The
solenoid B is excited by the voltage supplied of the PT. This voltage develops the torque in the
clockwise direction, and it pulls the plunger P2 in the downward direction. The spring connects to the
plunger P2 apply the restraining force on it. This spring generates the mechanical torque in the
clockwise direction.

The solenoid A generates the other torque in the clockwise direction and thus moves the plunger
P1 downwards. The solenoid one is excited by the CT of the lines. This torque is called the deflecting
or pick up torque.

When the system is free from fault, the contacts of the relay become open. When the fault occurs in the
protective zone, the current of the system rises because of which the current across the relay also
increases. The more torque developed on the solenoid A. The restoring torque because of the voltage

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decreases. The balance arms of the relay start rotating in the opposite direction, thus closed their
contacts.

Induction Type Impedance Relay

The circuit diagram of the induction type impedance relay is shown in the figure below. This relay
consists current and voltage element. The relay has an aluminium disc, which is rotating between the
electromagnets.

The upper electromagnet has two separate windings. The primary winding is connected to the
secondary coil of the current transformer. The current setting of the winding is varied by the help of
the plug bridge placed below the relay.

The electromagnetics of the relay connects in series with each other. The flux induce between the
electromagnets produces the rotational torque, which rotates the aluminium disc of the relay. The
permanent magnet provides the controlling and braking torque.

In normal operating conditions the force exerted on the armature is more than the induction element
which keeps the trip contacts open. When the fault occurs in the system, then the aluminium disc starts
rotating, and their rotation is directly proportional to the current of the electromagnet. The rotation of
the disc-wound the spring.

Equivalent Relay Components

Equivalent components to the impedance relay in might include:

 Distance Relays: These relays measure the impedance to determine the distance to a fault and
include specific types like mho relays and reactance relays.
 Directional Relays: These are used to determine the direction of fault current flow, which is
useful in complex network configurations.
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Advantage

 Selectivity: The impedance relays is their ability to locate faults by measuring distance,
allowing selective isolation of faulted sections without affecting the rest of the system.

 Speed: They can operate quickly, leading to faster fault isolation and reducing damage.

 Adaptability: They can be used in various configurations (e.g., mho, reactance, and admittance
relays), providing flexibility for different applications.

 Stability: They are generally stable under varying load conditions, and their operation is
relatively unaffected by changes in system conditions or load fluctuations.

 Distance Protection: Impedance relays offer a form of distance protection, making them well-
suited for protecting transmission lines that span long distances.

Application

Impedance relays are commonly used in power systems to protect transmission lines, distribution lines,
and other high-voltage components.

 Transmission Line Protection: Impedance relays protect lines by detecting faults and ensuring
quick isolation, minimizing damage.

 Distance Protection: They are used in distance protection schemes where selectivity and fast
response are critical.

 Backup Protection: Impedance relays can serve as backup protection in case other relays fail
to operate.

REACTANCE RELAY

In this relay the operating torque is obtained by current while the restraining torque due to a current-
voltage directional relay. The overcurrent element develops the positive torque and directional unit
produces negative torque. The reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with the directional restraint.

Construction of reactance relay:

The structure used for the reactance relay can be of induction cup type. It is a four- pole structure. It
has operating coil, polarizing coil and a restraining coil. The schematic arrangement of coils for the
reactance relay is shown in below.

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The current I flows from pole 1, through iron core stacking to lower pole 3. The winding on pole 4 is
fed from voltage V. The operating torque is produced by interaction of fluxes due to the windings
carrying current coils i.e. interaction of fluxes produced by poles 1, 2 and 3.

While the Retraining torque is developed due to interaction of fluxes due to the poles 1, 3 and 4. Hence
the operating torque is proportional to the square of the current (I2) while the restraining torque is
proportional to the product of V and I (VI). The desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the
help of RC circuit.

