Calculo Tecnico Dale Ewen

H
Exponents and Radicals Right-Triangle Trigonometry
1. am • an = am+n side opposite A

sin A = —--
hypotenuse
2. — = am~" (a * 0)
a side adjacent to A
cos A = -
3. (a= a""' hypotenuse
4. (afe)B = an6n side opposite A
tan A = ———--
a" side adjacent to A
5. It (**0)
6"
B
6. = 1 (a V 0)
1
7. o“n = {a 0)
8. a'/n =
9. am/n = <T^n = {Vdf
10. <Ta ■ <Tb = <fab
<Ta
11 (b± 0) Pythagorean Theorem
<Tb
12. VVa = V~a c2 = a2 + b2
Algebraic Products Quadratic Formula

1. a(x + y + z) = ax + ay + az If ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ¥= 0),
2. (x + y)(x - y) = x2 - y2 —b ± V7Z?2 — 4ac
then x =-
3. (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
4. (x - y)2 = x2 — 2xy + y2
5. (x + y)3 ~ x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
6. (x — y)3 = x3 — 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3 Properties of Logarithms
X = ay is equivalent to y = log,, x (a > 0)

1. loga (M • N) = log,, M + log0 N
Factoring Sum and Difference of Two Cubes
2. log,, M - log„ N
1. x3 + y3 = (x 4- y)(x2 - xy + y2)
2. x3 — y3 = (x — y)(x2 + xy + y2) 3. log,, Mn = n log,, M
4. loga'V~M = — • log,, M
n
Straight Lines 5. logu 1 = 0
y2 ~ y\ 6. !°g a 77 = -log„AT
Slope: m =-
x2 - x.
7. logoax — x
Point-slope form: y — yx — m{x — x,)
8. a'og“x = x
Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b
9. log x = log10 x
Horizontal line: y ~ b
10. In x = log,, x
Vertical line: x = a
If m j = m2, then L, || L2
I
If m | =-, then L f ± L 2
m2
Distance: d = \/(x2 — Xi)2 + (y2 — yi)2
xi + x2 y i + yi
Midpoint: xm = —-—; ym = ——
Trigonometric Functions Geometric Formulas
1. sin 6 — — y
r
Area
2. cos 6 — — Triangle: A = — bh
r
Rectangle: A = Iw
3. tan 6 = —
x Parallelogram: A = bh
X
4. cot 9 = - Trapezoid: A = ^h(a + b)
y
r Circle: A = vr2 (Circumference: C = rrd = 2nr)
5. sec 6 = —
x
, r Volume
6. esc 6 = —
y
Prism: V = Bh
Cylinder: V = irr2h
Oblique Triangles
Pyramid: V = — Bh
Cone: V = — irr 2h
3
Sphere: V = — itr3
b2 — a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 — 2ab cos C
Complex Numbers
j= V17!,;2 = — 1, 73 = ~j,j4 = 1J5 =j,—
Rectangular Trigonometric Exponential

form form form
a + bj = r{cos 6 + j sin 6) = reje
r,(cos 0, + j sin $i) • r2(cos d2 + j sin d2) = r,r2[cos (0, + 02) + j sin (0, + 02)]
r,(cos 0, + y sin 0,) r
— [cos(0, - 02) + y sin (0, - 02)]
r2{cos 02 + j sin 02) r
DeMoivre's Theorem
[r(cos 0 + j sin 0)]" = r"(cos nd + j sin n0)

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TECHNICAL tut
(15
CALCULUS
Dale Ewen
Joan S. Gary 1ii /!
James E. Trefzger i If!!It I
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Taken from:
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Technical Calculus, Fifth Edition
by Dale Ewen, Joan S. Gary, and James E. Trefzger
mm
Taken from:
Technical Calculus, Fifth Edition

by Dale Ewen, Joan S. Gary, and James E. Trefzger
Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1998,1986,1977 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any
means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
The information, illustrations, and/or software contained in this book, and regarding the
above-mentioned programs, are provided "As Is," without warranty of any kind, express
or implied, including without limitation any warranty concerning the accuracy, adequacy,
or completeness of such information. Neither the publisher, the authors, nor the copyright
holders shall be responsible for any claims attributable to errors, omissions, or other
inaccuracies contained in this book. Nor shall they be liable for direct, indirect, special,
incidental, or consequential damages arising out of the use of such information or material.
This special edition published in cooperation with Pearson Custom Publishing.
Printed in the United States of America
10 987654321
ISBN 0-536-91610-1
2005360184
EM
Please visit our web site at www.pearsoncustom.com
PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING

75 Arlington Street, Suite 300, Boston, MA 02116
A Pearson Education Company
Contents
Methods of Integration i
Introduction 1
1.1 The General Power Formula 1
1.2 Logarithmic and Exponential Forms 5
1.3 Basic Trigonometric Forms 8
1.4 Other Trigonometric Forms 14
1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Forms 17
1.6 Partial Fractions 20
1.7 Integration Using Partial Fractions 27
1.8 Integration by Parts 30
1.9 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution 35
1.10 Integration Using Tables 39
1.11 Numerical Methods of Integration 41
1.12 Areas in Polar Coordinates 49
1.13 Improper Integrals 56
Chapter 1 Summary 61
Chapter 1 Review 63
Three-Space: Partial Derivatives

and Double Integrals 67
Introduction 67
2.1 Functions in Three-Space 67
2.2 Partial Derivatives 76
2.3 Applications of Partial Derivatives 79
2.4 Double Integrals 87
Chapter 2 Review 94
Progressions and the Binomial Theorem

Introduction 95
3.1 Arithmetic Progressions 95
3.2 Geometric Progressions 98
3.3 The Binomial Theorem 102
Chapter 3 Review 107
t
4 Series i os
Introduction 108
4.1 Series and Convergence 108
4.2 Ratio and Integral Tests 115
4.3 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence 119
4.4 Power Series 121
4.5 Maclaurin Series 125
4.6 Operations with Series 128
4.7 Taylor Series 132
4.8 Computational Approximations 134
4.9 Fourier Series 137
5 First-Order Differential Equations 151
Introduction 151
5.1 Solving Differential Equations 151
5.2 Separation of Variables 154
5.3 Use of Exact Differentials 1 59
5.4 Linear Equations of First Order 162
5.5 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 165
Chapter 5 Summary 1 71
Chapter 5 Review 1 72
Chapter 5 Special NASA Application: Under the Sea:
Carbon Dioxide Buildup 174
6 Second-Order Differential Equations 177
Introduction 177
6.1 Higher-Order Elomogeneous Differential Equations 177
6.2 Repeated Roots and Complex Roots 182
6.3 Nonhomogeneous Equations 186
6.4 Applications of Second-Order Differential Equations 191
6.5 The Laplace Transform 199
6.6 Solutions by the Method of Laplace Transforms 205
Chapter 6 Application: Differential Equations and the Gateway
Arch 213
APPENDIX A
Weights and Measures 215
Table 1 U.S. Weights and Measures 215

Table 2 Conversion Tables 216
APPENDIX B
Table of Integrals 219
IV Contents
APPENDIX C
Using a Graphing Calculator 225
C.1 Introduction to theTI-83 Keyboard 225

C.2 Computational Examples 228
C.3 Graphing Features 231
C.4 Examples of Graphing 233
C.5 Trigonometric Functions and Polar Coordinates 239
C.6 Equation-Solving and Table Features 243
C.7 The Numeric Solver 246
C.8 Matrix Features 248
C.9 List Features and Descriptive Statistics 250
C.10 The Line of Best Fit (Linear Regression) 252
C.11 Calculus Features 253
C.12 Sequences and Series 257
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

and Chapter Reviews 261
Index 273
Contents V
1
Methods
of Integration
INTRODUCTION
We studied several applications of the integral of a function. We are now ready to learn
more sophisticated methods of integration so that we may solve a wider variety of problems.
Objectives
■ Integrate products and quotients of algebraic and exponential functions.
■ Integrate expressions that are derivatives of logarithmic functions.
■ Integrate trigonometric functions.
■ Integrate expressions that are derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
■ Use the partial fraction technique to express a fraction as the sum of two or more simpler
fractions.
■ Use the method of integration by parts.

■ Use the method of integration by trigonometric substitution.
■ Use tables to find integrals.

■ Use the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule to approximate definite integrals.
■ Find the area of a region defined with polar coordinates.
■ Evaluate improper integrals.
1.1 THE GENERAL POWER FORMULA
In this chapter we develop techniques that can be used to integrate more complicated functions.
The first technique is based on the use of the general power formula.
un du = —-1- C (n # - 1)
J n + 1
This formula can be effectively used to integrate numerous functions involving either tran¬
scendental or algebraic functions. The effective use of this formula depends on the proper
choice of w and du.
1
EXAMPLE 1
Integrate sin5 2x cos 2x dx.
If we choose u = sin 2x, then du = 2 cos 2x dx. We can then apply the general power
formula with n = 5.
du
sin5 2x cos 2x dx u = sin 2x
du = 2 cos 2x dx
= — | u5 du n = 5
1 «6 ^
--+ C
2 6
1
= —sin6 2x + C
12
EXAMPLE 2
Integrate eix{2 — e3xy dx.
( du\
elx(2 - e3xy dx = u = 2 - e3x
(-y) du = — 3eix dx
r
u4 du n = 4
1 u5
-+ C
3 5
-—(2 ^3x)5 + C
15 v
EXAMPLE 3
sec2 x dx
Integrate
V4 + tan x
sec2 x dx
= (4 + tan x) 1/2 sec2 * dx u = 4 + tan x
V4 + tan x J
du = sec2 x dx
= «-1/2 du 1
J n =-
2
u't2
= — + c
2
- 2 V4 + tan x + C
EXAMPLE 4
Evaluate
f -dx
In* , [
= I u du u = In x
du = — dx
x
=T+C
n = 1
= -In2 x + C
2
2 CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

So
In x 1 , 1 1
-dx = —In x -ln2^ - -In2 1 =-(l)2--(0)2 = ^
x 2
An appropriate change in the form of the integral is needed to integrate some func¬
tions. In Example 5 we need to multiply the function —* by 1 in the form S6C X

sec x sec x
EXAMPLE 5
I tanx ,
Integrate —— dx.
I sec x
tan x sec x \ / tan x

dx = dx
sec3 x sec xj \sec3 x
sec x tan x
dx
sec x
du
,4
u 4 du
U
-3
~3 + C
1 1
+ C
3 sec3
-cos3 x + C
EXAMPLE 6
1/3
arccos2 3x
Evaluate -dx.
1/6 Vl - 9x2
First, find the indefinite integral.
Thus,
1/3 1/3
arccos^ 3x 1
.-dx = —arccos3 3x
1/6 Vl - 9x2 9 1/6
77"3
243
SECTION 1.1 The General Power Formula

Using a calculator, we have
fnlnt (cos'1 (3 >0 .1275981263

f(1-9X21 k2/243
s'Z ) .1275978464
.1275981268 f n I nt cos a t. 3X > 2 /
rt 2.-243 j" 'v 1 —9X 2 ,) ■> X ? 1 6 ? 1
.1275973464 /Z,.000000001>
■ .1275978464
■
MATH 9 2nd COS'1 3x) x2/ 2nd tV l-9x x2),x,l/6,l/3) ENTER Note that the numerical
integrator (fnlnt) of the TI-83 Plus originally calculated six significant digits. The last frame shows
that greater accuracy can be obtained by specifying the optional error tolerance.
Exercises 1.1
Integrate.
dx
1 V3x + 2 dx 2. V2x — 1 dx 3.
V4 4- x
dx
4. 5. (x + 2)(x2 + 4x)3/4 dx 6. xVx2 + 4 dx
(2x + l)3
cos 2x dx
7. cos3 x sin x dx 8. 9. tan3 4x sec2 4x dx
10. cosx sin x dx 11. sin 4x (cos 4x+ 1) dx
12. | cos 2x (1 — sin 2x)2 dx 13. V9T sec x sec X tan x dx
esc2 2x dx
14. 15. Vl + e2* e2* dx 16. (10 - e-^f e'^dx
V8 — cot 2x
xeK~ dx f etan v sec2 x dx ' In (3x - 5)
17. 18. 19. -dx
V\ + ex2 V2 + etan'v 3x - 5
In 4x dx x In (x2 + l) dx
20. -dx
x
21.
x In2 x
22 .
x2 + 1
arcsin 3x arctan 2x cotx
23. dx 24. dx 25. dx
Vl - 9x2 1 + 4x* esc4 X
x sec2 x2 dx arctarr x In2 4x

26. 27. dx 28. -dx
V9 4- tan x - 1 4- x2 2x
r5 r6
1 e3x dx
29. cVx2 — 9 dx 30. 3xVx2 4- 1 dx 31.
Jo V1 + e3x
tt/12 V2/4
In (2x — 1) arcsin 2x
32. sin3 6x cos 6x dx 33. dx 34. dx
2x — 1 Vl - 4x2
35. Find the area bounded by y = sin2 x cos x from x = 0 to x = 77/2 and y = 0.
In2 x
36. Find the area bounded by y = -from x = 1 to x = e and y = 0.
x

1.2 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FORMS
Since integration is the inverse of differentiation and — (In u) = —, we find

du u
du
= In ltd + C
The absolute value of u is necessary because logarithms are defined only for positive numbers.
—du
If u > 0, then = in u -+- <_ and it h <> U. then — = I = In (—u) + C, so
u
that in both cases we obtain In \u\ + C. Note: This form is the general power formula for
n = -1.
EXAMPLE 1
dx
Integrate
x - f
j dx du
J -1x u
U =
du = dx
X — 1
= In |m| + C
In Ijc — I [ + C
EXAMPLE 2
x dx
Integrate
. x2 + 6
1 f du
u — x2 + 6
u V 2 V
du = 2x dx
\_ du
2 u
1
= —In |u| + C
2 1 1
= -In be2 + 61 + C
2 1
du
Use the integral formula — = In |«| + C whenever the integrand is a quotient and
the derivative of the denominator is a constant multiple of the numerator.
EXAMPLE 3
sec 2>x tan 3x dx

Integrate
2 + sec 3x
sec 3x tan 3x dx 1 (du

u — 2 + sec 3x
2 + sec 3x u V 3
du = 3 sec 3x tan 3x dx
i r du
~ 3 J u
1 , ,
= —In u + C
3 1 1
= ^ln |2 + sec 3x\ + C
SECTION 1.2 Logarithmic and Exponential Forms 5

EXAMPLE 4
x2 dx
Evaluate
\ — xv
x2 dx 1 f du
u = 1 - x3
1 - x3 u \ —3 ,
du = —3x2 dx
l du
3 u
1
—-In \u\ + C
3 1 1
=-In 11 — jt3| + C
3 1 1
So
x2 dx
■ -l„ |! - x3\
1 - v3
= - jin |-26| + “ In |-7|
= j (In 7 - In 26)
1 / 7 \
= -In — = -0.437
3 V26 /
From the derivative formula — (e “) = e", we find

du
eu du = eu + C
EXAMPLE 5
Integrate e5' dx.
u = 5x
du = 5 dx
e" dn
= -e" + C
= — e5t + C
EXAMPLE 6
Integrate
=-e “ du
2J
= + C
2
= — — e-2x + C
2
CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

EXAMPLE 7
Evaluate x2exi+xdx.
Jo
First,
x2e xi+{dx u = x3 + 1
3
du = 3x2 dx
e"du
=r‘ + c
So
x2e*3+'dx = — e*3+1
3
1 2 1
= — e-e
3 3
= 3^-1)
For bases other than e, we have
a " du - -1- C (a > 0, a ¥= 1)

In a
EXAMPLE 8
Find the area bounded by xy = 1, x = 1, x = 2, and y = 0.

This area is given by the definite integral (see Fig. 1.1).
dx
= In 2 - ln 1 = In 2 = 0.6931
T = ln
y
SECTION 1.2 Logarithmic and Exponential Forms 7

Exercises 1.2
Integrate.
dx dx dx
1. 2. 3.
3x + 2 x + 5 1 >- 4x
dx 4x dx 3x dx
4. 5. 6.
Ax + 2 1 - x2 x2 + 1
x3 dx (x + 1 )dx r esc2 x dx
7. 8. 9.
x4 - 1 x2 + 2x — 3 cot X
sin x dx sec2 3x dx cos 2x

10.
cos x
11. 1 + tan 3x
12.
1 + sin 2x
dx
esc x cot x esc2 4x cosx

13. —-dx 14. dx 15. dx
1 + CSC X 1 - cot 4x 1 + sin x
(x — sin 2x) dx dx dx
16. 17. 18.
x2 + cos 2x x In x x(4 + lnx)
dx
19. e2* dx 20 . e3x~' dx 21.
dx
22. „2x+ 3
23. xe'2dx 24. xV4-'dx
x dx
25. „x2 +9
26. xe-x2dx 27. (sinx) ecosxdx
r2 tt/2
28. (sec~ x)e2unxdx 29. xex2+2dx 30. (cos x) esm 1 dx
2ex
31. Ax dx 32. 10 Zxdx 33. dx
ex + A
rl
x dx T/2 cos x dx
34. dx 35. 36.
1 - e~x x2 + 1 sin x
■V/4
2
5 4 dx dx
37. 38. 39. ex/2dx
, 2x - 1 5x + 4
ro
40. e~4x dx 41. XT dx 42. xexl dx
-2
7T/6 7T/2
cos a: dir sin
43. 44. dx
1 — sinx + COS X
•V/3
45. Find the area bounded by y : = 1/(1 + 2x), x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0.

46. Find the area bounded by xy = l,x=l,x = 3, and y = 0.
47. Find the area bounded by y ■ = e21, x = 0, x = 4, and y = 0.
48. Find the area bounded by y ■ = e~x, x = 0, x = 5, and y = 0.
1.3 BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS
We have found that
— (sin u) = cos u and —(cos u) = — sin u

du du

Now, since integration is the inverse of differentiation, we have
cos u du = sin u + C
sin u du = —cos u + C
EXAMPLE 1
Integrate cos 3x dx.
du
cos 3x dx = (cos u)
3
l
cos u du
3 J
1
= — sin u + C
= — sin 3x + C
EXAMPLE 2
Integrate sin(4x + 3 )dx.
du
sin(4x + 3 )dx = sin u u = 4x + 3
4
du = 4 dx
l
sin u du
4 J
1
= - (-cos u) + C
4
1
-cos(4jc + 3) + C
EXAMPLE 3
Integrate x2 sin(x3 + 2 )dx.
f , ■ Jdu\
| x2 sin(x3 + 2)dx = (sin 1 u = x3 + 2
* du = 3x2 dx
1
sin u du
3
\
(—cos u) + C
3
1
cos(x3 + 2) + C
EXAMPLE 4
- 7T/4
Find cos 2x dx.

■'o
SECTION 1.3 Basic Trigonometric Forms 9

du
cos 2x dx = cos u
2
cos u du
= — sin u + C
9
= — sin 2x + C
9
So
7r/4
7r/4 1 77 1
cos 2x dx = — sin 2x = —sin-sin 0
2 n 2 2 2
From the derivatives of tan u, cot u, sec u, and esc u and noting that integration is the
inverse of differentiation, we have
sec2 u du = tan u + C
esc2 u du = —cot u + C
sec u tan u du = sec u + C
esc u cot u du = — esc u + C
EXAMPLE 5
Integrate sec2 3x dx
*
, l du\
sec2 3x dx = (sec n) — u — 3x
V 3 J
du — 3 dx
1 _2 ..
— tan u + C
— tan 3x + C
3

EXAMPLE 6
Integrate sec {lx + 5) tan(2x + 5)dx.
( du
sec {lx + 5) tan(2x + 5) dx (sec u tan u)\ u — lx + 5
IT
du = 2 dx
= — | sec u tan u du
= — sec u + C
2
= — sec (2jc + 5) + C
We determine tan u du as follows:
sin u
tan u du = du w — cos u
J cos u
dw = —sin u du
- ~7.{~dw)
J w
dw
w
= — In |w | + C
= —In Icos u\ + C
In a similar manner,
cos u
cot u du —-du w = sin u
sin u
dw = cos u du
= In | w | + C
= In |sin u\ + C
To find sec u du, first multiply sec u by 1 in the form
sec u + tan u
sec u + tan u
That is,
sec u + tan u
sec u du sec u
sec u + tan u
sec u + sec u tan u

sec u + tan u
dw w = sec u + tan u
. vv dw = (sec u tan u + sec2 u) du
- In |w| + C
= In Isec u + tan u\ + C
In a similar manner, we find that
esc u du = In Icsc u — cot u\ + C

We now can integrate all six basic trigonometric functions:
sin u du = —cos u + C
> s
cos u dii = sin u + C
tan it du — —In |cos u\ + C
cot u du = In |sin u\ + C
sec u du = In |sec u + tan u\ + C
esc u du = In Icsc u — cot u\ + C
EXAMPLE 7
Integrate tan 3x dx.
du
tan 3x dx tan u u = 3x
3
du = 3 dx
1
tan u du
3 J
1
= —(—In |cos u\) + C
=-In Icos 3x| + C

3 1 1
EXAMPLE 8
Integrate x sec 3x2 dx.
du
x sec 3x2 dx sec u u = 3x2
6
r/w = 6x dx
1
sec u du
6 .
1
= —In |sec u. + tan u\ + C
6
—In|sec3x2 + tan3x2[ + C
6
EXAMPLE 9
7T/4
Evaluate cot 2x dx.

Jit/8
du
cot 2x dx = cot u u = 2x
2
du = 2 dx
cot u du
2

= — In Isin u\ + C
2 1 1
1
In |sin 2x\ + C
So,
' IT/A w/4 ]
1 , TT 1 7T
cot 2x dx — — In sin 2x = -In sin — - -In sin—
K/ 8
2 1 tt /8 2 2 2 4
1 I 1
— In 1-In ——
2 2 V2
= 0 - - In 2“1/2 = - In 2 = 0.173
2 4
Algebraic simplifications often lead to less complicated integrals as shown in

Example 10.
EXAMPLE 10
2 — cos x
Integrate dx.
sin x
2 — cos x 2 dx cos x
-dx = -dx
sin .V sin x sin x
= 2 esc x dx — cot x dx
= 2 In Icsc x — cot x\ — In Isin x| + C
Exercises 1.3
Integrate.
1. sin 5x dx 2. cos 6x dx 3. cos (3x — 1) dx

.
4. sin (2x + 7) dx 5. x sin (x2 + 5) dx 6. x3 cos x4 dx
7. (3x2 — 2x)cos (x3 — x2) dx 8. (x - l)sin (x2 - 2x + 3) dx
9. esc2 5x dx 10. sec2 2x dx 11. sec 3x tan 3x dx
12. esc lx cot lx dx 13. sec2 (4x + 3) dx 14. esc2 (3x — 2) dx
x x
15. esc (2x - 3) cot (2x - 3) dx 16. sec — tan — dx
2 2
2 2 3;
17. x sec2 (x2 + 3) dx 18. x esc X' dx
19. x2csc(x3 — l)cot(x3 — 1) dx 20. x sec 3x2 tan 3x2 dx
21. tan 4x dx 22. x cot x2 dx 23. sec 5x dx
sec (In x)
24. x2 esc x3 dx 25. e x cot e x dx 26. dx

f
f 5 + sin x
27. (1 + sec x)2 dx 28. (1 + tan 3x)2 dx 29. dx
. COS X
77/4 ' 77/6

tan x — cos x
30. dx 31. sin 2x dx 32. 2 cos 3x dx
sin x 0
' 77/2 tt/2 r 77-/4

77
33. 3 cos \x--\dx 34. sin | x — — Jdx 35. sec2 x dx
0 0
7t/2 ' 77-/8 r 1/2

36. esc2 x dx 37. sec 2x tan 2x dx 38. CSC TTX cot 77X dx
Jtt/A 1/4
Find the area of each region bounded by the given curves.
39. y — sin x from x = 0 to x = n and y = 0.

40. y = 2 cos x from x = 0 to x — it 12 and y = 0.
41. y = sec2 x, x = 0, x = 77-/4, and 3; = 0.
42. y = sec x tan x, x = 0, * = -tt/4, and y = 0.
43. y = tan x, x = 0, x = v/A, and y = 0.
44. y = sin x + cos x,x = 0, and y = 0.
45. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by y = sec a: from x = 0
to x = 7r/4 and y = 0 about the x-axis.
1.4 OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS
To integrate powers of trigonometric functions, use trigonometric identities as shown in the

following methods.
Odd Powers of Sines or Cosines

Various forms of the trigonometric identity sin2x + cos2x = 1 are needed for this case.
EXAMPLE 1
Integrate sin5 x dx.
sin5 x dx =■ sin4 x sin x dx = (sin2 x)2 sin x dx
(I — cos2 x)2 sin x dx (sin2 x = 1 — cos2 x)
(1-2 cos2 x + cos4 x) sin x dx
U = COS X
(1 —2 u2 + u4)(—du)
du = — sin x dx
w3 u5
U + 2-h C
3 5
2,1,
—cos x H— cos x-- cos x + C
3 5
EXAMPLE 2
Integrate sin2 x cos3 x dx.

sin1 2 x cos3 x dx = sin2 x cos2 x cos x dx
sin2jr(l — sin2 x) cos jc dx (cos2* — 1 — sin2x)
u2( 1 — u2) du
u = sin jc
du = cos x dx
(u2 — m4) du
u’] u5
-+ C
3 5
! , 1 . ,
— sin- x-sin' x + C
In each of the two previous examples the method used involved making a substitu¬
tion so that the function to be integrated becomes a product of a power of sine (or cosine)
and the first power only of cosine (or sine).
Even Powers of Sines and Cosines

For this case we use the identities
1
sin2 x = —(1 — cos 2x)
cos2x = —(1 + cos 2x)
EXAMPLE 3
Integrate cos2 x dx.
1
cos" x dx — (1 + cos lx) dx cos2 x = — (1 + cos 2x)
\
dx -I— cos 2x dx
2 2
1 1
= —x H— sin lx + C cos nx dx = — sin nx + C
2 4 n
EXAMPLE 4
Integrate sin4 x dx.
sin4 xdx = (sin2 x)2 dx
2 . i
- (1 — cos 2jc) dx sin x = -(1 - cos 2*)
2v 2
— — — cos 2x -i— cos2 2x ) dx

4 2 4
1 ]_
dx cos 2x dx + cos" 2x dx
4 J
' 1 . „ 1
= —x-sin 2x + — cos2 lx dx.
4 4 4
SECTION 1.4 Other Trigonometric Forms 15

f
Now, find
cos~ 2x dx — (1 + cos 4x) dx cos2 2x = — (1 + cos Ax)
dx + - cos Ax dx
2
= —x -i— sin Ax + Ci
2 8
So,
1 1 1 21 i \
sin4 x dx = —x — — sin 2x + — — X + — sm 4x + Ci
J 4 4 4'v2 8 7
11 11 1
— —x-sin 2x H—x H-sin 4x + —C,
4 4 8 32 4 1
3 1 1
= ~x-sin 2x H-sin 4x + C
8 4 32
Powers of Other Trigonometric Functions

The identities 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x and 1 + cot2 x = esc2 x are used to integrate even pow¬
ers of sec x and esc x and powers of tan x and cot x.
EXAMPLE 5
Integrate sec4 x dx.
sec4 x dx = (1 + tan2 x) sec2 x dx
sec" x dx + tan2 x sec2 x dx
= tan x H— tan3 x + C
3
EXAMPLE 6
Integrate tan5 x dx.
tan5 x dx ’an x tan2 x dx
tan3 x (sec2 x — 1) dx (tan" x = sec2 x — 1'
tan3 x sec2 x dx — tan3 x dx
= — tan x — tan x tan2 x dx

4
= — tan x — tan x (sec2 x — 1) dx

4
— tan x — tan x sec2 x dx + tan x dx

4
1 4 1 , ,
= — tan x-tan"x — In cosx + C
4 2 1
EXAMPLE 7
Integrate esc6 5x dx.

cscb 5x dx — esc4 5x esc2 5x dx
' 1 + cof 5x)2 esc2 5jc dx (esc2 5x — 1 + cot2 5x)
(i + «2)2iA)
-5/
let u = cot 5x
du = (—esc2 5x) 5 dx
(1 + 2u2 + uA) du
5V« + ~u3 + ~u5 ) + C
1 2 ,
1
--cot 5x - —— cor 5x-cot5 5x + C
,
5 15 25
Exercises 1.4
Integrate.
1 . sin3 x dx 2. cos3 x dx 3 . cos5 x dx
4 . sin7 x dx 5 . sin2 x cos x dx 6. cos2 x sin x dx
sin x dx
7 . 8. sin3 x cos x dx 9 . sin3 x cos2 x dx
cos3 x
10. sin2 3x cos3 3x dx 11 . sin2 x dx 12. cos2 4x dx
13 . cos4 3x dx 14 . sin4 lx dx 15 . sin2 x cos2 x dx
16 . sin4 x cos2 x dx 17 . sin2 x cos4 x dx 18 . sin4 2x cos4 2x dx
19 . tan3 x dx 20. cot5 4x dx 21. cot4 2x dx
22. sec4 lx dx 23. sec6 x dx 24 . esc4 3x dx
25. tan4 2x dx 26. cot6 x dx
.
27 Find the area of the region bounded by y = sin2x, x = 0, x = 7r, and y = 0.
28. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by y — cos3 x from
x = 0 to x = 7t/2 and y = 0 about the x-axis.
1.5 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS
A major use of the inverse trigonometric functions is to integrate certain algebraic functions.
Two important integral formulas are based on the derivatives of the inverse sine and in¬
verse tangent functions:
du u
—;--= arcstn —I- C
V«2 - u2 a
SECTION 1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Forms 17

since
46
du \
arcsin —
u
ay
1
a2 — u2 a \4r — u2
du 1 u ^
—r-r = — arctan —(- C
cr + u2 a a
since
/ n
— arctan —
du\ a u \2 a a2 + m2 « a2 + n2
1 +
so that
d (1 u\ \ d ( u\ 1
— —arctan — I = — • — arctan — = —;-r
du\a a) a du\ a) a + ul
EXAMPLE 1
dx
Integrate
Vl6"
dx
Vl6 - a:2 Vcd—u2

u
arcsin —I- C
a
arcsin —EC
4
EXAMPLE 2
f2
dx
Evaluate
x2 + 4
dx du
x2 + 4 a2 + u2
1 u
— arctan —EC
a a
1 x
— arctan —EC
2 2
So,
dx 1 x
—:-= — arctan —
x2 + 4 2 2
1
= — arctan 1 — arctan 0
2 2
-K?

EXAMPLE 3
dx
Integrate
4x2 + 9'
dx [' 1 du 1 du
u = 2x
4x2 + 9 a2 + «2 2 2 J a2 + m2
du — 2 dx
1(1 A
+ C a = 3
2\a a)
1/1 2x
= — — arctan —
2\3 3
)+c
1 2jc
= — arctan-1- c
6 3
EXAMPLE 4
dx
Integrate
x“ + 2x + 5
Here, we must complete the square in the denominator:
x2 + 2x + 5 = (jc + l)2 + 4 = (x + l)2 + (2)2
Then, let u = x + 1 and a = 2.
f dx dx du
u = x + 1
J .x2 + 2jc + 5 (x + l)2 + (2)2 u2 + a2
du - dx
1 u
= — arctan —h C a = 2
a a
1 (x+ 1
= — arctan - + C
2 V 2
EXAMPLE 5
dx
Evaluate
V25 - 4x2'
dx 1 du u = 2x
V25 - 4x: V^’ 2 du = 2 dx
du a = 5
Vû1
1 u
= — arcsin —E C
2 a
1 2x
= — arcsin-VC
2 5
So,
1 2x 1/ . 4 2
— arcsin — = — arcsin — arcsin —
V25 - 4*2 2 5 2 V 5
^(0.93 - 0.41) = 0.26 (radian measure)
SECTION 1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Forms 19

Exercises 1.5
Integrate.
dx dx dx
1. 2. 3.
V1 - 9.x2 Vl -.r2 V9 - x2
dx dx dx
4. 5. 6.
Vl44 - 25x2 x2 + 25 x‘ + 4
dx dx dx
7. 8. 9.
9x2 + 4 16 + 25x2 V36 - 25x2
dx dx dx
10. 11. 12.
V5 - 6x2 V3 - 12x2 V3 - 4x2
dx dx dx
13. 14. 15.
4 + (x - l)2 16 + (x - 3)2 x2 + 6x + 25
dx exdx sec x tan x dx
16. 17. 18.
x2 + 4x + 13 Vl - e2* 1 + sec2x
sin x dx cos x dx 1 dx
19. 20. 21.
1 + cos2 a: V4 — sin2. 1 + x-
r2 r1
dx dx dx
22. 23. 24.
o W J0 V25 - 9x; 25x2 + 9
25. A force is acting on an object according to the equation
100
F =
I + 4x;
where x is measured in metres and F is measured in newtons. Find the work done in moving
the object from x = 1 m to x = 2 m.
26. Find an equation for the distance traveled by an object moving along a straight line if the
velocity at time t is given by
V9 - t2
The object was 10 m from the point of reference at t = 0 s.
1.6 PARTIAL FRACTIONS
The following is an example of finding the sum of two algebraic fractions:
5 6 _ 5(x — 2) 6(x + 1)
x + 1 x — 2 (x + l)(x — 2) (x + 1 )(x 2)
5x — 10 + 6x + 6
(x + 1 )(x 2)
_ llx - 4
(x + 1 )(x - 2)
At times, we need to express a fraction as the sum of two or more fractions that are
each simpler than the original, that is, we reverse the operation. Such simpler fractions
whose numerators are of lower degree than their denominators are called partial fractions.
We separate our study of partial fractions into four cases. In each case we assume that
the given fraction is expressed in lowest terms and the degree of each numerator is less than
the degree of its denominator.

CASE 1: NONREPEATED LINEAR DENOMINATOR FACTORS
For every nonrepeated factor ax + b of the denominator of a given fraction, there
corresponds the partial fraction --where A is a constant.

ax + b
EXAMPLE 1
1 lx
Find the partial fractions of
(x + l)(x - 2)'
The possible partial fractions are
A B
and
x + 1 x — 2
So, we have
Ax — 4 B
(x + l)(x — 2) x + 1 x — 2
Multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: (x + l)(x - 2).
IIjc — 4 * A{x - 2) + B{x + 1)
Removing parentheses and rearranging terms, we have
\lx — 4 = Ax — 2A + Bx + B
1 lx - 4 = Ax + Bx - 2A + B
1 lx — 4 = (A + B)x - 2A + B
Next, the coefficients of x must be equal and the constant terms must be equal. This gives the
following system of linear equations:
A + B = 11
-2A + B = -4
Subtracting the two equations gives
3A = 15
A = 5
Substituting A = 5 into either of the preceding equations gives
B = 6
Then,
1 lx - 4 5 6
(x + 1 )(x - 2) x + 1 - 9
EXAMPLE 2
^ 3x2 - 27x - 12
Find the partial fractions of ——-—-—.
F x(2x + l)(x - 4)
A B C
and
x 2x + 1
So, we have
3x2 - 27x - 12 _ A B C
x(2x + l)(x — 4) x 2x + 1 x - 4
SECTION 1.6 Partial Fractions 21

"V r
Now multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: x(2x + 1 )(jc — 4).
3*2 - 21x -12 = A(2x + l)(x - 4) + Bx(x - 4) + Cx(2x + 1)
3*2 - 21x -12 = 2Ax2 - 7Ax -4A + Bx2 - 4Bx + 2Cx2 + Cx

3x2 — 27jc — 12 = (2A + B + 2C)x2 + {-1A - 4B + C)x - 4A
Then, the coefficients of x2 must be equal, the coefficients of x must be equal, and the constant
terms must be equal. This gives the following system of linear equations:
2A + B + 2C = 3
-7 A -4 BA C = -21
-4A = -12
Note that A = 3 from the third equation. Substituting 4 = 3 into the first two equations gives
6 + B + 2C = 3
-21-4 B + C = -21
or
B + 2C = —3
-4B + C = -6
Multiplying the second equation by 2 gives
B + 2C = —3
-8 B + 2 C = -12
Subtracting these two equations gives
9B = 9
B = 1
Then, C = —2 and
3x2 - 21x - 12 3 1_2

x(2x + l)(x - 4) x 2x + 1 x — 4
CASE 2: REPEATED LINEAR DENOMINATOR FACTORS
For every factor (ax + b)k of the denominator of a given fraction, there correspond
the possible partial fractions
^1 ^2 -A 3 Ak
ax + b’ (ax + b)2 ’ (ax + b)3 ’ ’ (ax + b)k
where Au A2, A3,...,Ak are constants.
EXAMPLE 3
8x + 27
x(x - 3)2
A B C
- and
x x — 3 (* - 3)2
So, we have
-;t2 - 8-r + 27 _ A B C
x(x~3)2 * + x - 3 + (x - 3)2

Then multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: x(x — 3)2.
-x2 - 8x + 27 = A(x - 3)2 + fix(x - 3) + Cx
-x2 - 8x + 27 = Ax2 - 6Ax + 9A + fix2 - 3fix + Cx

-x2 - 8x + 27 = (A + fi)x2 + (-6A - 3fi + C)x + 9A
Equating coefficients, we have
A + fi = -1
-6A - 3fi + C = -8
9A = 27
From the third equation, we have A = 3. Substituting A = 3 into the first equation gives
fi = —4. Then substituting A = 3 and fi = —4 into the second equation gives C = —2. Thus,
-x2 - 8x + 27 _ 3 _ _4_2_
x(x - 3)2 x x - 3 (x - 3)2
EXAMPLE 4
3x 12x + 17
(x - 2)3
Since x — 2 is repeated as a linear factor three times, the possible partial fractions are
fi C
and
x — 2 (x - 2)2 (x - 2)3
So, we have
3x2 - 12* + 17 fi C
(x - 2)3 x - 2 (x - 2)2 (x - 2)3
Then multiply each side of this equation by the F.C.D.: (x — 2)3.
3x2 - 12x + 17 = A(x - 2)2 + fi(x - 2) + C
3x2 - 12x + 17 = Ax2 - 4Ax + 4A + fix - 2fi + C

3x2 - 12x + 17 = Ax2 + (-4A + fi)x + 4A - 2fi + C
Equating coefficients, we have the system
A = 3
—4A + fi = -12
4A - 2fi + C = 17

f
Substituting A = 3 into the second equation, we have B — 0. Then substituting A — 3 and

B - 0 into the third equation, we have C = 5. Thus,
3x2 - 12x + 17 _ 3 5
(x - 2)3 _ x - 2 + (x - 2)3
CASE 3: NONREPEATED QUADRATIC DENOMINATOR FACTORS
For every nonrepeated factor ax2 + bx + c of the denominator of a given fraction,

there corresponds the partial fraction
Ax + B
ax2 + bx A c
where A and B are constants.
EXAMPLE 5
1 lx2 + 8x — 12
Find the partial fractions of -— -—-
(2x2 + x + 2)(x + 1)
Ax + B C
—r- and -
2x2 + x + 2 x + 1
So, we have
1 lx2 + 8x - 12 _ Ax + B C
(2x2 + x + 2)(x +1) 2x:+x + 2 x + 1
Then, multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: {lx2 + x + 2)(x + 1).
llx2 + 8x - 12 = (Ax + B)(x A 1) + C(lr2 + x + 2)
1 lx2 + 8x - 12 = Ax2 + Ax + Bx + B + ICx2 + Cx + 2C

llx2 + 8x - 12 = (A + 2C)x2 + (A + B + C)x + B + 2C
A + 2C = 11
A + B + C = 8
B + 2C = -12
The solution of this system of linear equations is A = 17, B = —6, C = —3. Then
llx2 + 8x - 12 _ 17x - 6 3
(2x2 + x + 2)(x +1) 2x2+x + 2 x + 1
EXAMPLE 6
2x': 2x2 + 8x + 7
(x2 + 1 )(x2 T 4)
Ax A B Cx A D
—r- and —r-
x2 + 1 x2 + 4
So, we have
2x3 - 2x2 + 8x + 7 _ Ax A B Cx A D
(x2 + l)(x2 + 4) x2 + 1 x2 + 4

Then, multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: (x2 + l)(x2 + 4).
2x3 - 2x2 A 8* + 7 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x2 A 1)
2x3 - 2x2 + 8x + 7 = Ax3 + Bx2 + 4Ax + 4B + Cx3 + Dx2 + Cx + D

2x3 - 2x2 A 8x A 7 = (A A C)x3 A (B A D)x2 + (4A A C)x A 4B A D
A A C = 2
B + D = -2
4A + C = 8
4B A D = 7
The solution of this system of linear equations is A = 2, B = 3, C = 0, D = —5. Then
2x3 — 2x2 + 8.x + 7 _ 2x + 3 5

(.v2 + l)(x2 + 4) x2 + 1 x2 + 4
CASE 4: REPEATED QUADRATIC DENOMINATOR FACTORS
For every factor (ax2 + bx + c)k of the denominator of a given fraction, there
correspond the possible partial fractions
Axx + B] A2x + B2 A3x + Bi Akx + Bk

ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2’ (ax2 + bx + c)3’ ’ (ax2 + bx + c)k
where A1? A2, A3,..., Ak, Bx, B2, B3,, Bk are constants.
EXAMPLE 7
5x4 - a:3 + 44x2 - 5x + 75

x(x2 + 5)2
A Bx + C Dx A E
x x2 + 5 (x~ + 5)2
So, we have
5.x4 — x3 + 44x2 — 5x + 75 _ A Bx A C Dx A E
x(x2 A 5)2 x x2 + 5 (x2 + 5)2
Then, multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: *(;c2 + 5)2.
5x4 - x3 A 44x2 - 5x A 75 = A(x2 A 5)2 + (Bx A C)(x2 A 5)(x) A (Dx + E)x
5x4 - x3 + 44x2 - 5x + 75 = Ax4 + 10Ax2 + 25A + Bx4 A Cx3

A 5Bx2 A 5Cx A Dx2 A Ex
5x4 - x3 A 44x2 - 5x A 75 = (A + B)x4 A Cx3 A (10A + 5B + D)x2
+ (5C + E)x A 25A
A A B = 5
C = -1
10A + 5B A D = 44

f
5C + E = -5
25A = 75
The solution of this system of linear equations is A = 3, B = 2, C = — 1, D = 4, E = 0. Then
5x4 — x3 + 44x2 — 5x + 75 _ 3 2x — 1 Ax
x(x2 + 5)2 ~~ x + x2 + 5 + (x2 + 5)2
If the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denomina¬
tor of the original fraction, you must first divide the numerator by the denominator using long
division. Then find the partial fractions of the resulting remainder term.
EXAMPLE 8
x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4
Find the partial fractions of:-—r-.
x" + 2x
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, divide
as follows:
x + 1
x2 + 2x)x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4
x3 + 2x2
x2 + lx
x2 + 2x
5x + 4
or
x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4 5x + 4
x2 + 2x x2 + 2x
Now factor the denominator and find the partial fractions of the remainder term.
5x + 4 _ A B
x(x + 2) x x + 2
5x + 4 = A(x + 2) + Bx
5x + 4 = Ax + 2A + fix
5x + 4 = (A + B)x + 2A
Then,
A + B = 5
2A = 4
So, A = 2 and B = 3 and
x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4 2 3
x + 1 + + -
x2 + 2x x x + 2

Exercises 1.6
Find the partial fractions of each expression.
1,’■ (x +8x2)(x
- 29
2.
lOx - 34
3.
-x - 18
- 7) (*- 4)(x - 2) 2x2 — 5x — 12
\lx - 18 61x2 - 53x - 28 1 lx2 — lx - 42
4. 5. 6.
3x2 + x - 2 x(3x - 4)(2x + 1) (2x + 3)(x2 — 2x - 3)
x2 + lx + 10 3x2 - 18x + 9 48x2 - 20x - 5
7. 8. 9.
(x + l)(x + 3)2 (2x -- l)(x- l)2 (4x - l)3
x2 + 8x 1 lx2 - 18x + 3 6x2 + 4x + 4
10. 11. 12.
(x + 4 )3 x(x - l)2 x3 + 2x2
-x2 - 4x + 3 —6x3 + 2x2 — 3x + 10 4x3 - 21x - 6
13. 14. 15.
(x2 + l)(x2 - 3) (2x2 + 1 )(x2 + 5) (x2 + x + l)(x2 — 5)
x3 + 6x2 + 2x — 2 4x3 - 16x2 - 93x - 9 12x2 + 8x - 72
16. 17. 18.
(3x2 - x - l)(x2 + 4) (x2 + 5x + 3)(x2 - 9) (x2 + x - l)(x2 — 16)
8x4 - x3 + 13x2 - 6x + 5 —4x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 - 19x + 17
19. 20.
x(x2 + l)2 (x - l)(x2 - 3)2
Xs - 2x4 - 8x2 + 4x - 8 3x5 + x4 + 24x3 + 10x2 + 48x + 16
21. 22.
x2(x2 + 2)2 x2(x2 + 4)2
6x2 + 108x + 54 x6 + 2x4 + 3x2 + 1
23. 24.
x4 - 81 x2(x2 + l)3
x4 + X2
25. 26.
x2- 1 (x + 1 )(x - 2)
x3 -X2 + 2x3 — 2x2 + 8x — 3
27. 28.
X 2 - 4 x(x - 1)
3x4 - 2x3 - 2x + 5 xs - x4 - 3x3 + lx2 + 3x + 20