Equivalent Relay Components

 Distance Relays: Distance relays measure impedance to determine fault conditions but are
more versatile, often employing different characteristics like mho or quadrilateral to identify
fault zones.
 Directional Relays: These relays ensure that a fault is in a specific direction. While not
precisely reactance relays, they share similarities in terms of measuring phase relationships.
 Differential Relays: These relays focus on comparing inputs to identify discrepancies, similar
to how reactance relays focus on phase angle to detect anomalies.

A reactance relay is a type of protective relay used in power systems, typically for detecting faults and
providing protection to electrical components. To understand its characteristics, let's break down your
query into several parts:

Operating Principle

Reactance relays operate based on the concept of impedance, specifically focusing on the reactance
component. Reactance is the imaginary part of impedance in an AC circuit, arising from inductance or
capacitance. In simpler terms, reactance relays are designed to respond to changes in the inductive or

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capacitive characteristics of a circuit. The operating principle is based on measuring the reactance and
tripping when it falls below a certain threshold, indicating a fault condition like a short circuit.

Advantage

Simplicity: Reactance relays have a straight forward operating principle, making them easier to design
and maintain.

Selective Fault Detection: Because they are based on reactance, they can be fine-tuned to detect
specific types of faults, particularly those involving changes in inductance.

Fast Operation: Reactance relays can operate quickly due to their focus on a singular aspect of
impedance.

Application

Transmission Line Protection: Reactance relays are used to protect high-voltage transmission lines
where changes in inductive reactance can indicate faults.

Distribution Systems: They are employed in medium-voltage distribution systems to identify faults
and isolate affected sections.

Industrial Installations: In industrial settings, reactance relays can be used to protect equipment like
transformers and motors from fault-induced reactance changes.

ADMITTANCE RELAY
Admittance relay is referred to as voltage-controlled directional relay, Mho relay or high-speed relay.
The operating torque can be determined by the V-I (voltage-ampere) element and the voltage element
develops the controlling element.

Operating Principle

The working principle of the admittance relay depends on the impedance and the directional element.
If the impedance measurement is less than the final point impedance, then it is considered as a fault
that exists on the line between the relay and the final point. The mho relay diagram in the form of an
induction cup structure is shown below. The interaction of fluxes due to poles 2, 3, and 4 produces
operating torque. Due to 1, 2, and 4 poles controlling or restraining torque is obtained. A series capacitor
is connected to provide memory action.

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Operating Characteristics of Mho Relay

The operating characteristics of the Mho relay are shown below. From the figure, we can observe that,
practically, the diameter of the circle is independent of voltage and current. But when a spring effect is
taken into account at low voltage and current magnitudes, the diameter of the circle leads to a decrease.
Let the diameter of the circle is Zr = K1/K2, which is also referred to as the ohmic setting of the Mho
relay.

Equivalent Relay Components

An admittance relay is designed to measure or react to changes in admittance, a property of a circuit

that reflects how easily it allows electrical current to flow. The following are similar components to the
admittance relay:

Impedance Relay: Measures impedance (the opposition a circuit offers to alternating current), with
applications in power systems to detect faults or abnormalities.

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Reactance Relay: Measures reactance (a component of impedance that represents stored energy), often
used in power systems.

Conductance Relay: Measures conductance, the reciprocal of resistance, akin to admittance but
typically used in DC circuits.

Advantages

Sensitive to Faults: This relay are sensitive to changes in the network that might indicate a fault,
offering a reliable form of protection.

Fast Response: These relays are designed to quickly react to changes in admittance, ensuring prompt
action in the event of a fault.

High Accuracy: They offer precise measurements of admittance, reducing false positives or negatives
when identifying issues.

Wide Range of Applications: They can be used in a variety of electrical systems, from power

generation to distribution networks.

Applications

The applications of the Mho relay are listed below.

 It is used in the protection of UHV/EHV transmission lines

 It is used to protect long transmission lines because of its power swings.