29. 30.
x(x2 + 1) (x + 2)(x2 + 2)
1.7 INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
P(x)
Integrals of the form dx, where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, may be integrated
Q(x)
by first writing the rational expression as a sum of partial fractions (see Section 1.6), then
integrating each term.
EXAMPLE 1
3x + 1
Integrate dx.
x2 — x - 6
3x + I
First, write as a sum of partial fractions.
3x + 1 B
+
(x - 3)(x + 2) x - 3 x + 2
Multiply each side of this equation by the L.C.D.: (x - 3)(x + 2).
3x + 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x — 3)
SECTION 1.7 Integration Using Partial Fractions 27

3x+\=Ax + 2A + Bx~ 3 B
3x + 1 = Ax + Bx + 2A - 3B
3x + 1 = {A + B)x + 2A - 3B
Next, equate the coefficients of x and the constant terms, which gives the following system of
linear equations:
3 = A + B
1 = 24 - 3B
Solving this system, we have
A = 2 B = 1
So, we write
3x + 1 2 1
+
x — x 6 x — 3 x + 2
So,
3x + 1 2 1
dx = + dx
x2 — x — 6 x — 3 x + 2
dx dx
= 2 +
x — 3 x + 2
= 2 In \x — 31 + In \x + 2| + C
Using the properties of logarithms, we can write the result above as
3x + 1
dx = In |(jc — 3)2{x + 2)| + C
2 — x — 6
We thus see how a complicated integral can be written as a sum of less complicated
integrals by using partial fractions.
EXAMPLE 2
x3 + 3x2 + lx + 4
Integrate dx.
x2 + 2x
This rational expression was written as a sum of partial fractions in Example 8 in

Section 1.6.
r *„ 3 + 3x + lx + 4
dx = x+lH-h dx
x2 + 2x x x + 2
' *
dx dx
x dx + dx + 2 — + 3
. X x + 2
=-1- x + 2 In Ixl + 3 In lx + 21 + C
2
= —
2 + x + In |.x2(.x
iv
+ 2)3|
j i + C
Since the method of writing a rational expression as a sum of partial fractions was
presented in detail in Section 1.6, the next examples will concentrate on the integration.
The process of finding the partial fractions is left to the student.
28 CHAPTER! Methods of Integration

EXAMPLE 3
x2 - x + 2
Integrate -dx.
x3 - 2x2 + x'
x2 - X + 2
dx =
r—
2 1
- + dx
x3 — 2x2 + x Lx X — 1
dx [ dx
+ 2 (x - 1 )~2dx
X J X - 1
|x| - In |x — 1 + c
x - I
= In
x2 2 +c
- 1 x - 1
EXAMPLE 4
x + x
Integrate dx.
X + X
x + x — 1 2x + 1 1 ,
dx = -I dx
X3 + X x2 + 1 x ,
2x + 1 dx
-dx -
x2 + 1 X
2x dx dx
dx +
x + 1 J x2 + 1 x
lx2 + + arctan x — In |x| + C
x2 + 1
= In + arctan x + C
EXAMPLE 5
4x2 - 3x + 2
Integrate -;-dx.
x3 — x2 — 2x
C 4x2 - 3x + 2 1 2
-+- dx
x3 — x2 — 2x x x —-2 x + 1
dx dx dx
+ 2 -+ 3
x — 2 x + 1
In |x| + 2 In |x — 2| + 3 In |x + 11 + C
(x - 2)2(x + l)3
= In + C
Exercises 1.7
Integrate.
dr dx dr
1. 2. 3.
1 -x2 :2 — 5x + 6 x2 + 2x - 8
dx x dx x dx
4. 5. 6.
x2 + X :2 - 3x + 2 x3 - 3x2 + 2x
X + 1 3x - 4 dx
7. dx 8. -dx 9.
x2 + 4x - 5 2 — x — x2 x(x + I)2
SECTION 1.7 Integration Using Partial Fractions

r
2x~ + x + 3 x + 2
10. -dx 11. —T,-—dx 12. - dx
(x- l)2(x + 2) x2(x + 3) x2(x + 2)
x3 dx x2 dx x2 - 2
13. 14. 15. dx
x2 + 3x + 2 x2 + 2x + 1 (x2 + l)x
5x2 — x + 11 ' x3 + 2x2 - 9 , 2x3 + 3x
16. 17. 18. dx
e*2 + 4)(x - ifx . x2(x2 + 9) dX (x2 + 1) (x 2 + 2)
x3 dx f x2 - 2x + 1 ' 3 dx
19. 20. 21.
(x2 + l)2 J (x + l)2 1 — x2
r3
3 5x + 1 4 x dx x — 2
22. 23. 24. dx
,2 x2 + 4x - 5 x3 + x2
4x
25. Find the area of the region bounded by y -,X 2, x = 4, and y = 0.
x" + 2x — 3
X + 1
26. Find the area of the region bounded by y , x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0.
{* + 2)2
1.8 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Integration by parts is another method of transforming integrals into a form that can be
integrated by using familiar integration formulas. This method is based on the formula for
differentiating the product of two functions u and v:
d dv du
-(w * v) = U-b V-
dx dx dx
The differential form is then
d(u • v) = u dv + v du
Integrating each side, we have
d(u • v) = (u dv + v du)
u • v = u dv + v du
Solving for u dv, we can write this equation as follows:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
u dv = u • v v du
We now demonstrate the method of integration by parts.
EXAMPLE 1
Integrate xeLx dx.
Let u — x and dv — elx dx; then
{x){eZx dx) it dv

which is the left-hand side of the formula for integration by parts. Note that what we choose to
call dv must contain the factor dx.
If u = x, then du = dx and if dv = e" dx, then v = \ dv — eZxdx = \e21 + C,
Since
u dv — uv v du
we have
(x)(e2*dx) = (x)[-e2* + Cl) -e2* + Ct)dx
= ~xe + C |jr elx dx — C, dx

2
,2x
—xe2* + C,x C,x + C
2 4e
= — xe2* — — e2t + C
2 4
Note: The constant of integration C, that arose from integrating dv disappears in the
final result. This will always occur when using the method of integration by parts. Because of
this, we will omit C, when integrating dv.
The decision on what to choose for u and dv is not always clear. A trial-and-error
approach may be necessary. For example, we could have chosen u = eZx and dv = x dx in
Example 1. We would then have had du = 2ez' dx and v = \ x2. So,
e2x(x dx) = \)x2e2x x 2e2x dx
and the right-hand integral is more complicated than the original integral. When this
occurs, you should try another choice for u and dv.
EXAMPLE 2
Integrate x sin x dx.
u dv v du
u = X du = dx
->
dv = sin x dx V = —cos X
u dv = uv v du
x sin x dx = —x cos x — (—cos x) dx
= —x cos X + cos x dx
= —x cos x + sin x + C
SECTION 1.8 Integration by Parts 31

e
EXAMPLE 3
Integrate x3 In x dx.
u dv v. du
du = —dx
u = In x x
dv = x3 dx
u dv — uv v du
(\nx)(x3dx) = (lnx)^J
1
= — ,
x 4 In x
]_
x3 dx
4
,
= —1 x 4 In x
4
4
-x4 + C
16
EXAMPLE 4
Integrate arcsin x dx.
u dv v du
dx
u = arcsin x du
\/ \ — x1
dv = dx
v = x
u dv — uv v du
dx
(arcsin x)(dx) = (arcsin x)(x) — «
Vl - a:2
= x arcsin x — (1 - x2)~'/2xdx
x arcsin .r + Vl - x2 + c
EXAMPLE 5
Integrate sec3 x dx.
u dv v du
.
u — sec x du = sec x tan x dx

->
dv = sec2 x dx v = tanx

u dv = uv v du
(sec x)(sec2 x dx) = (sec x)(tan x) (tan x)(sec x tan x dx)
sec x tan x — sec x tan2 x dx
sec x tan x — (sec x)(sec2 * - 1) dx
= sec x tan x — sec3 x dx + sec x dx
or
sec3 x dx = sec x tan x sec3 x dx + In Isec x + tan x I + C,
sec3 .v dx = sec x tan x + In |sec x + tan x \ + C, (Add J sec3 x dx to each side.
sec3 x dx = — [sec x tan x + In |sec x + tan x \ ] + C
Note: Whenever a multiple (not equal to 1) of the original integral appears on the
right-hand side, it may be combined with the left-hand integral to complete the integration
process.
EXAMPLE 6
' 7t/2
Evaluate eZx sin x dx.

Jo
u dv v du
u = e2v du = 2e2x dx
->
dv = sin x dx v -- — cosx
u dv = uv v du
(e^Xsin x dx) = (eZir)(—cos x) — (—cos x)(2eZx dx)
= — elx cos x +2 e2* cos x dx (1)
In this example, we need to repeat the integration by parts process for the integral e2* cos x dx.
u' dv' v' du'
u' = e* du' = 2elx dx

->
dv' — cos x dx v' — sinx
u' dv' = v' du'
SECTION 1.8 Integration by Parts 33

f
(ez')(cos xdx) = (e^Xsinx) — (sin x)(2e2x dx)
= e2* sin x — 2 e^ sin x dx
So, substituting this result in Equation (1), we have
ei2* sin x dx = -eZx cos * + 2ê2x sin * - 2 e1* sin x dx
e2x sin xdx = -eZx cos x + 2elx sin x - 4 e2* sin x dx
Adding 4 / eZx sin x dx to each side and including a constant of integration, we have
5 e2x sin x dx = -e21 cos x + 2elx sin x + C)
eZx
e2* sin a: dx = — (2 sin x — cos x) + C
v/2 J2x 7r/2
e2* sin xdx = —(2 sinx - cos x)

0
= 7<2-o)-((o- i)
1
= 5 (2^ + 1)
Exercises 1.8
Integrate.
l. In x dx 2. x cos x dx 3. xex dx 4. xe x dx
In x
5. Vx In x dx 6. x2 In x dx 7. In x2 dx 8. —-pdx
Vx
9. arccos x dx 10. arctan x dx 11. e x cos x dx 12. x2 sin x dx
13. x2 cos x dx 14. x3 In x dx 15. x sec2 x dx 16. x2e2xdx
17. (In x)2 dx 18. x arctan x dx 19. x sec x tan x dx 20. x3 c3jr dx
i 2 3
21. xe2x dx 22. arcsin x dx 23. xVx — 1 dx 24. xVx + 1 dx
7r/2
25. In (x + 1) dx 26. x2 cos x dx

•'o
27. Find the area of the region bounded by y = In 2x, x = 5, x = 1, and y = 0.
28. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2e x, x = 0, x = 2, and y — 0.
29. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = e x, y = 0,
x = 0, and x = 1 about the y-axis.
30. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y — sin x, y = 0,
x = 0, and x = it about the y-axis.

1.9 INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC
SUBSTITUTION
Certain algebraic functions cannot be integrated by the methods presented so far. Appropriate
trigonometric substitutions often lead to an integration solution. Algebraic functions involving
the expressions \4r — ir, \/V — a2, or V7T a2 can often be integrated by substitu¬
tions based on the diagrams in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Reference triangles used for integrating expressions in the form Va2 - u2, VJ + a2, and
Vu2 - a2, respectively.
The following examples illustrate the use of these substitutions.
EXAMPLE 1
x2 dx
Integrate (see Fig. 1.3).
V9 - v2
Since V9 — 2 appears in the integral, we will use the substitution
u — ci sin 0 (u = x, a — 3)
x = 3 sin 9
dx = 3 cos 9 d9
9 — x2 = 9 — (3 sin 0)2
= 9-9 sin2 0
= 9(1 — sin2 6)
= 9 cos2 0
So,
V9 - x2 = 3 cos 0
Then,
f x2 dx (3 sin 0)2(3 cos 6 dO)
V9 - x2 3 cos 6
= 9 sim 0 d6
' 1
= 9 1 — cos 20) dO cos 20)
_ 9 9
dO - cos 20 dO
9 2 J
SECTION 1.9 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution 35

9 9
= — 9-sin 29 + C
2 4
9 9
= — 9 — — sin 9 cos 9 + C (sin 26 = 2 sin 6 cos 6)
From Fig. 1.3
x
sin 6 = —, so 6 = arcsin-
3
V9 - x2
cos 6
Making these substitutions, we have
x,2 dx 9 x 9 * V9 - x2 x x V9~
■= — — arcsin— + C = — arcsin— C
V9~ 2 ' 3 ' 3 2 3
EXAMPLE 2
Integrate (see Fig. 1.4).

Vx2 + 4
Since Vx2 + 4 appears in the integral, we use the substitutions
u = a tan 6 {u = x, a — 2)
x = 2 tan 6
dx — 2 sec2 9 dO
x2 + 4 = (2 tan 6)2 + 4
= 4 tan2 9 + 4
= 4(tan2 9 + 1)
= 4 sec2 9
So,
k/x2 + 4 = 2 sec 9
Then,
dx 2 sec2 0 d9
V,xz + 4 2 sec 9
sec 0
= In Isec 9 + tan 0| + C

From Fig. 1.4 we have
Vx2 + 4
sec 9 =
x
tan 9 = —
2
Making these substitutions, we have
dx Vx2 + 4
- _|_ —
x
= In + C
W + 4 2 2
Vx2 + 4 +
= In + C
= In | Vx2 + 4 + x| — In 2 + C
= In |Vx2 + 4 + x| + C' (since — In 2 is also a constant)
EXAMPLE 3
dx
Integrate —. = (see Fig. 1.5).
V(4x2 - 25 )3
The denominator can be written as \/(4x2 — 25 )3 = (4x2 — 25)\/4x2 — 25. This sug-
gests the substitutions:
u = a sec 9 (u = 2x, a — 5)
2x = 5 sec 0
^4x2- 25
x = — sec 6
2
J
dx = — sec 9 tan 9 d9
2
4x2 - 25
■•(?■ sec2 9 25
= 25 sec2 9 — 25
= 25(sec2 9 - 1)
= 25 tan2 9
So,
V4x2 - 25 = 5 tan 9
Then,
dx f sec 0 tan 9 d9
V(4x2 - 25)3 (5 tan 0)3

J sec 0 tan 9 d9
50 J tan3 9
J_ sec 9
d9
50 tan2 9
1
J_ cos 9
d9
50 sin2 9
cos2 9
J_ cos 9
d9
50 J sin2 9
SECTION 1.9 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution 37

1 1
C
50 V sin 0
2x
——esc 0 + C CSC 0 = from Fig. P.5
50 V4x* 2 - 25
x
+ C
25\W^25
EXAMPLE 4
dx
Evaluate (see Fig. 1.6).
(Vx2 + 9)3
dx 3 sec2 0 dO
(Vx2 + 9)3 J (V9tan20 + 9)3

3 sec2 0 dd
(V9 sec2 0)3

3 sec2 0 d6
27 sec2 6
1 d0
9 J sec 0
cos 0 r/0
9 .
1
= — sin 0 + C
9
1 *
+ c
9 Vx2 + 9
+ C
9 Vx2 + 9
So,
dx 4_
J0 (Vr + 9)3 9 Vx2 + 9 9V25 45
2nd 7 1/ 2nd V"~ xA2+9)A3,x,0,4) ENTER

FI- F3- FA- F5 Ffi- 1
Tools A13«bi-0 Cole 01h«F PrArolO Cloon Uf
fnIni<l/'f<X2+9>5 * * * 9
> X? 03 4)►Frac
4/45
f4 r 1 dx 4/45
[(FUT) J
j 0
MAIN RAD AUTO FUNC
Math 9 1/ 2nd V x x2 +9) MATH 3 ,x,0,4) MATH 1 ENTER

Exercises 1.9
Integrate.
dx dx
1. 2. - dx
V9 + 4*2 V9 - 16x; V4 - 9x
x2 1 dx dx
4. -dx 5. 6.
Vl - 16.x:: V9 - x2 VT6 + xJ
ri
dx dx dx
7.
o V(4 - x2)3 V4x2 - 9 - xVx2 + 4
dx Vx2 - 9
10. 11. dx 12. f *
xV9 - x2 x V(x2 + 4)3
dx dx [ V9 + x2
13. 14. 15. dx
x2V7fT xVx2 + 9 x
f V4 + 9x2 dx dx
16. x/x 17. 18.
X (25 - x2)3/2 (x2 - 5) 3/2
dx x3 dx
19. 20. 2i. .-
Vx2 - 9 xVl - x2 V9x2 + 4
x2 dx dx (Hint: Complete the square
22 . 2\2
23.
under the radical.)
(4 + x2) Vx2 - 6x +
dx dx dx
24. 25. 26.
V-9x2 + 18x - 5 (x2 + 8x + 15)3/2 V9x2 + 36x + 52
27. Find the area of the region bounded by y = — , x = 0, x = 2, and y = 0.
x2 + 4
28. Find the area of the region bounded by y = V4 — x2, x = 0, x = 2, and y = 0.
1.10 INTEGRATION USINGTABLES
The Table of Integrals in Appendix B lists some standard integration formulas for integrat¬
ing selected functions. These formulas have been developed using the techniques of this
chapter and other methods of integrating various complicated functions. A more extensive
list of integration formulas (usually more than 400) can be found in most standard handbooks
of mathematical tables.
We now illustrate how to use these tables. In the Table of Integrals in Appendix B.
u represents a function of x.
EXAMPLE 1
Integrate xV3 + 4x dx.
If we let u = x, a — 3, and b = 4, this integral is in the form of Formula 11 in

Appendix B. Substituting these values of u, a, and b in this formula, we have
-[2(3) - 3(4)(x)][(3) + (4)(x)]3/2

xV3 + 4x dx + C
15(4)2
(2x - 1)(3 + 4x)3/2
+ C
20
SECTION 1.10 Integration Using Tables 39

t
EXAMPLE 2
dx
Integrate
*V9 + 5x
If we let u = x, a = 9, and b = 5, then the integral is in the form of Formula 15.
Substituting these values of u, a, and b in this formula, we have
dx 1 V9 + 5x - 3
= — In + C
cV9 + 5* 3 V9 + 5x + 3
EXAMPLE 3
. 100
Integrate In x dx.
If we let u = x and n = 100, then this integral is in the form of Formula 57.
. 101
:101 In x
:100 In x dx = + c
101 (101)2
EXAMPLE 4
Integrate cos x dx.
If we let u = sin* and a = 2, then since du = cos* dx, this integral is in the form of
Formula 52.
2sin jr cos x dx 2“ du
u = sin *
2“ du = cos x dx
+ C
In 2
2sin x
+ C
In 2
EXAMPLE 5
Integrate sin3 3* dx.
If we let u = 3x and n — 5, then the integral is in the form of Formula 83.
du
sin5 3x dx = sin5 u
]_
sin5 u du
3
= —l-sin5 1 u cos u H— sin5 u du

3\ 5 5 J
1
= — — sin u cos u + sin5 u du
15

The solution is not complete. We still need to integrate sin2udu, which can be
integrated by using Formula 83 again.
. 3 , 1 . 2 2
sin u du —-sin- u cos u H— sin u du
3 3
1 . ,
— sin" u cos u — —cos u
2
So,
■ 5, , 1 .4 4/
, 1 2 2
sim 3x dx = —— sin u cos u sin
H--'"-2 u cos u — —cos u } + C
15 15V 3
1 4
— sin 3x cos 3x ——sin" 3x cos 3x rcos 3x + C
15 45 45
Exercises 1.10
Integrate using the Table of Integrals in Appendix B. Give the number of the formula used.
dx x dx dx
1. 2. 3.
xVx + 5 2 + 7x Vx2 - 4
dx x dx
4. 5. 6. xV4x + 7 dx
VfT + x2 V2x + 3
x2 dx
7. sin lx sin 3x dx 8. cos 5x cos 2x dx 9.
V9 - x2
dx dx
10. 11. 12. x2 e4x dx
x\/16 — x2 x(l + 9x)2
dx dx
13. 14. 15. Vx2 + 4 dx
x2 - 25 xV9 - 16x2
dx x dx 5.x dx
16. 17. 18.
x(2 + 5x)2 (3 + 4x)2 V2 + 4x
dx
19. 20. xe5x dx 21. e3jr sin 4x dx
xV9x2 - 16
22. e2* cos 5x dx 23. (2x — 3)sin(2x — 3) dx
24. x2 cos x2 dx 25. sin4 x dx 26. cos5 x dx
V9x2 - 16 dx
27. dx 28.
(25 - 4x 2)3/2
1.11 NUMERICAL METHODS OF INTEGRATION
Despite the numerous integration techniques and formulas available, there are still many
functions that are difficult to integrate. In fact, the value of some integrals cannot be
exactly determined by any known method of integration. However, several numerical tech¬
niques have been developed for approximating the value of an integral. These numerical
methods can easily be used with the help of a calculator or a computer.
The trapezoidal rule can be demonstrated by considering j'|'/(x) dx as representing
the area bounded by the curves y = f(x), x = a, x = b, and the x-axis. The trapezoidal rule
is based on approximating this area by the sum of the areas of selected trapezoids.
SECTION 1.11 Numerical Methods of Integration 41

Figure 1.7 The area under a curve may be estimated by adding the areas of the trapezoids.
The line segment from a to b is divided into n intervals, each of width Ax
( b — a
as shown in Fig. 1.7. r
Flere, n = 4, so Ax = . ] This process determines (n + 1)
V 4
numbers on the x-axis: x0 = a, x, = a + Ax, x2 — a + 2 Ax, x3 — a + 3 Ax,,
xn = a + n Ax = b. Then, forming the n = 4 trapezoids as shown in Fig. 1.7, we have
— [/(a) + /(xj)] Ax as the area of the first trapezoid
— [/(x,) + /(x2)] Ax as the area of the second trapezoid
-[/(■* 2) +/03)]Ax as the area of the third trapezoid
+/(^)]Ax as the area of the fourth trapezoid
The sum of these four areas is then used as an approximation for the area /*/(x) dx.
In summing these four areas, we have
y[/W + 2/M + 2/fe) + 2/(j3) +/(*)]
In general, we have the following rule:
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
fb Ax
f(x)dx = —[/(a) + 2/(xj) + 2/(x2) + 2/(x3) + ■■■ + 2/(x„_1) +/(&)]
The symbol = means “approximately equals.”

Note: The pattern of coefficients is 1, 2, 2, 2,..., 2, 2, 1.
EXAMPLE 1
2 dx
Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to find the approximate value of — (see Fig. 1.8).
x
c- . , b — a 2—1 1
Since n = 4, Ax =-=-= - and
n 4 4

For comparison, in Section 1.2, Example 8, we found the exact value to be
— = hurl? = In 2 - In 1 = In 2 - 0 = In 2 = 0.6931.
x 11
EXAMPLE 2
r5
Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 8 to find the approximate value of xVx — 1 dx
0
4 1
(see Fig. 1.9). First, Ax = — = — = 0.5. We have
8 2
(a)
X0 = a = 1
II
II
x, = 1.5 /(x.) =/(l-5) =1-061

(N
cF
x2 = 2
H
ll
II
x3 = 2.5 /(x3) =/( 2.5) = 3.062

x4 = 3 /(x4) =/(3) = 4.243
x5 = 3.5 /(x5) =/(3.5) = 5.534
4^
/K) =/(4) = 6.928

II
£
x~j — 4.5 /(x7) =/(4.5) = 8.419

o
”5-
ii
II
X8 = b = 5
So,
xVx - 1 dx = — [/(fl) + 2/(x,) + 2/(x2) + 2/(x3) + 2/(x4) + 2/(x5)
+ 2/(x6) + 2/(x7)+/(fe)]
= f[0 + 2(1.061) + 2(2) + 2(3.062) + 2(4.243) + 2(5.534)
+ 2(6.928) + 2(8.419) + 10]

= 18.12
Note: Slight variations in the results may occur due to rounding.

n r
Numerical methods of integration are especially helpful when the function to be in¬
tegrated is not completely known.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the work done in moving an object along a straight line for 10 ft if the following mea¬
surements were made:
Distance moved (ft) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Force (lb) 12 9 7 5 4 2
The formula for work IV done in moving an object from a to b is W = Jbf(x) dx, where
f(x) is the force exerted on the object at x.
In this example we do not know what the function /(x) looks like, but we do know its
values at 2-ft intervals (Ax = 2). Here, x0 = a = 0, x1 = 2, x2 = 4, x3 = 6, x4 = 8, and
x5 = b = 10. So,
r 10
IV = /(x) dx - -y- [/(fl) + 2/(x 0 + 2f(x2) + 2f(x3) + 2f(x4) + f(b)}

Jo
2
= —[12 + 2(9) + 2(7) + 2(5) + 2(4) + 2]
= 64 foot-pounds (ft-lb)
A second method of approximating the value of an integral is called Simpson’s ride,

which uses parabolic areas instead of trapezoidal areas and is usually more accurate. As
before, divide the line segment from a to b into n intervals, each of width A.x = --—
n
(n must be even here). Then fit parabolas to adjacent triples of points as shown in Fig. 1.10.
The areas under the parabolic segments are then summed. The development of this
formula is rather difficult and can be found in more advanced texts.
SIMPSON'S RULE
[h Ax
J f(x\dx s —\f(a) + 4/(x,) + 2/(x2) + 4/(x3) + 2/(x4)
+ ■•• + |) +f(b)]
(ft must be an even integer.)
Note: The pattern of coefficients is 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4,..., 2, 4, 1.

dx
We now use Simpson’s rule to obtain another approximation for — (see Example 1).
1
+ —
x 2
0.6933
Note that the exact answer is In 2, which is approximately 0.693147.

y
Figure 1.10 The area under a curve may be estimated by adding the areas under parabolic
segments instead of trapezoidal strips.
EXAMPLE 4
dx
Use Simpson’s rule with n — 6 to find the approximate value of
x + 2
b- a 4-1 3 1
First, Ax =-=-= — = — = 0.5. We have
n 6 6 2
x0 = a = 1 f(a) =/( 1) = |
x, = 1.5 /(x,)=/( 1-5) =

3.5
1
x2 = 2 /(x2) =/(2) =
x3 = 2.5 /(x3) =/(2.5) = —
x4 = 3 f(x4) =/(3) = -
x5 = 3.5 /(x5) =/(3.5) =

5.5
x6 = b = 4 /W=/(4) = -
Then,
r4
s ^[f(a) + 4/(x,) + 2/(x2) + 4/(x3) + 2/(x4) + 4/(x5) + f(b)]
x + 2 3
05 1
- + 4 + 2—1 + 4 — + 2 — + 4 +-
3 3 ,3.5, ,4.5 ,0.0,
0.6932

"i t
EXAMPLE 5
f5
Estimate /(x) dx using Simpson’s rule and the following table of values of f(x) (note that
since Simpson’s rule requires the number of intervals to be even, the number of function val¬
ues must be odd; for example, these seven equally spaced x-values have six spaces between
them):
X 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
f(x) 3 6 5 4 7 8 9
f{x) dx = -”[.(3) + 4(6) + 2(5) + 4(4) + 2(7) + 4(8) + (9)] = 18
Calculator Programs: Trapezoidal Rule, Simpson's Rule

The following programs are written for a Texas Instruments TI-83 or TI-83 Plus Graphing
Calculator. Sample output is shown in Figs. 1.11a and 1.11b.
Exercises 1.11
Use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the value of each integral.
r l
f3 dx ~ dx dx
1. —, n = 4 2. —,n = 10 3. ;,n = 4
., * . . 1 + x
dx
,n = 6 ■5. V4 — x2 dx, n = 10 6. 2' dx, n = 4
4 + x
7T/3
dx
7. V/l + x3 dx, n = 6 8. ,n = 4 9. cos x 2 dx, n =
Vl + x3
'7r/4
10. tan x2 dx, n = 4

•'o
11. Use the trapezoidal rule to find the work done in moving an object along a straight line for 14
ft if the following measurements were made:
Distance moved (ft) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Force (lb) 24 21 18 17 15 12 10 9
12. Use the trapezoidal rule to find the distance traveled in 6 s by an object moving along a straight
line if the following data were recorded:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Velocity (m/s) 20 30 50 60 40 30 10
Use the trapezoidal rule to find the approximate area under the curve through each set of points.
X 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
y 12 11 18 25 19 6 10

Program: TRAPZOID
ClrHome
Output(1,4,"NUMERICAL")
Output(2,3,"INTEGRATION")
Output(4,1,"TRAPEZOIDAL RULE")
Output(8,1,"* PRESS ENTER *")
Pause
Radian
ClrHome
Menu("INTEGRATING:","THE CURRENT Y0",l,"WRITE A NEW Y0",A)
Lbl A
ClrHome
Disp "ENTER YOUR NEW","FUNCTION.",""
Input "Y0=",StrO
StringÊqu (StrO, Y0)
FnOff 0
Lbl 1
ClrHome
Disp "LIMITS OF","INTEGRATION:",""
Input "LOWER=",A
Input "UPPER=",B
Disp "","N SUBINTERVALS:"
Input "N=",N
Output(1,1,"PLEASE WAIT ...")
o-*-s
0-*-K
B-A-^D
For(J,1,N)
Y0 (A+KD/N) +S-*-S
Y0(A+(K+1)D/N)+S-^S
K+l -►K
End
SD/ (2N) ->1
Disp "TRAPEZ. INTEGRAL",I
Output(3,1,"Y0=")
Equ^String (Y0, StrO )
Output(3,4,StrO)
NUMERICAL ENTER VOUR NEW

INTEGRATION v.1 FUNCTION.
fflWRITE A NEW Vd
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE Vo=sinOOi
* PRESS ENTER *
LIMITS OF LOWER=0
INTEGRATION: UPPER=n
Vo=sin<X)
L0WER=0 N SUBINTERUALS:
UPPER=n N=32
TRAPEZ. INTEGRAL
N SUBINTERVALS: 1.998393361
N=32i ■
Figure 1.1 ta
X -4 0 4 8 12 16 20
V 11 9 3 10 21 30 40
Use Simpson’s rule to approximate the value of each integral.
r2
dx
15. ,n = 4 16. \/8 - x2 dx, n = 4
i) Vl + x2
SECTION 1.11 Numerical Methods of Integration

Program: SIMPSON
ClrHome
Output(1,4,"NUMERICAL")
Output(2,3,"INTEGRATION")
Output(4,2,"SIMPSON'S RULE")
Output(8,1,"* PRESS ENTER *")
Pause
Radian
ClrHome
Menu("INTEGRATING:", "THE CURRENT Y0",1, "WRITE A NEW Y0",A)
Lbl A
ClrHome
Disp "ENTER YOUR NEW","FUNCTION.",""
Input "Y0=",StrO
StringÊqu (Str0 , Y0)
FnOff 0
Lbl 1
ClrHome
Disp "LIMITS OF","INTEGRATION:",""
Input "LOWER=",A
Input "UPPER=",B
Lbl 2
Disp "","N SUBINTERVALS:"
Input "X-",N
If N-2int(N/2)AO:Then
Disp "N MUST BE EVEN,","TRY AGAIN.","",""
Goto 2
End
Output(1,1,"PLEASE WAIT ...")
o-*-s
0 -►K
B-A-^D
For(J,1,N/2)
Y0 (A+KD/N) +S-^S
4Y0 (A+ (K+l) D/N) +S-^S
Y0 (A+ (K+2) D/N) +S~*’S
K+2-*-K
End
SD/ (3N) -*-I
Disp "SIMPSON INTEGRAL",I
Output(3,1,"Y0=" )
Equ^String (Y0, StrO )
Output(3,4,StrO)
NUMERICAL
INTEGRATION mmsm* w
JfflWRITE A NEW Vd
ENTER VOUR NEW
FUNCTION.
SIMPSON'S RULE Vo=sin<X)l
* PRESS ENTER *
LIMITS OF LOWER=0
INTEGRATION: UPPER=n
Vo=sin<X)
LOWER=0 N SUBINTERVALS:
UPPER=k N=32
SIMPSON INTEGRAL
N SUBINTERVALS: 2.000001033
N=32i
Figure 1.11b
6 dx f3
17. ,n - 8 18.
}nf
II
2 1 + X3 J
19. ex dx, n = 4 20. e~x~ dx, n

Jo J0

' 77-/4
21. x tan x dx, n = 4 22. Vx sin xdx.n = 4

'o
* 7T/2 7T/3
23. V 1 + cos2 x dx, n ~ 6 24. esc x dx, n = 4

. Jo J7r/6
Approximate the value of each integral by (a) using the trapezoidal rule and (b) using Simpson's
rule.
r3
sin x
25. V9 — x2 dx, n = 6 26. dx, n = 6
1 + x
27. xe' dx. n = 4 28. xe * cix, n = 4

o
ir/2 *77/2
29. cos Vx dx,n = 6 30. cos" xdx.n = 6

Jo
31. Find the approximate area of the field in Fig. 1.12 (a) using the trapezoidal rale and (b) using
Simpson’s rule.
Figure 1.12
1.12 AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES
Finding areas in polar coordinates is similar to finding the area of a region in rectangular
coordinates. Suppose that we have a region bounded by r — f(6) and the terminal sides of
angles a and (3 in standard position, where a < (3 (see Fig. 1.13a). Instead of rectangles as
in rectangular coordinates, let’s subdivide the angular region into n subintervals of circular
sectors as follows:
a = 0O, 0|, 02,..., dn - (3
Let r, be any ray within the ith sector. Then, A0, is the central angle of the ith sector and
rt = /(0,) is the radius of the ith sector.
SECTION 1.12 Areas in Polar Coordinates 49

"1 r
Figure 1.13 (a) The region shown is bounded by the polar curve r = f{6) and the rays 9 — a
and 9 = /3. (b) The area of the region shown can be estimated by adding the areas of the small
circular sectors.
Recall that the area of a sector of a circle whose central angle is 6 (in radians) with
radius r is
A = -r26
2
The area of the ith sector in Fig. 1.13(b) is
AO, = j[/(0,)]2 AS,
The total area is
2 •rji A0, ^
+ ~ r7 A0?2
^ 2
+ r r\
2 3 3
+' ■ ■ • +' ^ r2n Ad„
o * n
which can be represented by the integral
AREA OF A REGION IN POLAR COORDINATES
1
A = —
2
r2de=l- | [f(e)fde
Due to the squaring of r, you should review Section 1.4 and the integration of even
powers of sine and cosine functions. Recall that the identities used are
sin2 x = (1 - cos 2x)
cos2 .r = — (1 + cos 2x)
EXAMPLE 1
Find the area of the region inside r2 = 4 sin 29.

First, graph r2 = 4 sin 20 (see Fig. 1.14).
Figure 1.14 Figure 1.15
Due to symmetry, the area may be expressed by

77/2
'2 dd
' 7r/2
4 sin 20 dd
■*0
7r/2
- — cos 26
2 0
= —2[ — 1 - 1] = 4
EXAMPLE 2
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant within r = 4 + 4 sin 9.
First, graph r = 4 + 4 sin 9 (see Fig. 1.15).
P
A = r2 d9
2 .a
1 f ir/2
(4 + 4 sin 9f d9
2
7T/2
(1 + sin 9)2 d9
* 7T/2
' 1 + 2 sin 9 + sin2 9) d9
7r/2
= 8 1 + 2 sin 9 + — (1 — cos 29) d9
7T/2
3 1
= 8 —I- 2 sin 9-cos 29 d9
2 2
7T/2
10
8( —— 2 cos 9 — — sin 29
0

1+2+fnInt(C4+4si
rUtO
34.84955592
bJI+16
34.84955592
1/2* MATH 9 (4+4 SIN ALPHA 3 )) x2, ALPHA 3 ,0, 2nd tt /2) ENTER
EXAMPLE 3
Find the area within the inner loop of r — 2 + 4 cos 0.

First, graph r = 2 + 4 cos 0 (see Fig. 1.16). The endpoints of the inner loop are found
by noting that r = 0 at the endpoints.
r = 2 + 4 cos 0
0 = 2 + 4 cos 0
1
cos 6 = —
2
277 477
3 ’ 3
The inner loop is determined

277 477
by — < 6 < —.
3 3
*47t/3
1
A = -
2
2tt/3
4tt/3
(2 + 4 cos 0)2 dd
~ 2 J2tt/3 Figure 1.16
47t/3
= 2 (1+4 cos 0 + 4 cos2 9) dd
2tt/3
4tt/3
= 2 1 + 4cos0 + 4 • -(1 + cos 20) dd
2tt/3
47t/3
(3 + 4 cos 0 + 2 cos 20) dO

277-/3
4tt/3
= 2[30 + 4 sin 0 + sin 20]
2t7/3
277 V3
= 2 3. + + 4(^T) + ^ 3-+ 4-+
3 \ 2 2 3 2 t)

The area between two polar curves may be expressed by
A {imf - um2} de
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the region inside r = 1 and outside r = 1 + sin 9.

First, graph the two equations (see Fig. 1.17).
Use the substitution method of solving equations simultaneously to find the points of
intersection.
1tt/2
d 1
2 cos 6-1— sin 26
2 4
3tt/2
= 2*0 + 7-0]-(2(-1)-? +
37T 71
=-+ 2 + —
4 2
= 2 - —
4
EXAMPLE 5
A microphone with a cardioid pickup pattern is often the choice of sound engineers recording
live performances. The cardioid pattern offers good frontal sensitivity, while suppressing
audience noise in back of the microphone. In Fig. 1.18, find the area on the stage that lies within
the optimal pickup range of the microphone if the boundaries of this region are given by the
cardioid r — 20 + 20 cos 6 and the vertical line x = 15 (the microphone has been placed
15 ft from the edge of the stage).

First, rewrite x = 15 in polar coordinates
x = 15
r cos 0=15 (Recall that in polar form, x = r cos 0.)
15
r —-
cos 0
r = 15 sec 0
- TH * > 7
* « , ■ s»~ *
*SV-i ,• .
7 Audience * )
Figure 1.18
Next, find the 0-values of the points of intersection by equating the two expressions for r.
20 + 20 cos 0 =-
cos 0
20 cos 0 + 20 cos2 0 = 15 (multiplying both sides by cos 0)
20 cos2 0 + 20 cos 0 - 15 = 0
4 cos2 0 + 4 cos 0 — 3 = 0 (dividing both sides by 5)
(2 cos 0 + 3)(2 cos 0 — 1) = 0
3 1
cos 0 =-or cos 0 = —
2 2
77
0 =
~3
Note: cos 0 = — — is impossible since — 1 < cos 0 < 1.
The integral for the area of the region is

' n/3
]_
[(20 + 20 cos 0)2 — (15 sec 0)2] dd
2
—tt/3
' 7t/3
[(20 + 20 cos 0)2 — (15 sec 0)2] dd (using x-axis symmetry)

•'o
' 77/3
[400 + 800 cos 0 + 400 cos2 0 - 225 sec2 0] d6

Jo

7t/3
1 + cos 20
400 + 800 cos 6 + 400 — 225 sec2 6 d6
7T-/3
[600 + 800 cos 0 + 200 cos 26 - 225 sec2 6] dd
7r/3
= (600 6 + 800 sin 0+100 sin 20 - 225 tan 0)

0
- 600(?)+ 800(¥)+ 100(ir) — - 225 V3 - 0
= 200tr + 225 V3
= 1018 ft2
Using a calculator (which must be set in radians), we have
l/2*fnlnt(<20+20
cos<9> > 2-<15/cos
<9))2,9, -71/3,71/3
)
1018.029962
1/2* MATH 9 (20+20 COS ALPHA 3 )) x2 -(15/ COS ALPHA 3 )) x2, ALPHA 3, ENTER
Exercises 1.12
Find the area of each region.
2tt 77 ITT
1. r = 2,0 < 0 < — 2. r = 4, — <0< — 3. Inside r = 3 cos 0
3 3 6
4. Inside r = 6 sin 0 5. Inside r2 = 9 sin 20 6. Inside r2 = cos 20
7. Inside r — 1 + cos 0 8. Inside r = 2 — sin 0 9. Inside r = 4 sin 20
10. Inside r = 2 sin 30 11. Inside r2 = 16 cos2 0 12. Inside r~ = 4 skr 0
13. Inside r = 4 + 3 cos 0 14. Inside r = 3 + 3 sin 0
15. /• = ee, 0 < 0 < 77 16. r = 2s, 0 < 0 < 77
17. Inside the inner loop of r = 1 — 2 cos 0
18. Inside the outer loop and outside the inner loop of r = 2 - 4 sin 0
19. Inside r = 2 sin 0 + 2 cos 0 20. Inside r = 2 sin 0 - 2 cos 0
21. Inside r = sin 0 and r = sin 20 22. Inside r = sin 0 and r = cos 6
23. Inside r = 2 cos 20 and outside r = 1
24. Inside r2 = 8 cos 20 and outside r = 2

25. Inside r — 2 + sin 6 and outside r = 5 sin 6
26. Inside r = — 6 cos 6 and outside r — 2 — 2 cos 6
27. Inside r = 3 4- 3 cos 6 and outside r = 3 + 3 sin 6
28. Inside the resulting inner loops of r — 3 + 3 sin 9 and r = 3 — 3 sin 6
1.13 IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Integrals which have an upper limit of 00 or a lower limit of —00 are commonly encountered
in applied mathematics and statistics. Within the scope of this text, they will provide an
important convergence test for infinite series and the background necessary to study Laplace
transforms. In general, an improper integral is any integral which represents the area of a
region that is infinite in extent. The question to be answered is whether that area might still
comprise only a finite number of square units, and to find that finite value when it exists.
What all improper integrals have in common is that the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
does not directly apply to them (thus the name “improper”). The secret to evaluating an
improper integral is to express it as a limit. In particular, it must be expressed as the limit
of a definite integral to which the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus does apply.
EXAMPLE 1
Discuss the meaning of dx and evaluate it.
f°° 3 3
— dx represents the area under the curve f(x) = —, starting at x = 1 and continuing
Jj v x
(infinitely) to the right. We are about to show that this region, while infinite in extent, has an
area of only 3 square units! First, express the improper integral as the limit of a definite integral
with a variable upper limit of integration t.
OO
y
lim
/—> OO
•'l
3
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus applies to this definite integral since f(x) = — is a
x2
continuous function for 1 < x < t, where t is any finite value greater than one (see Fig. 1.19).
So, the next step is to evaluate this definite integral in terms of t. finding a formula for the area
under the curve from x = 1 to x - t which would work even for extremely large finite val¬
ues of t. The. final step is to evaluate the limit, showing us where this area formula is headed
as t —> °°.
3
—7dx= lim — dx
x <->°° x
lim 3x 2 dx
t—►OO

3x_1
lim
/-> oo —1
= lim —
f—>CO ^
= 0 + 3
= 3
The area is exactly 3 square units.
EXAMPLE 2
f°
Evaluate and interpret eZxdx.
—oo
0 y
lim elxdx
t—>—OO
lim —
t—¥~ OO 2
l
This result means that there is exactly — square unit of area to the left of the v-axis under the
curve f(x) = e2* (see Fig. 1.20).
In the first two examples, regions that were infinite in extent had finite areas. Not sur¬
prisingly, some regions that are infinite in extent have infinite areas.
EXAMPLE 3
f°° 1
Evaluate and interpret — dx.
h
5 1 '1
— dx = lim — dx
x x
= lim In x
t—* OO
lim (In t — In 1)
/—>00
lim(ln t - 0)
= lim In t
r—>oo
= OO
SECTION 1.13 Improper Integrals 57

Since there is no “biggest” natural logarithm, the area to the right of x = 1 under f(x) = —
consists of an infinite number of square units (see Fig. 1.21). When the final answer is 00 or —
we say that the improper integral diverges.
A two-dimensional region can be infinite in extent' without having any infinite limits
of integration on the x-axis. Such cases typically involve a function with one or more ver¬
tical asymptotes.
EXAMPLE 4
Evaluate
This region under the curve f(x) = —~ from x = 0 to x = 9 is bounded on the left-hand
Vx
side by the vertical asymptote x = 0 (note that the function has a zero denominator when x = 0).
Of course, the integrand’s discontinuity at x = 0 means that this is an improper integral. The
limit we will use to make things "proper” is called a right-hand limit, and is notated “ lim.,”
*—>•0
which means “the limit as x approaches zero from the right'' The reason for this one-sided
limit is that our definite integral must represent the area from t to 9, where ns a number a lit¬
tle to the right of zero (since we don’t wish to straddle the discontinuity; see Fig. 1.22).
Evaluating a one-sided limit is usually no more difficult than evaluating an ordinary limit. In
this case, just think of t going to zero, but only through positive values. This distinction is quite
important, especially when technology is used to evaluate limits, since an ordinary (two-sided)
limit might fail to exist when the desired one-sided limit has a value.
r9
9 1
—dx = lim dx
0 VX r—>0 + Vx
= lim x~l/2dx
l->0 +
x'/2
= lim ——
!->0+ I
= lim 2Vx
/->0 +
= lim (2V9 - 2Vi)
= 6-0
= 6

EXAMPLE 5
r2
Evaluate dx.
JO [x - 2)4
This time, it’s the upper limit of integration, x = 2, that corresponds to a vertical
asymptote and a point of discontinuity of the integrand (see Fig. 1.23). To keep from straddling
the discontinuity, our values of t must stay to the left of 2 (be between zero and 2). Thus, we will
use a left-hand limit, notated as “ lim ” and pronounced “the limit as t approaches 2 from the
left.” The small, raised negative sign placed immediately after the 2 indicates that only values
of 1 to the left of 2 will be considered, for example, t = 1.99, t = 1.9999, and so on (it does not
imply that negative values of t are being used).
Figure 1.23
This improper integral diverges. Thus, the area under the curve /(;c) = -— from x = 0 to
0* -
its vertical asymptote x = 2 consists of an infinite number of square units.
Sometimes, the evaluation of an improper integral is complicated enough to require

integration by parts (to find the antiderivative) or l’HospitaTs rule (to evaluate the limit). The
following example illustrates both techniques.
SECTION 1.13 Improper Integrals 59

f
EXAMPLE 6
-2x ,
Evaluate xe ax.
Recall, using integration by parts, that
—lx j
xe ax — uv — v du
-lx
xe
—e 21 dx
2
xe
+ - + c
2 2-2
— 2x
xe 1 -lx .
„ ~ —e + C
2 4
Therefore,
xe udx = lim xe z'dx

t—>oo I
J0
xe 2x
= lim —e -2x
t—> oo' 4 0
-21
= lim
t—>oo 2 4 J V 2 4
-it
te 1 2? 1
= lim -e~2‘ + -
t—> oo'
-t 1 1
= lim—- — lim—- + lim —
f—xx) 2en t—ôo 4^' ?—xx) 4
OO
-i i (using 1’Hospital’s rule OO
= I->0O
limT^; ~ 0 + 7
4
in the first limit)
= 0 - 0 + -
4
" 4
Exercises 1.13
Evaluate the following improper integrals.