 It is used to protect series compensated and uncompensated transmission lines to determine the
location of the faults.

 It is used to determine impedance with a directional element based on the type of fault.

 It is used to part of switchgear, providing protection against abnormal conditions or faults in

electrical distribution systems.

MHO OFFSET RELAY

This relay known as Modified impedance relay. Under close up fault conditions, when the relay voltage
falls to zero or near-zero, a relay using a self-polarised mho characteristic or any other form of self-
polarised directional impedance characteristic may fail to operate when it is required to do so

If current bias is employed, the mho characteristic is shifted to embrace the origin, so that the measuring
element can operate for close-up faults in both the forward and the reverse directions.

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The offset impedance-type distance relay is like the impedance type except that the impedance-unit
operating characteristics are shifted, as in below Figure. This shift is accomplished by what is called a
“current bias,” which merely consists of introducing into the voltage supply an additional voltage
proportional to the current, making the torque equation as follows,

T = K1I 2 – K2 (V + CI)2

The term (V + CI) is the rms magnitude of the vector addition of V and CI, involving the angle θ
between V and I as well as a constant angle in the constant C term. This is the equation of a circle
whose centre is offset from the origin, as shown in Figure. By such biasing, a characteristic circle can
be shifted in any direction from the origin, and by any desired amount, even to the extent that the origin
is outside the circle. Slight variations may occur in the biasing, owing to saturation of the circuit
elements. For this reason, it is not the practice to try to make the circles go through the origin, and
therefore a separate directional unit is required.

Advantage

 The key advantage of a Mho offset relay is its ability to provide additional sensitivity and
flexibility in fault detection
 Mitigate the risk of overreaching (tripping for faults outside the protection zone) while ensuring
comprehensive protection for nearby faults

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Application

 Busbar zone backup

In this application it is used in conjunction with mho measuring unit as a fault detector.
 Carrier starting unit in distance/carrier blocking schemes.
The offset mho unit is used for starting carrier signalling.
 Power Swing blocking.
 Protecting lines with complex fault scenarios.

POLARIZED MHO RELAY

A polarized relay is an electromagnetic device that operates based on the interaction between the
magnetic field generated

by its coil and the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. In this type of Relay, the working
torque can be obtained through the V-I characteristic & limiting torque through the characteristic of
voltage that means, this is a directional relay controlled by voltage.

Equivalent relay components

The equivalent relay component to a Polarized Mho relay is the standard Mho relay, also known as an
admittance relay. Both relays are impedance-based distance relays used in power system protection,
but the Polarized Mho relay includes an additional polarization mechanism to improve its selectivity
and stability.

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Operating Principle

The Polarized Mho relay operates on a distance protection principle, typically used in power systems
to detect faults in transmission lines. It calculates the apparent impedance from the point of installation
to the fault. If this impedance falls within a predetermined circular characteristic (on an impedance
plane), the relay will trip, indicating a fault within the protection zone.

The "Polarized" aspect refers to the additional stabilization mechanism, often implemented through a
directional element, voltage polarization, or memory action. This addition helps ensure that the relay
does not trip for faults outside its intended zone, particularly in complex power systems with varying
power flows and system conditions.

Advantage

The main advantage of the Polarized Mho relay over the standard Mho relay is its increased selectivity
and directional stability. By incorporating polarization, the relay can better distinguish between faults
within and outside its protection zone. This characteristic is beneficial in long transmission lines with
changing power flows and complex grid structures, where directional discrimination is crucial.

Application

Polarized Mho relays are commonly used in distance protection schemes for high-voltage transmission
lines. Their ability to accurately determine fault locations while minimizing false trips makes them
suitable for these applications. They are particularly useful in multi-terminal lines, interconnected
systems, and scenarios where power flow can reverse, requiring precise directional sensitivity. These
relays contribute to maintaining system stability and reducing unnecessary disconnections during fault
conditions.

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