'oo o -0° |
1.
~idx
2 . — dx 3. ?~lr dx
J1 X . 2 X .0

OO
4. e~J dx I —— dx x ~2/i dx
i Vjc
ro r-i j i
7. e5xdx 8. dx 9. Jt 2/3 dx
Jo
1
10.
■'
dx 11. dx 12.
0 * {x - 5)2 Jo
° 3jc 2 o
13. xe x~ dx 14. dx 15. - 2xex dx
(x3+ l)2 •OO
1
16. x2e x dx 17. —x In x dx 18. — In x dx
Jo JO
1
19. dx 20. dx
xz + -oo X1 + 1
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
1. Basic integration formulas:

,«+ i
(a) u" du = + C (n i= — 1)
n + 1
du
(b) — = In \u + C
u
(c) eudu = eu + C
au
(d) au du =-1- C
In a
(e) In u du = u In u' — u + C
(0 sin u du = —cos u + C
(g) cos u du — sin u + C
(h) tan u du = — In |cos u\ + C
(i) cot u du = ln|sin«| + C
(j) sec u du = In |sec u + tan u\ + C
(k) esc u du — In |csc u — cot u\ + C
(l) sec2 u du = tan u + C
(m) esc2 u du = —cot u + C
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY 61
f
(n) sec u tan u du = sec u + C
(o) esc u cot u du = —esc u + C
du . u
(P) —, = arcsin —PC
Vo2 - u2 a
du 1 11 ^
(q) = — arctan —PC
a2 + w
(r) u dv = uv — v du (integration by parts)
Other integrals can often be written in terms of these basic integrals by using the meth¬
ods of partial fractions and trigonometric substitution.
2. Partial fractions:
(a) Case 1: Nonrepeated linear denominator factors. For every nonrepeated factor
ax + b of the denominator of a given fraction, there corresponds the partial
A
fraction-, where A is a constant.
ax + b
(b) Case 2: Repeated linear denominator factors. For every factor (ax + b)k of the
denominator of the given fraction, there correspond the possible partial fractions
^1 ^2 -A 3 Ak
ax + b (ax + b)2’ (ax + bf' ’ (ax + b)k
where Ax, A2, A3,... ,Ak are constants.

(c) Case 3: Nonrepeated quadratic denominator factors. For every nonrepeated factor
ax2 + bx + c of the denominator of the given fraction, there corresponds the par¬
tial fraction
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
where A and B are constants.

(d) Case 4: Repeated quadratic denominator factors. For every factor (ax2 + bx + c)k
of the denominator of the given fraction, there correspond the possible partial
fractions
Axx + B\ A2x + B2 A3x + B} Akx + Bk

ax2 + bx + c’ (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)3’ ’ (ax2 + bx + c)k
where A,, A2, A},..., Ak, 5,, fi2, B3,..., Bk are constants.
3. Trigonometric substitutions (see Fig. 1.24):
^ u2 - a2
Figure 1.24

4. Trapezoidal rule for approximating the value of an integral:
'b ^
f{x) dx = ~[f{a) + 2 f{xf) + 2 f(x2) + 2 fix,) + ••• + 2 f{xn_f) + f(b)]

Ja
5. Simpson's rule for approximating the value of an integral:
(b A*
f(x) dx = —[/(«) + 4 f{Xl) + 2 fix2) + 4 f(x3) + 2 f(x4) + •••
Ja
+ 4 /(x„_,) + f(b)] n must be an even integer
6. Area of a region in polar coordinates:
A = - -2dd = - [fiO)]2dO
2 2
7. Area between polar cur\’es:
[m?}de
a
8. Improper integrals:
fix) dx = lim fix) dx
f[x) dx = lim fix) dx
Ifx = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f(x) and a < c < b,
f{x) dx = lim fix) dx
Cb
fix) dx = lim fix) dx
J V ' /-H- +
Jt
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
Integrate without using a table of integrals.
cos 3x dx
1. 2. (5 + tan 2*)3 sec2 2x dx
V2 + sin 3x
x dx
3. cos 3x dx 4. xe 3je2 dx
j
x2 - 5
dx dx
6. 7. 8. I sec2 (7x + 2) dx
9 + 4x2 V16 - *2
sec2 x dx 1 dx
9. 10. x2 sin (*3 + 4) dx 11.
3 + 5 tan x Jo 16 + 9x2
•1/2
77/4 sin x dx 1 dx
12. I sin -net dx 13. 14.
cos x V9 - 4x2
dx tan 3x arctan 3x
15. 16. dx 17. dx
cVl6x2 - 9 sec4 3x I + 9x2
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW 63
t
18. sec 5x dx 19. x tan x2 dx 20. sin5 2x cos2 2x dx
dx
21. cos4 3x sin2 3x dx 22.
x1 + 2x — 3
23. eix cos 4x dx
24. sin x In (cos x) dx 25. | tan4 x dx 26. cos2 5x dx
27. dx 28 Vx In x dx
6x2 - x - 1
4 dx
29. e~x (cos2 e_JC)(sin e~x) dx 30.
x2 — 4
r3
arcsin 5x dx
31. x2 sin x dx 32. dx 33.
Vl - 25x2 2 x V?~-
Vx i
'7T/8
r' 8 dx
34. xeAx dx 35. 4 tan 2x dx 36.
4 - x2
3x2 - 1 lx + 12 dx
37. dx 38.
x3 — 4x2 + 4x rVl6 - 9x;
Find the area bounded by the given curves.
39. y(x - 1) = 1, x = 2, x = 4, and y = 0. 40. y — ex + 1, x = l,x = 3, and y = 0.

41. y = elx, x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0. 42. y(l + x2) = l,x = 0, x = 1, and v = 0.
43. y 2(4 — x2) = 1, x = 0, x = 1. and y = 0. 44. xy = 1, y = x, y = 0, and x = 2.
45. y = sec2 x, y = 0, x = 0, and x = tt/4. 46. y(4 4- x2) = 1, x = 0, x = 2, and y = 0.
47. y = tan x, x = 0, x = 77/4. and y — 0.
48. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by y = In x, x = 1,
x = 2, and y = 0 about the x-axis.
49. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by y = e\ x = 0, x = 1,
and y = 0 about the x-axis.
50. The current i in an electric circuit varies according to the equation i = 41 sin 31 amperes. Find
an equation for the charge q in coulombs transferred as a function of time (q = f i dt).
51 + 1
51. The current i in an electric circuit varies according to the equation i = ^ ^-— amperes.
Find an equation for the charge q in coulombs transferred as a function of time.

2
52. A force is acting on an object according to the equation F = xe* , where x is measured in
metres and F is measured in newtons. Find the work done in moving the object from x = lm
to x = 2 m.
Integrate using the Table of Integrals in Appendix B. Give the number of the formula used,
dx V16 - X 2 dx
53. 54. dx 55.
x(5 + 3x) \/3 + 6x + x2
V4X2"
56. e' sin 2x dx 57. dx 58. cos4 3x sin 3x dx
V9 + 4x
59. dx 60. tan6x dx
Use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the value of each integral.

f4 j.. r3
dx dx
61. ,n = 6 62. ,n = 4
2x - 1 9 + x2

63. Vl6 - x2 dx, n = 8 64. ^18 - x2 dx, n
Use the trapezoidal rule to find the approximate area under the curve through each set of points.
i 3 5 7 9
65. X
y 2.3 2.8 3.4 2.7 2.1
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

66. X
y 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.3 0.9
Use Simpson's rule to approximate the value of each integral.

r4 r 12
67. \/l6 + x2 dx, n = 68. - dx, n

o , 1 + x'
rirfl
dx 8 x3
69. .n 70. dx, n --
2 + sin .v Vl + x3
Find the area of each region.
71. Inside r2 = 4 cos 26 72. Inside r = 1 - sin 8

73. Inside r = 3 — 2 sin 0 74. Inside r = \ cos 36
75. Inside r = \(6 + tt) and outside r = 6 for 0 ^ 6 ^ tt
76. Inside r = 2 cos 6 and outside r = 1 77. Inside the inner loop of r = 2 — 4 cos 6
78. Inside r = 1 and outside r = 1 + sin 6 79. Inside r2 = 8 sin 26 and outside r = 2
80. Inside both r2 = cos 26 and r2 = sin 26
Evaluate the improper integrals.
' ’ 1
81. dx 82. .2/3
dx
,4/3
o
83. | e-dx 84. xe'dx
-oo — OO
r2 1
1 86. dx
85. dx x In x
3 Vx - 3
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW 65
2
Three-Space
Partial Derivatives and
Double Integrals
INTRODUCTION
We have been discussing functions of only one variable whose graphs lie in a plane, which
is often called the Euclidian plane or two-space. Now, we need to extend our discussion to
functions of two variables whose graphs require three dimensions, sometimes called three-
space.
Objectives
■ Sketch graphs in three-space.
■ Find the equation of a surface given appropriate information.
■ Find first and second partial derivatives.
■ Given a surface, find the slope of the tangent lines parallel to the xz- and yz-planes through
a given point.
■ Find the total differential of a function of two variables.
■ Find relative maximum and minimum points of a function of two variables.
■ Evaluate double integrals.
2.1 FUNCTIONS IN THREE-SPACE
Consider three mutually perpendicular number lines (x-, y-, and z-axes) with their zero
points intersecting at point O, called the origin. Although these axes may be oriented in any
way, we will use the orientation as shown in Fig. 2.1(a), which is often called the right-
handed system.
Think of the y- and z-axes lying in the plane of the paper with the positive y-direction
to the right and the positive z-direction upward. The x-axis is perpendicular to the paper, and
its positive direction is toward us. This is called a right-handed system because if the fingers
on the right hand are cupped so they curve from the positive x-axis to the positive y-axis,
the thumb points along the positive z-axis as shown in Fig. 2.1(b).
67
X X
(a) Three-space: xyz-coordinate axes (b) Right-handed coordinate system
Figure 2.1
The three axes determine three planes (xyxz-, and yz-planes), which divide three-
space into octants as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Each point in three-space is represented by an ordered triple of numbers in the
form (jc, v, z), which indicate the directed distances from the three planes as shown in
Fig. 2.3.'
Figure 2.2 Coordinate planes. Figure 2.3 An ordered triple of numbers in the
form P(x, y, z) represents a point in three-space.
EXAMPLE 1
Plot the points (2, —4, 5) and (—3, 5, -4) (see Fig. 2.4).
The graph of an equation expressed in three variables is normally a surface. We shall

now discuss the graphs of some surfaces on a case-by-case basis.
68 CHAPTER 2 Three-Space
z z
Figure 2.4 Plotting points in three-space.
PLANE
The graph of an equation in the form
Ax + By + Cz + D — 0
is a plane.
EXAMPLE 2
Sketch 3x + 6y + 2z = 12.
If the plane does not pass through the origin, its sketch may be found by graphing the
intercepts. To find the x-intercept, set y and z equal to zero and solve for x: x = 4, which
corresponds to the point (4, 0, 0). Similarly, the y- and 2-intercepts are (0, 2, 0) and (0, 0, 6),
respectively. These three points determine the plane. The lines through pairs of these points are
in the coordinate planes and are called traces, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
z
z
Figure 2.5
EXAMPLE 3
Sketch 3jc + 2y — 12 in three-space.

The x- and y-intercepts are (4, 0, 0) and (0, 6, 0), respectively, which determine the trace
in the xy-plane. Note that the plane never crosses the 2-axis because x and y cannot both be
zero. Thus the plane is parallel to the 2-axis, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
SECTION 2.1 Functions in Three-Space 69

t
EXAMPLE 4
Sketch x = 3 in three-space.
Its ^-intercept is (3, 0, 0). The plane is parallel to both the y- and z-axes, as shown in
Fig. 2.7.
z z
Figure 2.8 Graph of sphere with center at

(h, k, I) and radius r.
The formula for the distance between two points in three-space is given in Exercise
41. Using this formula, we obtain the following equation of a sphere:
SPHERE
A sphere with center at (h, k, l) and radius r (see Fig. 2.8) is given by the equation
(x - h)2 + (y — kf + (z — l)2 - r2
EXAMPLE 5
Find the center and the radius of the sphere whose equation is
x2 + y2 + z2 - 6x + lOy - 16z + 82 = 0
and sketch its graph.

First, complete the square on each variable.
(x2 - 6x ) + (y2 + 10y ) + (z2 ~ 16z ) = -82

(x2 - 6x + 9) + (y2 + lOv + 25) + (z2 - 16z + 64) = -82 + 9 + 25 + 64
(x - 3)2 + (y + 5)2 + (z - 8)2 = 16
The center is at (3, -5, 8) and the radius is 4 (see Fig. 2.9).
In general, graphing more complex surfaces can be quite complicated. One helpful
technique involves graphing the intersections of the surface with the coordinate planes. Such
intersections of the surfaces and the coordinate planes are called traces.
CYLINDRICAL SURFACE
The graph in three-space of an equation expressed in only two variables is a cylindrical

surface. The surface is parallel to the coordinate axis of the missing variable.
EXAMPLE 6
Sketch the graph of y2 = 4.x in three-space.

First, graph the trace y ~ = 4.x in the xy-plane. Then extend the cylindrical surface parallel
to the z-axis as in Fig. 2.10.
EXAMPLE 7
Sketch the graph of z = sin y in three-space.

First, graph the trace z = sin v in the yz-plane. Then extend the cylindrical surface parallel
to the x-axis as in Fig. 2.11.
Figure 2.11
QUADRIC SURFACE
The graph in three-space of a second-degree equation is a quadric surface. Plane

sections, intersections, or slices of the given surface with planes are conics.

Surface Equation T races
xjr-plane: ellipse
x2 y2 z2
"rf—7 -t—7 — 1 xz-plane: ellipse
a2 62 c2
yz-plane: ellipse
A/ofe: If a = b = c, the All traces in planes parallel
surface is a sphere. to the coordinate planes
are ellipses.
Ellipsoid
xy-plane: ellipse
x^ y±_z]_ =
xz-plane: hyperbola
yz-plane: hyperbola
Note: If a = b, the All traces parallel to the

surface may be generated xy-plane are ellipses.
by rotating a hyperbola
about its conjugate axis.
xy-plane: hyperbola
x^_K^_z^ =
xz-plane: hyperbola
a2 b2 c2 ~ 1
yz-plane: no trace
Note: If b = c, the All traces parallel to the
surface may be generated yz-plane that intersect the
by rotating a hyperbola surface are ellipses.
about its transverse axis.
Hyperboloid
of two sheets
Figure 2.12 Six basic types of quadric surfaces.
Surface Equation Traces
xy plane: point
xz-plane: parabola
yz-plane: parabola
Note: If a = b, the If c > 0, all traces parallel
surface may be generated to and above the xy plane
by rotating a parabola are ellipses; below the
about its axis. xy-plane, there is no inter¬
section.
If c < 0, the situation is
reversed.
paraboloid
xy-plane: pair of intersecting

lines
xz-plane: parabola •» one °Pens UP.
Vone opens
Xz-plane: parabola J down
Note: The origin is Traces parallel to the

xy-plane are hyperbolas.
y called a saddle point
because this surface looks
like a saddle.
paraboloid
xy-plane: point
xz-plane: pair of intersecting
lines
XZ-plane: pair of intersecting
lines
Traces parallel to the xy-plane
are ellipses. Traces parallel to the
xz- and yz-planes are hyperbolas.
Figure 2.12 (continued)

t
The second-degree equation in three-space has the form
Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0
The equations of the basic or central quadrics after translations and/or rotations can be
expressed in one of the two general forms . ,
Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + J = 0
and
Ax2 + By2 + Iz = 0
Figure 2.12 shows six basic types of quadric surfaces.
EXAMPLE 8
? 2 9
x y z
Name and sketch the graph of — + —— — = 1.
16 9 36
First, find the traces in the three coordinate planes:
x2 y2
xy-plane: Set z = 0,-1-= 1, an ellipse.
16 9
x2 z2
xz-plane: Set y = 0, — — — = 1, a hyperbola.
16 36
y2 z2
yz-plane: Setx = 0, —-— = 1, a hyperbola.
This is a hyperboloid of one sheet (see Fig. 2.13).
EXAMPLE 9
Name and sketch the graph of 2x2 + 2y2 = 8z.
First, divide both sides by 2.
x2 + y2 = 4z
Then, find the traces in the three coordinate planes:
xy-plane: Set z = 0, x~ + y2 = 0, the origin (degenerate circle).

xz-plane: Sety = 0, x2 = 4z, a parabola.
yz-plane: Set x = 0, y2 = 4z, a parabola.
(See Fig. 2.14.) This is an elliptic paraboloid.
Exercises 2.1
Plot each point.
1- (2, 4, 5) 2. (3, 5, 2) 3. (3, -2, 4)

4- (-2,0,3) 5. (-1,4,-3) 6. (3,-2,-4)
Name and sketch the graph of each equation in three-space. Sketch the traces in the coordinate
planes when appropriate.
1. 2x + 3y + 8z = 24 8. 6x — 3y + 9z = 18 9. x + 3y — z = 9
10. —4x + 8_y + 3z - 12 11. 2.x + 5y = 20 12. 4x - 3y = 12
13. y = 4 14. z = -5
15. x~ + y + z* = 25 16. (x — 3)2 + y2 + (z — 2)2 = 36
17. x2 + y2 + z2 - 8x + 6y - 4z + 4 = 0
18. x2 + y2 + z2 + 6x — 6y + 9 = 0
19. z1 — 8y 20. x2 + z2=16 21. 9x2 + 4y2 = 36
22. y2 - z2 = 4 23. 4x2 + 9y2 + z2 = 36 24. x2 - y2 = 16z
25. x2 + y2 - 4z = 0 26. y = ex
27. 9x2 - 36y2 — 4z2 = 36 28. 16x2 + 9y2 - 36z2 = 144
29. y = cosx 30. 4x2 + 9y2 + 9z2 = 36
31. y2 — z1 — 8x 32. y2 + z2 = 4x
33. 4x2 + 9y2 - 9z2 = 0 34. 9x2 - 16y2 - 16z2 = 144
35. 8ly2 + 36z2 - 4x2 = 324 36. x2 + y2 - z2 = 0
37. Find the equation of the sphere with center at (3, —2, 4) and radius 6.
38. Find the equation of the sphere with center at (3, —2, 4) and tangent to the xz-plane.
39. Find the equation of the sphere with center at (3, —2, 4) and tangent to the xy-plane.
40. Find the equation of the sphere of radius 4 that is tangent to the three coordinate planes and
whose center is in the first octant.
41. Given two points Pfxh y1; Zi) and P2(x2, y2, z2). show that the distance between them is given
by
d = PtP2 = V(x2 - x,)2 + (y2 - y,)2 + (z2 - z,)2
Find the distance between each pair of points.
42. (3, 6, 8) and (7, -2, 7) 43. (5, -3, 2) and (3, 1, -2) 44. (-4, 0, 6) and (2, 5, -2)
45. Show that (5, 6, 3), (2, 8, 4), and (3, 5, 6) are vertices of an equilateral triangle.
46. Show that (1, 1, 2), (3, 1,0), and (5, 3, 2) are vertices of a right triangle. (Hint: Use the
Pythagorean theorem.)

2.2 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Let z — f(x, y) represent a function z with independent variables x and y. That is, there exists
a unique value of z for every pair of x- and y-values.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
If z — fix, y) is a function of two variables, the partial derivative of z with respect to

x (y is treated as a constant) is defined by
dz ,. f(x + Ax, y) - fix, y)

— = lim -:-
dx Ax
provided that this limit exists.

If z — f{x, y) is a function of two variables, the partial derivative of z with
respect to y (x is treated as a constant) is defined by
dz ,. f(x, y + Ay) - f(x, y)

— = lim -7-
dy Av->0 Ay
Other common notations for partial derivatives include
dz df
L fx{x, y)
dx dx
dz cf
fy fy(x, y)
dy dy
dz
Note that in the definition of —, y is treated as a constant (held fixed) and only x is allowed
dx
to vary. Think of z as a function of only one variable x and find the usual derivative with
dz
respect to x, treating y as a constant. For —, find the usual derivative with respect to y, treating
dy
x as a constant.
EXAMPLE 1
dz
Ifz = 5x2 - 4x2y + y3, find —and
dx dy'
— = lOx - 8xy
dx
dz
= —4x2 + 3y2
dy
EXAMPLE 2
dz dz
Ifz = x2lny - e”, find — and
dx dy'
dz
2x In y — yexy
dx
dz_
dy y
EXAMPLE 3
dz, dz
If z = e~x sin y + In (x: + y2), find —1 and —.
dx dy
• dz . 2x
■— ——e sin v H---,
dx X2 + y2
dz _r 2y
— = e cos y H— -z
dy x + y
Now, let’s consider a graphical interpretation of partial derivatives. Let z = fix, y) be

a function of x and y. Suppose that we are considering the partial derivative of z with respect
to x at the point (x0, y0, Zo)- We treat y as a constant and take the usual derivative with respect
to x; this is graphically equivalent to finding the slope at x = x0 of the curve, which is
determined by the intersection of the plane y = y0 and the surface z = f(x, y) (see Fig. 2.15a).
Likewise for the partial derivative of z with respect to y; this is graphically equivalent
to finding the slope at v = y0 °f the curve which is determined by the intersection of the plane
x = a:0 and the surface z = f(x, y) (see Fig. 2.15b).
Figure 2.15 (a) The partial derivative of z with respect to x at the point P(x0, y0, z0) is graphically equivalent to
the slope of Lh the tangent line to the surface through P and parallel to the xz-plane. (b) The partial derivative of
z with respect to y at the point P(x0, y0, z0) is graphically equivalent to the slope of L2, the tangent line to the
surface through Pand parallel to the yz-plane.
SECTION 2.2 Partial Derivatives 77

EXAMPLE 4
Given the surface z — 4.v2 + y2, find the slope of the tangent lines parallel to the xz- and
yz-planes and through the point (2, — 1, 9).
First,
— = and — = 2y
dx dy
The slope of each tangent line is the value of each partial derivative evaluated at the point
(2, -1,9). Thus,
dz dz_
= 16 and -2
dx (2.-1.9)
dy (2,-1.9)
So, the slope of the tangent line parallel to the xz-plane is 16 and the slope of the tangent line
parallel to the yz-plane is —2.
EXAMPLE 5
In an /?C-circuit, the current I is given by
/ =
R
Assume that all quantities are constant except / and R. Find —.
dl_
—e-</m(—L.
dR R \C
tE e-t/m _ _e_ e~t/(Rc)
CR3 R2
E
Exercises 2.2
Find (a) — and (b) —for each function,

dx dy
1. z — 4x3y2 2. z = 87tjc2 Vy 3. z = 6x2y4 + 2xy"

4. z = 3xy5 - 4x2y2 5. z = Vc2 + y2 6. z = In V'x2 + y2
Jr2 - yl2 I ,
7. z = 8. z = -ttx y 9. z = axy
1xy
X
10. z = 11. z = In¬ 12. z = (x2 - y2)“3
i'
13. z = tan(x — y) 14. z = sin(x — y) 15. z = e3x sin xy
X ,*y
16. z = tan - 17. z = — 18. z - ye8*-1
y x sin y
19. z — 2 sin y cos x 20. z — x2 cos 2y 21. z = xy tan xy
22. z = x 2y cos y
The following formulas are used in electronics and physics. Find the indicated partial derivative.
dP „ V2 dP
23. P = I2R; — 24. P = —; —
dl R dR
CHAPTER 2 Three-Space
E <3/ RRi dR
25. / = 26. R =
R + r dR R] + R2’ dRt
dZ dZ
27. Z = Vr2 + X2l\ 28. Z = VR2 + (XL - A^)2;
<3/? dXL
de dE
29. e = E sin 2irft; — 30. E = I2R2 + I3R3; -
dt dl2
dE E2R\ + E2R3 — E\R3 <3/
31. E = /->/?•> + ER3’, — 32. /
dli + R\R3 + /?2/?3’ a/?,
33. l = -e-WC)-~ 34. / = —
R (3t /? ac
dq_
35. q = CEe~,/[RC)\ 36. q = CE{\ -
dC ac
X, dfi Xc d<f>
37. tan fi = —; — 38. tan 4> =
R dR R ’ dX,
For each surface, find the slope of the tangent lines parallel to (a) the xz-plane and (b) the yz-plane
and through the given point.
39. z — 9x2 + 4y2; (1, -2, 25) 40. z = 8y2 - *2; (-2, 1, 4)
41. z = V25x2 + 36y2 + 164; (1, -1, 15)
42. z = 6x2 + 2xy + 4y2 - 6x + 8y — 2; (1, —2, —6)
43. The ideal gas law is PV = nRT, where P is the pressure, V is the volume, T is the absolute
temperature, n is the number of moles of gas, and R is a constant. Show that
dP dV dT _ _
dV ’ <37 ’ dP ~
44. Find the only point on the surface z = x2 + 3xy + 4y2 — 10jc — 8y + 4 = 0 at which its
tangent plane is horizontal.
45. The volume of a right circular cylinder is given by V — Trr2h. If the height h is fixed at 8 cm,
find the rate of change of the volume V with respect to the radius r when r = 6 cm.
ex+y dz dz
46. Given that z —-, show that-1-— Z-
e + ey dx dy
,, , dw dw ,
47. Given w = t + tan te ' , show that s-f t— = 21 .
ds dt
2.3 APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Earlier applications of the derivative of a function of one variable may be extended to func¬
tions of two variables by using partial derivatives. We define the differential of a function
of one variable as
dy = fix) dx
Similarly, we define the total differential of a function of two variables as
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL OF z = fix, y)
df af
dz — — dx 4-dy
dx dy
The same type of definition may be extended to functions of three or more variables.
SECTION 2.3 Applications of Partial Derivatives 79

f
EXAMPLE 1
Find dz for z = xi + 5x2y - 4xy2.
dz — dx 4- dy
dx dy
— (3x2 + 10xy — 4v2) dx + (5.r2 — 8xy) dy
We use differential approximations to find changes in the function as small changes

are made in the independent variable. Now we can use the total differential to find changes
in a function of two variables as small changes are made in one or both variables.
EXAMPLE 2
The height of a right circular cylinder measures 20.00 cm with a maximum possible error of
0.10 cm, while its radius measures 8.00 cm with a maximum possible error of 0.05 cm. Find
the maximum possible error in its volume.
V = 77/' ~h
dV dV
dV = — dr H-dh
dr dh
= 2Trrh dr + nr2 dh
= 277(8.00 cm)(20.00 cm)(0.05 cm) + 77(8.00 cm)2(0.10 cm)
= 70.4 cm3
EXAMPLE 3
The angle of elevation to the top of a monument when measured 150 ft (± 0.5 ft) from its base
is 31.00° with a maximum possible error of 0.05°. Find the maximum possible error in mea¬
suring its height (see Fig. 2.16).
tan 6
x
y = x tan d
dy dy
dy = — dx H-dO
dx d0
= tan 6 dx + x sec2 0 dO
0.479 ft
Figure 2.16
The second partial derivatives of a function of two variables are calculated by taking
partial derivatives of the first partials. There are four possibilities. The second partial deri¬
vative with respect to x is notated fxx(x, y) or —-v the second partial with respect to y is
ft
notated fyy(x, y) or and the mixed partials /^(x, y) and fyx(x, y) can also be notated as
dy2'
d2f ft
. . and ———, respectively. While the order of differentiation in the mixed partials may look
dydx dxdy
significant, a theorem of advanced calculus guarantees that fxy(x, y) = fyx(x, y) if the
original function, its first partials, and these mixed partials are all continuous functions of
two variables (note the equality of the mixed partials in the following example).
EXAMPLE 4
Find the second partial derivatives of /(x, y) = x3y5 + x cos y.

The first partials are
fJ&y) 3x 2y5 + cos y

dx
df
fy(x, y) = — 5x3y4 — x sin y
dy
so the second partials are
fxx(x,y) = 6xys [the partial with respect to x offx(x, y)]

fyy(x, y) - 20x 3y3 - x cos y [the partial with respect to y offy(x, y)]
fxy(x, y) = 15x2y4 — sin y [the partial with respect to y offx(x, y)]
fyx(x,y) = 15x2y4 — siny [the partial with respect to x of fy(x, y)]
One principal application of the derivative of a function in one variable is finding rel¬
ative maximums and minimums. This application may also be extended to functions of two
variables by using partial derivatives. Geometrically, let’s start this discussion with a surface
z — f(x, y) as shown in Fig. 2.17. If point P is a relative maximum (or minimum), then every
dz dz
tangent line through P must be parallel to the xy-plane. That is, — = 0 and — = 0.
dx dy
Note: Both partial derivatives must equal zero. However, this result gives only criti¬
cal points, that is, only possible relative maximum or minimum values. A saddle point is a
z= f(x, y)
Figure 2.17 A relative maximum point.

n r
critical point that is neither a maximum nor a minimum. The name “saddle point” refers to
the center point on a horse’s saddle, which has this property. For a drawing of a saddle point,
see the hyperbolic paraboloid in Fig. 2.12.
DISCRIMINANT ' •
Let f(x, y) be a function that has continuous second partial derivatives; then its
discriminant D(x, y) is given by D{x, y) = fxx(x, y)fyy(x, y) - [f„(x, y)]2.
The Second Partials Test

Let f(x, y) be a function that has continuous second partial derivatives and a critical point
(a, b,f(a, b)):
1. If D(a, b) < 0, then the point (a, b,f(a, b)) is a saddle point (it’s neither a
maximum nor a minimum).
2. If D(a, b) > 0 and fjâ, b) < 0, then (a, b,f(a, b)) is a relative maximum
point.
3. If D(a, b) > 0 and fjâ, b) > 0, then (a, b,f(a, b)) is a relative minimum
point.
4. Nothing can be concluded if D(a, b) = 0.
Though this is a rather advanced theorem, just think of the discriminant’s job as telling us
whether or not our critical point corresponds to an extreme point on the surface. A negative
discriminant means no, it’s not a relative extreme (our critical point is a saddle point). A pos¬
itive discriminant means yes, our critical point is either a relative maximum or minimum.
To distinguish a maximum from a minimum, fxx(a, b) is evaluated to measure the concavity
of the surface (using a trace parallel to the xz-plane). If fxx(a, b) is negative, the surface
is opening downward, so our critical point is a relative maximum. Similarly, if fxx(a, b) is
positive, the surface is opening upward, so our critical point is a relative minimum. As
noted in Part 4, a zero discriminant does not allow any conclusion to be made. An inter¬
ested student with access to a computer graphics utility may wish to investigate
f(x, y) = 1 + x4 - y4, g(x, y) = 1 - x4 — y4, and h(x, y) = 1 + x4 + y4, which all
have zero discriminants at the critical point (0, 0, 1). This critical point turns out to be a
saddle point off, a relative maximum of g, and a relative minimum of h, so any of the three
cases are possible with a zero discriminant.
EXAMPLE 5
Find any relative maximum or minimum points for z = f(x, y) = 3x - x2 — xy - y2 — 2.

The first partial derivatives are
|\=Ux,y) = 3-2x-y
Y = fy(x, y)= -X- 2y

ay
Set each expression equal to zero and solve the resulting system of equations.
3 — 2x — y = 0
-x - 2y = 0
Multiply the second equation by 2 and add.
7x + y = 3
— 2x - 4y = 0
-3y = 3
y = —1 and x = 2
Then,
z =/(2,-1) = 3(2) - (2)2 - (2)(—1) - (-1)2 -2=1
Next, we need to determine if the point (2, — I, 1) is a maximum or a minimum.
fxx{x,y) = -2
fyy{x<y) = -2
fxy(x, >’) = — I (note that quadric surfaces yield constant second partials)
D(x,y) -fjx,y)fyjx,y) - [f^x, y)}2
D(x,y)= (—2)(—2) — [ —l]2 = 3
D(2, — 1) = 3 > 0 and /„(2, -1) = —2 < 0, so (2, -1, 1) is a relative maximum point.
A professionally drawn sketch is shown in Fig. 2.18.

EXAMPLE 6
Find any relative maximum or minimum points for z = f(x, y) = x3 + y3 — 3xy + 4.

The first partial derivatives are
Y =fjx,y) = 3x2 - 3y
OX
Y =fy{x,y) = 3y2 - 3x
dy
Set each expression equal to zero and solve the resulting system of equations.
3x2 - 3y = 0
3y2 - 3x = 0
The first equation implies that y — x2. Substitute this into the second equation.
3(x2)2 - 3x = 0
3x4 — 3x = 0
3x(x3 - 1) = 0
3x = 0 or x3 = 1
x = 0 or x = 1
If x = 0, then y = 02 = 0 and z = /(0, 0) = (0)3 + (0)3 — 3(0)(0) + 4 = 4

If x = 1, theny = I2 = 1 and z =/( 1, 1) = (l)3 + (l)3 - 3(1)(1) + 4 = 3
So (0, 0, 4) and (1, 1, 3) are critical points.
The second partials are
fxxix, y) = 6x
fyy(x, y) = 6y
fxy(x,y) = -3
D(x,y) = fjx,y)fyy{x,y) - [/„(x,y)]2

D{x,y) = (6x)(6y) - [-3]2 = 36xy - 9
D(0, 0) = 36(0)(0) - 9 = —9 < 0, so (0, 0, 4) is a saddle point.

D( 1, 1) = 36(1)(1) — 9 = 27 > 0 and /„( 1, 1) = 6(1) = 6 > 0, so (1, 1, 3) is a relative
minimum point.
CHAPTER 2 Three-Space
Two different views of professionally drawn sketches are shown in Fig. 2.19.
Figure 2.19
EXAMPLE 7
Find the dimensions of a rectangular box, with no top, having a volume of 32 m3 and using the
least amount of material.
The area or amount of the material is A = Iw + 2wh + 2lh. The volume of the box is
32
V = Iwh = 32 (see Fig. 2.20). Next, solve this volume equation for h, h = —, and substitute
Iw
into the area equation.

t
A = lw + 2w (f)+11 (i
64 64
A — lw 3—■—I-
l w
which expresses A as a function of two variables. Now find the partial derivatives.
BA 64 BA 64
w-7 and — — l-r
dl /2 Sw w2
Setting each partial derivative equal to zero, we have
64 64
— = 0 and 1-y = 0
l2 -2
vv
64
w =
/2
Substitute w = 64//2 into the second equation.
64
i- — = o
w
64
= 0
{64/12)2
lA
l-= 0
64
ff_
/ 1 -
64
Then /,= 0 or l = 4. {Note: l = 0 is impossible.) When / = 4,
64 64
w
T7 “ i6 “ 4
and
_ 32 _ 32
1 ~ lw ~ 4-4
So the dimensions of the box are 4 m X 4 m X 2 m.
Exercises 2.3
Find the total differential for each function.
1. z = 3jc2 + 4xy + y3 2. x y + 4x y - 5x 3„3

y
x - y
3. z = x2 cos y 4. z = —f In x 5.
x xy
6. z — arctan xy 1. = In Vl + xy 8. z = exy + sin xy
9. The sides of a box measure 26.00 cm X 26.00 cm X 12.00 cm with a maximum possible error
of 0.15 cm on each side. Use a differential to approximate the change in volume.
10. A 6.00-in.-radius cylindrical rod is 2 ft long. Use a differential to approximate how much
nickel (in in3) is needed to coat the entire rod with a thickness of 0.12 in.
R{R2
11. The total resistance R of two resistors R, and Rconnected in parallel is R =-. Resistance
12 F R] + R2
/?] measures 400 fl with a maximum possible error of 25 O. Resistance R2 measures 600 fl
with a maximum possible error of 50 fl. Use a differential to approximate the change in R.
12. The angle of elevation to the top of a hill is 18.00°. The distance to the top of the hill is
450 ± 15 ft. If the maximum possible error in measuring the angle is 0.5°, find the maximum
possible error in calculating the height of the hill.
13. The height of a right circular cone increases from 21.00 cm to 21.10 cm while the radius decreases
from 12.00 cm to 11.85 cm. Use a total differential to approximate the change in volume.
14. The electric current in a circuit containing a variable resistor R is given by i = 25(1 - e~R,/25).
Use a total differential to approximate the change in current as R changes from 8.00 fl to
. 8.25 fl and t changes from 4.0 s to 4.1 s.
Find any relative maximum or minimum points or saddle points for each function.
15. z = 9 + 6x — 8y — 3x2 — 2y2 16. = Ax2 + 3y2 - 16jc - 24y + 5

1 1
17. z = ~ + ~ + xy 18. = 60x + 60_y - xy - x2 - y2
x y
19. z = x2 — y2 — 2x — Ay — 4 20. = x2 + y2 + 2x + 3y + 3
21. Z = x2 — y2 - 6x + 4y 22. = x3 + y3 + 3 xy + 4
23. z = 4x3 + y2 - 12x2 - 36x - 2y 24. = x3 + y3 — 3x2 — 9y2 — 2Ax
25. Find the dimensions of a rectangular box, with no top, having a volume of 500 cm3 and using
the least amount of material.
26. A rectangular box with no top and a volume of 6 ft3 needs to be built from material that costs
$6/ft2 for the bottom, $2/ft2 for the front and back, and $ 1/ft2 for the sides. Find the dimensions
of the box in order to minimize the cost.
27. Find three positive numbers whose sum is 30 and whose product is a maximum.
28. Find three positive numbers whose sum is 30 and whose sum of squares is a minimum.
2.4 DOUBLE INTEGRALS
In Section 2.2, partial differentiation with respect to v turned out to be like ordinary differ¬
entiation with respect to y, expect that x was held constant. In a similar fashion, we wish to
explore an antidifferentiation with respect to y that holds x constant. This will usually be the
first of two integrations, the second being an ordinary integration with respect to x. Of
course, the order might be reversed, meaning an integration with respect to x in which v is
held constant, followed by an ordinary integration with respect to y. Either sequence of
integrations is called double integration using an iterated double integral.
DOUBLE INTEGRAL
rb ' G(x) G(x)
/( u v) dy dx f{x, y) dy dx
a L Jg(x)
rd r m rd m
f(x, y) dx dy = f(x, y) dx dy
c. L Jh(y) h(y)
Note: The brackets are normally not included when writing a double integral.
rb r G(x)
To integrate the double integral /(x, y) dy dx:

Ja 4w
1. Integrate f(x, y) with respect to y, holding x constant.
2. Evaluate this integral by substituting the limits on the inner or right integral. These
limits are either numbers or functions of x.
3. Integrate the result from Step 2 with respect to x.
SECTION 2.4 Double Integrals 87

4. Evaluate this integral by substituting the remaining limits (those on the outer or left
integral), which are numerical values.
EXAMPLE 1
Ci 3xz
Evaluate (6xy — x) dy dx.
•'o Jx
First, integrate with respect to y, holding x constant.

f 1 3*z 3*
(6xy — x) dy dx (3xy2 - xy) dx

0 Jx
{[3x(3x2)2 — x(3x2)] — [3x(x)2 — x(x)]} dx
(21 x3 — 3x3 — 3x3 + x2) dx
(21 x5 — 6x3 + x2) dx

o
9x6 3x4 x3
2 2 3
f - f + } ) - (0)
_io
3
EXAMPLE 2
3y
Evaluate Vx + y dx dy.
•'0 J-y
First, integrate with respect to x, holding y constant.

r4 f3y r4 3y
Vx + y dx dy = — (x + y)3/2 dy
J0 J-y 4 3
~(3y + y)3/2 - \(-y + y)3/2 dy
(
3 4y)V2dy
jy,,2dy (43/2 = 8)
5/2
16 y
3 5/2
16 2 .
= y • j(4W - 0)
16 2
3 ’ 5 ’ 32
1024
15
Geometrically, a double integral may be interpreted as the volume under a surface. Let
z = f(x, y) be a continuous function whose surface is shown in Fig. 2.21. Let R be a region
in the xy-plane bounded by x = a, x = b, y = g(x), and y = G(x).
Figure 2.21 The volume of the solid is approximated by summing rectangular solids.
First, divide region R into n rectangles, each of which has dimensions Ax and Ay or
dx and dy. Note that we have chosen to draw a typical rectangle. Next, construct a box with
the rectangle as the base and z or f(x, y) as its height. The volume of this typical volume
element can be approximated by
z Ax Ay
Now let n —>oo, where n is the number of such rectangles and the number of volume
elements. Then we have
' b r G(x)
V /(x, y) dy dx
a g(x)
VOLUME OF A SOLID
Let R be a region in the xy-plane bounded by x = a, x = b, y = g(x), and y = G(x).

The volume of the solid between R and the surface z = /(x, y) is
"b ■G(x)
/(x, y) dy dx
Ja
Similarly, let R be a region in the xy-plane bounded by y = c, y = d, x = h(y), and

x = H(y). The volume of the solid between R and the surface z = /(x, y) is
■d CH(y)
f(x, y) dx dy
c Jh(y)
EXAMPLE 3
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the plane 2x + 3y + z = 6 and the coordinate planes.
First, make a sketch as in Fig. 2.22.
2x
The region R is bounded in the xy-plane by x = 0, y = 0, and 2x + 3y = 6 or y =
Next, determine the variable and constant limits for the double integral.
Constant limits for x: 0 <x^ 3
Variable limits for y: 0 ^y

f
Figure 2.22
The volume is then

(6—2x)/3
V (6 — 2x — 3y) dy dx
o
3r (6 — 2x)/3
6y — 2xy — dx
6 - 2x 6 — 2x\ 3 (6 — 2x
2x (0) f dx
2\ 3
2
12 — 4x — 4x H—x2 — 6 + 4x-x2 ) dx
3 3
r3
6 — 4x + ~x2 | dx
Jo
= ( 6x - 2x2 + -x3
9
= (18 - 18 + 6) - (0)
= 6
Note: Since we have a pyramid, we can check this result using the formula
V = jB/i, where B is the area of the base and h is the height of the pyramid.
B = — (3)(2) = 3 (area of triangular base)
V = -(3)(6) = 6
What happens if you reverse the order of the integration in Example 3?
Constant limits for y: 0 < y < 2

6-3 y
Variable limits for x: 0 < x <-
Then the double integral is
-2 r (6 - 3y)/2
V = (6 — 2x — 3y) dx dy
•'o
Show that this double integral also gives 6 as the result.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the volume of the solid inside the cylinder x2 + y1 = 4, below the plane y = z, and above
the xv-plane.
Region R in Fig. 2.23 is bounded in thexy-plane byx2 + y2 = 4 and y = 0.
Constant limits for x: —2 ^ x ^ 2

Variable limits for y: 0 ■&. y < V4 — x2
Note that the height of a typical volume element is z — y.

The volume is then

f
Exercises 2.4
Evaluate each double integral.
f2 r3x 1 —y
1. (x + y) dy dx 2. [x f y) dx dy
2v
3. (3x2 + xy) dx dy (4x2 - 3xy2 + 8y3) dy dx

J0 Jy o Jo
1 r 3^+i
5. (4xy + 9x2 + 6y) dy dx 6. x dy dx

1 Jx 0 JxlL
r1 rVl-y2 2 fV4-y2
7. (x + y) dx dy dx dy
0 J 0 J0 V4 - y2
1
9. ex+y dy dx 10. e y/x dy dx
•'o Jo
3 r 4v 4x
11. Vy2 + 16 dx dy 12. dy dx
xz + I '
0
IT/!
13. cos x sin y dy dx 14. x sin y dy dx
Find the volume of each solid bounded by the given surfaces.
15. 3x + y + 6z = 12 and the coordinate planes

16. 3x + 4y + 2z = 12 and the coordinate planes
17. z = xy, y — x, x = 2 (first octant)
18. x2 + y2 = 4, z = x + y (first octant)
19. x2 + y 2 — 4, z = 2x + 3y, and above the xy-plane
20. x2 + y2 — 1 andx2 + z2 = 1
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY
1. Surface: The graph of an equation expressed in three variables or in the form z = f(x, y).
2. Plane: The graph of an equation in the form
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
3. A sphere with center at (h, k, l) and radius r is given by the equation
(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 + (z - if = r2
4. Cylindrical surface: The graph in three-space of an equation expressed in only two

variables. The surface is parallel to the coordinate axis of the missing variable.
5. The graph in three-space of a second-degree equation is a quadric surface. Plane
sections, intersections, or slices of the given surface with planes are conics. The
graphs, equations, and trace information of six basic quadric surfaces are given in
Fig. 2.12.
6. Distance between two points Pfxu yb Zi) and P2(x2, y2, Z2):
d = P,P2 = V(x2 - x,)2 + (y2 - y,)2 + (z2 ~ zf2
7. Partial derivatives: If z — fix, y) is a function of two variables, the partial derivative
of z with respect to x (y is treated as a constant) is defined by
dz fjx + Ax, y) ~ fjx, y)

lim
dx A.r—>0 A.r

If Z ~ fix, y) is a function of two variables, the partial derivative of z with respect
to y ix is treated as a constant) is defined by
dz /(x, y + Ay) -/(x, y)

— = lim -
dy Ay-+o Ay

8. Total differential ofz = fix, y):
df df
dz = — dx H-dy
dx dy
9. To find a relative maximum or minimum of a function of two variables in the form

z = fix, y), set both
df df
— = 0 and — = 0
dx dy
which will determine the critical points. Using the discriminant
Dix,y) = fjx, y)fyyix, y) - [£,,(>, y)]2
and the Second Partials Test, check each critical point (a, b,fia, b)) as follows:
(a) If Z)(a, b) < 0, then the point (a, b,fia, b)) is a saddle point (it’s neither a
maximum nor a minimum).
(b) If D(a, b) > 0 and fjâ, b) < 0, then (a, b,fia, b)) is a relative maximum point.
(c) If D(a, b) > 0 and fjâ, b) > 0, then (a, b,fia, b)) is a relative minimum point.
(d) Nothing can be concluded if D(a, b) = 0.
'b ■G[x)
10. To integrate the double integral fix, y) dy dx:

Ja
(a) Integrate fix, y), with respect to y, holding x constant.

(b) Evaluate this integral by substituting the limits on the inner or right integral. These
limits are either numbers or functions of x.
(c) Integrate the result from Step (b) with respect to x.
(d) Evaluate this integral by substituting the remaining limits (those on the outer or
left integral), which are numerical values.
11. Volume of a solid: Let R be a region in the xy-plane bounded by x = a, x = b, y = g(x),
and y = G(x). The volume of the solid between R and the surface z = fix, y) is
rb r G(x)
fix, y) dy dx
Ja Jg{x)
Similarly, let R be a region in the xy-plane bounded by y = c, y = d, x = h(y), and

x = //(y). The volume of the solid between R and the surface z = fix, y) is
~d rflCv)
fix, y) dx dy
h(y)
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
Name and sketch the graph of each equation in three-space. Sketch the traces in the coordinate
planes when appropriate.
1. 3x + 6y + 4z = 36 2. 9x2 + 9y2.= 3z
3. 3fry2 + 9z2 - \6x2 = 144 4. 16x2 + 9y2 + 36z2 = 144
5. x2 = -12y 6. 9x2 - 9y2 = 3z
7. 9y2 - 36.x2 - 16z2 = 144 8. 9x2 + 36v2 - 16z2 = 0
9. Find the equation of the sphere with the center at (—3, 2. 1) and tangent to the yz-plane.
10. Find the distance between the points (1, 2, 9) and (4, —2, 4).
dz dz
Find (a) — and (b) —for each function,
dx dy
11. z — x2 + 3x2y + 2y2 12. z = 3x2e2y 13. z = ln(3x2y)

v2 e x sin y
ye
14. z = sin 3x sin 3y 15. z = 16. z =
x In y y sin x
Find the indicated partial derivative.
[P dv 1 r. C)U
17. v = 18. U = ~ LI2",—
W ’ dw 2 dl
dZ RE dV
19. Z = VR2 + X2C\- 20. V =-; —
dXr R + r 8R
21. Find the slope of the tangent lines to z = y2 + xy + 3x2 4x parallel to (a) the xz-plane and
(b) the yz-plane and through the point (2, 0, 4).
Find the total differential for each function.
22. z = In V'x2 + xy 23. z =

x + y
24. A cylindrical tank has a radius of 2.000 m and a length of 10.000 m. Use a total differential to
approximate the amount of paint (in litres) needed to paint one coat a thickness of 3 mm over
its total exterior.
25. An electric current varies according to i = 50(1 — e~tl'-50R'). Use a total differential to approx¬
imate the change in current as R changes from 150 f l to 160 Q and t changes from 6.0 s to 6.5 s.
Find any relative maximum or minimum points or saddle points for each function.
26. z = x2 + 2xy - y2 - 14* - 6y + 8 27. z = y2 - xy - ;c2 + 4.v - 3y - 6

28. z = -x2 + xy - y2 + 4.r - 8y + 9
29. A rectangular box with no top needs to be built to hold 8 mJ. The material for the bottom costs
twice as much as the material for the sides. Find the dimensions of the box in order to
minimize the cost.
Evaluate each double integral.

f 1 fX2 f2 r 4v
30. (x — 2y) dy dx 31. (4xy + 6.\'2 — 9y2) dx dy

0 o J0 J)
r3 * In v * 77-/4 X
32. ye x dx dy 33. sec2 y dy dx

Jo
Find the volume of each solid bounded by the given surfaces.
34. ax + by + cz = d, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0, and the coordinate planes.

35. xl + y = 1, z — 2x (first octant) 36. z = 1 — y — x2 (first octant)
JM Progressions and the
Binomial Theorem
INTRODUCTION
The fact that the sum of an infinite number of numbers could be finite is somewhat startling,
yet we use this concept when we consider a rational number written as a repeating decimal.
For example,
2
- = 0.666 . ..
3
6_ _6_ 6
~~ 10 100 + 1000 +
6 6 6
The numbers —, -yyy ■ ,. .. form a progression or sequence, and their sum is
called a series. In this chapter we study progressions and series as well as the binomial
theorem.
Objectives
■ Find the nth term of an arithmetic progression.
■ Find the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series.
■ Find the nth term of a geometric progression.
■ Find the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series.
■ Use the binomial theorem to expand a binomial raised to the nth power.
■ Find a specified term of a binomial expansion.
3.1 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
Many technical applications make use of infinite series. One in particular, the Fourier
series, is very useful in the field of electronics. An infinite series is the summation of an
infinite sequence of numbers. We will first look, however, at sums of finite sequences.
A finite sequence consists of a succession of quantities aua2, a3,. . ., a„, where the
three dots represent the quantities or terms between a3 and an. The term a„ is called the
95
n i*
nth term or last term. An infinite sequence is a succession of quantities which continues
indefinitely and may be written
U|, «2> 3 • • • »
a i • • • or #2’ ^3, • • •
A basic example of an infinite sequence is an arithmetic progression. An arithmetic

progression is a sequence of terms where each term differs from the immediately preced¬
ing term by a fixed number d, which is called the common difference of the progression. For
example, the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, . . . is an arithmetic progression with a com¬
mon difference of 5. The sequence 1, —5, —1, —f, ... is an arithmetic progression with
a common difference of —§.
In any arithmetic progression if a is the first term and d is the common difference, then
the second term is a + d. Likewise, the third term is a + 2d and the fourth term is a + 3d.
Continuing in this manner, we can express the arithmetic progression as follows:
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,. . .
Note that the first n terms of an arithmetic progression, an example of a finite
sequence, can be written as
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,. . . , a + (n — 1 )d
The nth or last term / of such a finite arithmetic progression is then given by
/ = a + {n — 1) d
EXAMPLE 1
Find the sixth term of the arithmetic progression 5, 9, 13, ... .

The common difference is the difference between any term and the preceding term, that is,
d — 9 — 5 = 13 — 9 = 4, a = 5 and n = 6
We then have
/ = a + (n — 1) d
= 5 + (6 - 1)(4)
= 25
EXAMPLE 2
Find the 22nd term of the arithmetic progression 1, 5, — 5,.. . .

Since d = 5 — I = — f, a = 1, and n = 22, we have
/ = a + (n — 1 )d
= 1 + (22 - 1)(—|)
- -13
To find the sum Sn of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression, note that the first
n terms can be written as an expression involving / instead of a:
a,. . . , / — 2d, I — d, I
In fact, we can indicate the sum Sn of these terms by
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ••■ + (/ — 2d) + (/ — d) + l
or
= / + (/ — J) + (/ — 2d) + ••• + (« + 2d) + (a + d) + a

where the terms of the last equation are written in reverse order.
If we add these two equations for Sn, we have
2 Sn = (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) + ■■■ + (a + l) + (a + I) + (a + l)
96 CHAPTER 3 Progressions and the Binomial Theorem

since, term by term, the multiples of d add to zero. Note that we obtain a sum of n terms of
the form (a + /). That is,
2 Sn = n(a + /)
or.
Sn -“(« + /)
EXAMPLE 3
Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the arithmetic progression 6, 11, 16.
Since d = 11 — 6 = 5, a = 6, and n = 12, we have
/ = a + (n — \)d
l = 6 + (12 - 1)(5)
= 61
Sn = 2 (a + 0
12,
= y(6 + 6i)
= 402
EXAMPLE 4
Find the sum of the first 500 positive integers.

Since a = 1, d = 1, n = 500, and / = 500, we have
S„ - ^ + 0
500
1 + 500)
= 125,250
Exercises 3.1
Find the nth term of each arithmetic progression.
1. 2, 5, 8,. .. ,n = 6 2. -3,-7,-11,... ,n = 7 3. 3, 6,..., n = 15

4. —2, 5, 2j, ...,« = 8 5. 4, -5,-14,..., n= 12 6. 10, 50, 90, ...,/» = 9
7-12. Find the sum of the first n terms of the progressions in Exercises 1 through 6.
Write the first five terms of each arithmetic progression whose first term is a and whose common
difference is d.
13. o = 2, d = -3 14. a = —4, d = 2 15. a = 5, d = | 16. a = 3,d=-\

17. Find the first term of an arithmetic progression whose tenth term is 12 and whose sum of the
first 10 terms is 80.
18. Find the common difference of an arithmetic progression whose first term is 7 and whose
eighth term is 16.
SECTION 3.1 Arithmetic Progressions 97

19. Find the sum of the first 1000 odd positive integers.
20. Find the sum of the first 500 even positive integers.
21. A man is employed at an initial salary of $36,000. If he receives an annual raise of $1400, what
is his salary for the tenth year?
22. Equipment purchased at an original value of $13,600 is depreciated $1200 per year for
10 years. Find the depreciated value after 4 years. Find the scrap value (depreciated value
after 10 years).
3.2 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
A geometric progression is another example of a sequence. A geometric progression is a

sequence of terms where each term can be obtained by multiplying the preceding term by
a fixed number r, which is called the common ratio. For example, 1, .. . is a geo¬
metric progression with a common ratio of \, and —6, —18, —54, — 162,... is a geometric
progression with a common ratio of 3.
For any geometric progression if a is the first term and r is the common ratio, then ar
is the second term. Likewise, (ar)r = ar2 is the third term and (ar2)r — ar3 is the fourth
term. Continuing in this manner, we can express a geometric progression as follows:
a, ar, ar2, ar3, . . . , arn~x
where ar n~1 is the nth or last term / of the progression. That is,
/ = ar
EXAMPLE 1
Find the eighth term of the geometric progression 1, \, \, |, . . . .

The common ratio is found by dividing any term by the preceding term. So
I i i
Since a = 1 and n = 8, we have
/ = arn~'
= (l)(i)8-'
1
~~ 128
EXAMPLE 2
Find the 10th term of the geometric progression 3, —6, 12, —24,
In this example a = 3, r = — ^ = -2, and n = 10.
/ =
—
ar — 1
= (3)(-2)10-1
= -1536
To find the sum Sn of the first n terms of the geometric progression
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + •■• + arn~2 + arn~l

multiply each side of this equation by r and subtract as follows:
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + nr3 + ■■• + arn~2 + arn~l
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ••• + arn~l + arn

Sn — rSn — a - arn
Solving for Sn, we have
S„( 1 - r) = a( 1 - r")
or
EXAMPLE 3
Find the sum of the first eight terms of the geometric progression 1, {, g,
Since r — a = 1, and n = 8, we have
a{ 1 - rn)
S„ =
1 -
(1)[1 ~ (^)8]
1 - 5
1 - 256 = 255
\ 128
EXAMPLE 4
Find the sum of the first five terms of the geometric progression 2, — f, §, —
In this example a = 2, r = —5, and n = 5.
a(l - rn)
5„ = —-
1 — r
(2)[1 - (~ )5] i
1 - (- ) 1
(2)(1 + 243) 122
EXAMPLE 5
If $3000 is deposited annually in a savings account at 8% interest compounded annually, find

the total amount in this account after 4 years.
The total amount in the account is the sum of a geometric progression
(3000)(1.08) + (3000)(1.08)2 + (3000)(1,08)3 + (3000)(1.08)4
since the value of each dollar in the account increases by 8% each year. Note that the first term
(3000)(1.08) = $3240 represents the amount in the account after 1 year. Thus a = 3240,
r = 1.08, and n = 4.
all - r")
S = —--
1 — r
(3240)(1 - 1.084)
1 - 1.08
= $14,600
SECTION 3.2 Geometric Progressions 99

r
The term series is used to denote the sum of a sequence of terms. Each Sn is thus a finite
series. The methods of computing the sums Sn of finite arithmetic and geometric series have
already been shown.
An infinite series is the indicated sum of an infinite sequence of terms. For example,
1 + 5 + | + g + -- -isan infinite series. Since it is the, infinite summation of the terms of
a geometric sequence, it is called an infinite geometric series.
In Example 3 we found that the sum of the first eight terms of the geometric pro¬
gression 1, g,. .. is fff. The sum of the first nine terms can be shown to be and the
sum of the first ten terms is yy. This last sum is close to the value 2. In fact, the sum of the
first 50 terms is given by
(Q[l ~ (I)50] 1 ~ (i)5°

i _ I 1 2[ 1
2
(i v° i
But since — =-, which is practically zero, we conclude
\2 / 1,125,899,906,842,624 F J
that the sum S„ is very close to the value 2. The sum Sn gets closer and closer to 2 as n is
given a larger and larger value.
If we denote the sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression by Sn and S as the
sum of the terms of an infinite geometric progression, then
S = 1 + 5 + | + ^ + --- = 2
Not every infinite series has a finite sum. For example, 3 + 6+ 12 + 24 + • • • has
no finite sum. When the sum exists, the series is said to converge. When the limit or sum
does not exist, the series is said to diverge.
In general, if |r| < 1, the infinite geometric series
a + ar + ar2 + ••• + arn~x + ■■■
has the sum
If \r\ > 1, the infinite geometric series has no sum (it diverges).
EXAMPLE 6
Find the sum of the infinite geometric series 3 + | + ^ + • • • + 3(5)"“1 + •••

Since r = 5 and a — 3, we have
a
S =
1 - r
11
4
EXAMPLE 7
Find, if possible, the sum of the infinite geometric series
1 + 2 + (2)2 + (2)3 + ••• + (2)"”1 + •••
Since r = 2 > 1, this infinite geometric series diverges.
EXAMPLE 8
Find a fraction that is equivalent to the decimal 0.232323

We can write this decimal as the infinite series
0.23 + 0.0023 + 0.000023 + • • •

Then a = 0.23 and r = 0.01. Thus,
= a =
0.23 _ 023 _ 23
1 - r ~ I - 0.01 " 0.99 “ 99
Note that any repeating decimal can be expressed as a fraction. The fractional form
can be found by using the method shown in Example 8.
EXAMPLE 9
A tank contains 1000 gal of alcohol. Then 100 gal are drained out and the tank refilled with
water. Then 100 gal of the mixture are drained out and the tank refilled with water. Assuming
this process continues, how much alcohol remains in the tank after eight 100-gal units are
drained out?
Draining the first 100 gal of alcohol leaves 900 gal or 9/10 of the alcohol in the tank.
The amount of alcohol left after eight drainings is the ninth term in a geometric progression
where a = 1000 gal and r = 9/10.
Term Gallons of alcohol Drain number
1 1000 0
2 1000(9/10) 1
3 1000(9/10X9/10) 2
9 1000 (9/10)8 8
The formula I = arn~] gives

l = 1000 gal • (9/10)8 = 430 gal
Exercises 3.2
Find the nth term of each geometric progression.

i 20 20 _ o ^ l l l _ >-i
1. 20, 3,9,...,/? 8 2. s? 4,2> • • • 9 ft — 2
3. V2, 2, 2 a/2, = 6 4. 6, 3, §,..., n = 8
5. 8, -4, 210 6. 3, 12, 48.n = 5
Write the first five terms of each geometric progression whose first term is a and whose common
ratio is r.
13. a = 3, r = \ 14. a = -6, r = £ 15. a = 5, r = -\

16. a — 2, r = — § 17. a = —4, r — 3 18. a = —5, r = —2
19. Find the common ratio of a geometric progression whose first term is 6 and whose fourth term
is f.
20. Find the first term of a geometric progression with common ratio j if the sum of the first three
terms is 13.
SECTION 3.2 Geometric Progressions 101

21. If $1000 is deposited annually in an account at 5.75% interest compounded annually, find the
total amount in the account after 10 years.
22. If $200 is deposited quarterly in an account at 4% annual interest compounded quarterly, find
the total amount in the account after 10 years.
23. A ball is dropped from a height of 12 ft. After each bounce, ,it rebounds to { the height of the
previous height from which it fell. Find the distance the ball rises after the fifth bounce.
24. The half-life of a chlorine isotope, 38C1, used in radioisotope therapy is 37 min. This means that
half of a given amount will disintegrate in 37 min. This means also that three-fourths will have
disintegrated after 74 min. Find how much will have disintegrated in 148 min.
25. A salt solution is being cooled so that the temperature decreases 20% each minute. Find the
temperature of the solution after 8 min if the original temperature was 90°C.
26. A tank contains 400 gal of acid. Then 100 gal is drained out and refilled with water. Then
100 gal of the mixture is drained out and refilled with water. Assuming that this process
continues, how much acid remains in the tank after five 100-gal units are drained out?
Find the sum, when possible, for each infinite geometric series.
27. 4 + f + £ + ••• + 4(|)"“1 + 28. 6 + £ + ^ + - + 6(iVr

29. 3 — !+ £ — •••+ 3(4)"-' + ••■ 30. 1 — 9 + 8f — • + Hr
31. 4 + 12 + 36 + ••• + 4(3)"“1 + ••• 32. —5 — § — | - ••-5®"-1
33. 5 + 1 + 0.2 + 0.04 + ••• + 5(0.2)"_1 + 34. 2 + 2 + 2 + • • • + 2(1)"“1 -
Find the fraction that is equivalent to each decimal.
35.0.3333... 36.0.135135135... 37. 0.0121212 ...
38.0.6252525... 39.0.86666... 40. 0.365365365 ...
3.3 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
The binomial theorem provides us with a convenient means of expressing any power of a
binomial as a sum of terms.
For small nonnegative integers n, we can find (a + b)" by actual multiplication.
n = 0 : (a + bf = 1
n = 1: (a + bf — a + b
n = 2: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2 ab + b2
n — 3: (a + bf = a3 + 3 a2b + 3 ab2 + b3
n = 4: (a + bf = a4 + 4 a3b + 6 a2b2 + 4 ab3 + b4
n = 5: (a + bf = a5 + 5 a4b + 10 a3b2 + \Oa2b3 + 5 ab4 + b5
We could continue this process, but the multiplications become more complicated for
larger values of n.
No matter what positive integral value of n is chosen, we obtain the following results:
1. (a + bf has n + 1 terms.
2. The first term is an.
3. The second term is na"~lb.
4. The exponent of a decreases by 1 and the exponent of b increases by 1 for each suc¬
cessive term.
5. In each term, the sum of the exponents of a and b is n.
6. The last term is b'\

The kth term is given by the formula
„(n-i)(n-2)-(n-k + 2)
(k — 1)! 0
where k\ (k factorial) indicates the product of the first k positive integers. (For example,
31 = 3*2*1 =6;5! = 5- 4- 3- 2*l = 120; and 6!=6*5*4*3*2*1= 720.)
The three dots in the numerator indicate that the multiplication of decreasing numbers is to
continue until the number n — k + 2 is reached. For example, if n = 8 and k = 4, then the
formula gives
8-7-6
BINOMIAL THEOREM
(o + b)n = an + nan~xb + — V +
2! 3!
n(n - l)(n - 2) •••(«- k + 2) ^
+ —--—:---'~an ■//-' + ... + bn
(k~ 1)!
where the three dots indicate that you are to complete the process of calculating the terms.
The expression for the Mi term is also given.
EXAMPLE 1
Expand (x + 4y)5 by using the binomial theorem.

Let a = x, b — 4y, and n = 5.
\5 _ ^5 . . 5(5- . 5(5- 1X5-2) ■ 5-3//i,a3

(x + 4y)5 = x5 + 5x5 !(4y) + x5~\4yf + (4y)3
2! 3!
5(5 - 1)(5 - 2)(5 - 3)
+ -——--v5~4(4_v)4 + (4y)5
= jc5 + 20.x 4y + 160x 3y2 + 640x2v3 + 1280xy4 + 1024v5
For small values of n, it is possible to determine the coefficients of each term of the
expansion by the use of Pascal’s triangle as shown below:
n = 0 1
n = 1 1 1
n = 2 1 2 1
n = 3 1 3 3 1
n = 4 1 4 6 4
n = 5 1 5 10 10 5
Observe the similarity of this triangle to the triangular format shown earlier when
expanding (a + b)n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Each row gives the coefficients for all terms of
the binomial expansion for a given integer n. Each successive row provides the coefficients for
the next integer n. Each row is read from left to right. The first and last coefficients are always
1 as observed in the triangle. Beginning with the third row (« = 2), coefficients of terms other
than the first and last are found by adding together the two nearest coefficients found in the
SECTION 3.3 The Binomial Theorem 103

row above. For example, the coefficient of the fourth term for the expansion with n = 5 is 10,
which is the sum of 6 and 4. The numbers 6 and 4 appear just above 10 in Pascal’s triangle.
We can enlarge Pascal’s triangle to obtain a row for any desired integer n. However,
this is not practical for large values of n.
EXAMPLE 2
Using Pascal’s triangle, find the coefficients of the terms of the binomial expansion for n = 7.
We need two more rows of the triangle:
n = 6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
n = 7: 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
The last row provides the desired coefficients.

Using a calculator, we can show that the entries in the row of Pascal’s triangle for n = 7 match
the decimal digits of (1.01 )7. To understand this, think of (1.01 )7 as (1 + 0.01)7 and apply the bino¬
mial theorem. Note that we can also produce the first several rows of Pascal’s triangle by entering
the number I and multiplying it by 1.01 repeatedly. Unfortunately, three-digit numbers appear in the
rows of Pascal’s triangle for « > 9, so powers of 1.01 cannot be used beyond the row for n = 8.
1.01 A7 ENTER up arrow ENTER FI 8 1 ENTER X 1.01 ENTER ENTER ENTER, etc.
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■ 1.061520150601-1.01
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■ 1.030301•1.01 1.0406 ■1.G72135352107-1.01
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1.030301 1.061520151
1.04060401 1.072135352
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1.01A7 ENTER 1 ENTER X 1.01 ENTER ENTER ENTER, etc.
EXAMPLE 3
Expand (2m + k)7 using the binomial theorem.

Let a = 2m, b — k, and n = 7.
(2m + ky = l(2m)7 + 7(2m)7“'k1 + 21(2 m)7-2^ + 35(2 m)7-3*3

+ 35(2 m)7“V + 2\(2m)1~5k5 + 7(2m)7“6k6 + (l)k1
= mm1 + 448mbk + 612m5 k? + 560mW
+ 280m3k4 + 84nrU + 14mk6 + k1
EXAMPLE 4
Find the seventh term of (x5 — 2y)10.

First, note that k = l,n = 10, a = x2, and b — —2y.
n(n l)(n — 2)---(n — k + 2)

kth term —- a n — k+\h)k — 1
(*- 1)!

10 • 9 • 8 • 7 • 6 • 5
seventh term = (*3)4(-2 y)6
6!
210(x ,2)(64y6)
13,440x l2y6
Graphing calculators are programmed to calculate the /Th binomial coefficient.

The notation is „Cr_l5 where r is used instead of k. For (a + b)n the rth term is
„Cr_ |(a)" (' 11 (b)' Doing Example 4 with a calculator, we have r = 7, n = 10, a = x2,
and b = —2y.
seventh term = 10 C7.., (x2)10 ^ '\—2y)1 1
seventh term = l0C6(x2)4(-2y)6
Use your calculator to find 10C6 as follows:
2nd MATH 7 3 10,6) ENTER

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10 MATH left arrow 3 6 ENTER

101 MATH NUM CPX 10 nCr 6
1s rand 210
2 s nPr ■
»HnCr
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seventh term = 210 x8(-2)6y6

seventh term = 210xs(64)y6 = 13,400x8y6
Exercises 3.3
Expand each binomial using the binomial theorem.
1. (3x + y)3 2. (2x - 3y)4 3. (a - 2)5 4. (5x + 1 )4

5. (2x - l)4 6. (1 + x)7 7. (2a + 3bf 8. (a - 2bf
9. (|jc - 2)5 10. (jm + Ik)5 11. (a1/2 + 3b2)4 12. (x1/2 — yl/2)4
2x 3N6
13. 14.
I - - -
sy z 7 + z.
Find the indicated term of each binomial expansion.
15. (x - y)9; 6th term 16. (4x + 2y)5; 3rd term

17. (2x - y)13; 9th term 18. (x1/2 + 2)10; 8th term
19. (2x + y2)7; 5th term 20. (x2 - y3)8; middle term
SECTION 3.3 The Binomial Theorem 105

21. (3x + 2y)6; middle term 22. (x — 2y)10; middle term
23. (2x — l)10; term containing x5 24. (x2 + l)8; term containing x6
CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
1. Arithmetic progression: a sequence of terms where each term differs from the imme¬
diately preceding term by a fixed number d, which is called the common difference. The
general form of an arithmetic progression is written
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,a + {n — 1 )d
(a) The nth or last term / of such a finite arithmetic progression is given by
l = a + {n — 1 )d
(b) The sum of the first n terms of a finite arithmetic progression is given by
Sn ~ “0 + 0
2. Geometric progression: a sequence of terms each of which can be obtained by multi¬
plying the preceding term by a fixed number r, which is called the common ratio. The
general form of a geometric progression is given by
a, ar, ar2, ar \ . . . , arn~ 1
(a) The nth or last term / of such a finite geometric progression is given by
/ = arn~l
(b) The sum of the first n terms of a finite geometric progression is given by
a( 1 - rn)
Sn = ~,-'
1 — r
(c) The sum of the infinite geometric series, where |r| < 1, is
5 = ——
1 - r
3. k\ (.k factorial) = k{k — \)(k — 2) ••• 4 • 3 • 2 • 1. For example,
5! = 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
10! = 10 ■ 9 • 8 • 7 • 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
4. Binomial theorem:
/ x I n(n - 0 9 9 n(n - 1 )(n - 2)

(,a + b)n = a" + nan~'b + a"~2b2 + —-^-Lan~3b3 +
2! 3!
n(n - 1)0 - 2 ) ••• 0 ~ * + 2) .
+ an-k+\bk-\ + ... + bn
(k - 1)!
5. The kth term of a binomial expansion is given by the formula
n(n - 1)0 — 2 ) ••• 0 — k + 2) __k

n — k+\jjk—l
(k - 1)! ^
or nCk_xan~k+lbk~x

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
Find the nth term of each progression.
1. 3,7, 11, 15,. . . , n = 12 2. 4,2, l,i.n = 7

3. V3, —3, 3 V3, —9, ...,« = 8 4. 4, -2, -8, -14,.... n = 12
5. 6, 2, .n = 6 6. 5, 15, 25, 3510
13. Find the sum of the first 1000 even positive integers.
14. If $500 is deposited annually in a savings account at 6% interest compounded annually, find
the total amount in the account after 5 years.
Find the sum, when possible, for each infinite geometric series.
15. 3 + 6 + 12 + 16. 5 + | + jij + • • •

18. 3 + | + f + •••
19. Find the fraction equivalent to 0.454545 ....
20. Find the fraction equivalent to 0.9212121
Expand each binomial using the binomial theorem.
21. (a - bf 22. {lx1 - l)5 23. {lx + 3y)4 24. (1 + xf
Find the indicated term of each binomial expansion.
25. (1 — 3.r)5; 3rd term 26. {a + 4b)6; 4th term

27. {x + 2b2y°; middle term 28. (3x2 - l)12; term containing x 16
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW 107

INTRODUCTION
The functions e\ sin x, cos x, In x, and many others may be written as polynomials with an
infinite number of terms called power series. When you use your calculator to evaluate one
of these functions, the calculator is evaluating a polynomial with a finite number of terms
to give an approximation of the functional value you have indicated. In this chapter we
study the conditions needed for writing a power series.
Objectives
■ Use the 2 notation.
■ Know the convergence conditions for a p-series.
■ Use the comparison test for convergence.
■ Use the limit comparison test for convergence.
■ Use the ratio test for convergence.
■ Use the integral test for convergence.
■ Use the alternating series test for convergence.
■ Know the definitions for absolute and conditional convergence.
■ Find the interval of convergence of a series.
■ Find a Maclaurin series expansion for a given function.
■ Find a Taylor series expansion for a given function for a given value of a.
■ Find a Fourier series that represents a given wave function.
4.1 SERIES AND CONVERGENCE
We now begin a more general study of series. Sigma notation is used for writing series. The
Greek letter 2 (sigma) is used to indicate that the given expression is a sum. The term fol¬
lowing 2 represents the general form of each term. For example,
2 n2 = l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62
n= 1
where the general form of each term is n1. The numbers below and above 2 must be inte¬
gers and indicate the values of n to be used for the first and last terms, respectively, of the
108
series. The other terms are found by replacing n by the consecutive integers between 1 and
6. The finite sum
1 +2 + 3 + ••• + «
tl
can be represented by ^ k, while the infinite sum
k= I
2 2 2
+ — + — + • • •
3 9 27
can be represented by ^
00 [/1—v] .
2
n = i V3/
The following example illustrates the use of sigma notation.
EXAMPLE 1
2 notation Expanded form of sum
(a) t (2k) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8+10+12

k= 1
(b) ^ (3* - 4) 11 + 14+17 + 20 + 23

<fc = 5
(c) X (£ - 2) ~ 1 + 0+ 1 + 2 + 3 + --- + (« — 2)
lt= 1
(d) 2 2* 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + • • • + 2"
/c = 0
n
(e) 2 A* A| + Aj + A3 + • • • + A„
*= i
EXAMPLE 2
Write the expanded form of ^

«= 1 2rc + 1
5
21 +
n= 2n + 1 2-1 + 1 2-2+1 + 2- 3 + l+ 2- 4+ l 5 + 1
4 4 4 4 4
+ + — + — 4“ —
3 5 7 9 11
For calculator examples using the TI-83 Plus, see Appendix C, Section C. 12.
SECTION 4.1 Series and Convergence 109

t
EXAMPLE 3
6 6 6 6
Write the sum - + — + — + • • • + yyy using sigma notation.
Build the general form of each term. Note that 6 appears in the numerator of each term
while the denominator changes in a pattern of perfect'squares beginning with 32. Do you see
that this series has nine terms?
6
2 (n + 2)2
are acceptable forms.
Next, we need to study convergence and divergence of infinite series. To begin this
process, consider the following series:
DEFINITION OF CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

OO
2 a„ = a, + a2 + a3 + -•
n= 1
Then
51 = a{
52 = <3i + #2
53 — Cl] + fl2 + <33
S„ - O] + a2 + a3 + ••• + an
where S, is the sum of the first term, S2 is the sum of the first two terms, S3 is the sum
of the first three terms, . . . , S„ is the sum of the first n terms (sometimes called the
nth partial sum),....
OO
(a) If lim Sn = S (where S is finite), the series "V an converges, and S is the sum of
n—>00
n—1
the infinite series.

OO
(b) If lim Sn does not exist, the series V an diverges.
n—
1 1 1
The geometric series 1 H-1-1-h from Section 3.2 converges because
6 2 4 8
lim Sn = 2. The arithmetic series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + • • • diverges because lim Sn = °°.

17—>00 (7—>0O
In the remainder of this section and Sections 4.2 to 4.4, we seek answers to the
following two questions regarding infinite series:
1. Does a given series converge or diverge?

2. If the series converges, to what value does it converge?
110 CHAPTER 4 Series

The answers to these questions are not always easy, especially the second one. There is no
general method for finding the sum of a convergent infinite series. We will begin the study
of these two questions with a simple test for divergence.
nTH-TERM TEST FOR DIVERGENCE OF A SERIES

CXD
If lim a A 0, then the series V, an diverges.

n—>oo '
n~ 1
In other words, it is impossible for an infinite series to converge if the terms you are adding
fail to get extremely small in absolute values as n —> oo. Note that this test will help you to
identify some, but not all, divergent series (many infinite series diverge for a completely dif¬
ferent reason).
EXAMPLE 4
Show that each series diverges by using the nth-term test for divergence.
™ ™ n
(a) 2 2" (b) 2 (c) 1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + 1 -!+•••
" n + 1
The series in Parts (a) and (b) diverge because
n .. 1
(a) lim 2" = oo and (b) lim lim = 1.
n—»oo fl \ n—>oo
1 + -
n
The series in Part (c) also diverges because lim an clearly is not zero.
Note of warning: If lim an = 0, there is no guarantee that the series converges. For
i . • n~*°°
example, the senes
2 (called the harmonic series)
i
diverges even though lim — = 0.
n—>oo n
We now present some tests to determine whether a given series of positive terms
converges or diverges. The next special series that we need to consider is the p-series. We
will show in Section 4.2 that the conditions for convergence and divergence of the
/^-series are the following:
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF A p-SERIES
Any series in the form
“1111
y' — — —— -f- — -|- — + ■ ■ •
n4l np \p 2p 3P
where p is a real number, is called a /7-series. The /7-series
(a) converges for p > 1 and

(b) diverges for p < 1.

r
EXAMPLE 5
Determine whether each p-series converges or diverges.

Ill , 111
(a) 1 1—H—H—- + •■• (b) 1 + — + — + — + "•
23 33 43 2 3 4
11
(c) H--— + •••
1
V2 V3
(a) This p-series (p = 3) converges.
(b) This p-series (p = 1) diverges. Recall that this series is called the harmonic series.
(c) This p-series (p = 1/2) diverges.
The next test for convergence is called the comparison test.
COMPARISON TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

OO GO
Let N be a positive integer, ^ an and ^ bn be series of positive terms, and

n= 1 n= 1
0 < < bn for all n > N: then

OO OO
1. If ^ bn converges, then ^ an also converges.

n=1 n=1
OO OO
2. If ^ an diverges, then ^ bn also diverges.

n= 1 n=1
In other words, the comparison test says
1. A series of positive terms that is term by term smaller than a known convergent
series must also converge.
2. A series of positive terms that is term by term larger than a known divergent se¬
ries must also diverge.
EXAMPLE 6
Use the comparison test to determine whether each series converges or diverges.
OO 1 OO 1
(a) 2 2"T7 (b) „?2 vUU

OO |
(a) We know that the geometric series ^ — converges, and

n= i 2"
1 1
for n > 1
V + 1 2"
^ l
Then, by the comparison test, 2j —-also converges.
„ = i 2 +1
OO 1
(b) We know that the p-series ^ —— (p = j) diverges, and

n—2 Vn
for n > 2
Vn — 1
Then, by the comparison test, ^ ——-also diverges.

n= 2 Vn - 1
A test that is often easier to apply than the comparison test is the limit comparison test.

First, a definition:
OO
Let 2 o„ and ^ bn be two series of positive terms.

n—1 n=1
oo OO
(a) Then ^ an and 2 bn âve ihe same order of magnitude if lim — = L,
n= 1 n= 1 ' "-*00
where Lisa real number and L =£ 0.

°° 00 a
(b) The series ^ has a lesser order of magnitude than V bn if lim — = 0
— 1i
n= ' n—»oo b
n= 1
oo oo
(c) The series ^ a„ has a greater order of magnitude than 'S' bn if lim — = oo
"=1 n=\ n^°°bn
EXAMPLE 7
Compare the orders of magnitude of each pair of series.

oo oo
(a) ^ (2«) and 2 (n ~ 4)

n—1 n= 1
oo oo
(b) ^ (3«) and ^ (/?2 + 1)

n= 1 n= 1
oo / j \ oo
(C) 2 ( - ) and 2
„=iW „=1
«=1 n2 + 1
In
(a) lim-- = lim-7 = 2. These two series have the same order of magnitude.
n—>00 ft — 4 n—>00 4
1-
n
3/?.3 “
(b) lim -7 — lim -- = 0. So X (3«) has a lesser order of magnitude than
n—>00 77- -f- J n—*00 ] ~ 0
n= 1
ft H-
n
00
2 ("2 +
n= 1
1:
n2 + 1
(c) lim -7-= — = lim-=
lim lim ( rc H—) = °°. So V ( — ) has a greater order of
71—> 00 J n —>00 77 n—kx> \
n—>00 n / \ n /
n= 1
n2 + 1
1
magnitude than ^
«2 + 1
We can now give the limit comparison test:
LIMIT COMPARISON TEST
Let ^ an and ^ b„ be series of positive terms.

«=1 n= I
(a) If these series have the same order of magnitude, then either both series converge
or both series diverge.
OO OO OO
(b) If the series ^ an has a lesser order of magnitude than ^ bn and 2 bn is

n=1 «= 1 n= 1
known to converge, then ^ a„ also converges.

n= 1
00
(c) If 2 an has a greater order of magnitude than ^ bn and ^ bn is known

n— 1 n— 1 n— 1
00
to diverge, then ^ an also diverges.

72=1

r
EXAMPLE 8
Use the limit comparison test to determine whether each series converges or diverges.
1 “In n
(a) 2 (b) 2 -
n=i n(3n + 1) n=l n
1
(a) Let’s compare with ^ — (p-series, p = 2), which converges.
n=i n
n(3n +1) .. ..2

n 1 1
lim = lim ——-= lim
n—>oo 1 n-+oo 3/7“ + 77 n-+oo \ 3
3 -f -
n
1
Since ^ — converges and both series have the same order of magnitude, the series
n = 1 rr
oo y
also converges.
„-i n(3n + 1)
(b) Let’s compare with ^ — (harmonic series), which diverges.
n= 1
In n
n
lim = lim In n = oo
n—>oo 1 n—yoo
“ 1 “Inn
Since 2j ~ diverges and the series 2j - has a greater order of magnitude, the
= i1 n
n=
series £ — also diverges.

n= 1
Exercises 4.1
Write the expanded form of each series.
1. £ (4n + 1)
71= 1
2. 2
n= 1
(1 -n2) 3. 2
n=3
6 n n
k2
4. ^ (/i“ — An)
n= 1
5. 2
fc=i k + 1
6. 2
*=i k(k + 1)
(=1
oo
7. 21
n=
(-IT-
^
8 . 2
77 = 1 ( ir' n + 1
Write each sum using sigma notation.
9. 1 + 2 + 3 + ••■ + 12 10. 1 + 3 + 5 + •■■ + 43

11. 2 + 4 + 6 + ■■• + 100 12. I3 + 23 + 33 + ••• + (n - l)3
1 ,1 1 1
13. 1 + 3 + 5 + ••• + (2 n — 1)
2 4 8 2n
_ 1 2 3 n+ 1
15. 10 + 17 + 26 + 37 + ••• + (n2 + 1) 16. - + - + - + ••• 4--
2 3 4 n + 2
Determine whether each series converges or diverges.
17. 3 + 9 + 27 + ••■ + 3" + ••• 18. 1 + 2 + 3 + ••• + n +

“ 2n 3n + 1
19- X —r 20. ^
n=:2 n - 1 =i
n=1 2 n — 1

21.
' + <f2+ V3 + V4 + "'+ <Tn + '"
22. 1 + — +
T 3 4'
OO
23. 25. 2 26. X

*>• nStfe
1 /7 = V «=i (/z + 1)- n =4 n — 3
1 1 1 1
27. +-+-h •■• + +
1-2 2-3 3-4 n(n + 1)
, 1 1 1 1111
28. 1 + - + - + 29. - + - + - + - + + — +
3 5 2n - 1 2 4 6 8 2n
1 1
30. 31. 2 32. 2 2 ,
„=i n2 + 3n >2=1 (2n - l)2 n=l «2 + 1
OO
1 I 1
33. y 34. 2 35. 2
n -1 Vn2 + 1 n=2 nyn2 — 1 „=i
>2=1 Vn(n + 1)
00 1 00 1 OO 1
36. y , 37. V - 38. 2 „2
- -1 V/z2 + 1 «= 1 2" + 2/z >2 “3
= 3 /72 — 4
00 1
°° M2 1 + sin /Z7T
39. y— 40. 2 ^ 41- X
n = 2 1° fl » = 3 /72 - 4 n= 1 «
“ 3n 1
42. 43. 2 44 .
„-i (n + 1)(« + 2) „= 1 Vn(n + 1) n= 1
4.2 RATIO AND INTEGRAL TESTS
The tests for convergence and divergence in Section 4.1 work for some series but not
others. As a result, we show two additional tests in this section.
RATIO TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

OO
Let 2 an be a series of positive terms and
n= 1
n-*oo an
(a) If r < 1, the series converges.

(b) If r > 1 (including r = 0°), the series diverges.
(c) If r = 1, the test fails. Some other test must be used.
EXAMPLE 1
OO In
Determine whether the series 2 converges or diverges.
n= 1
3"
2(77 + 1)
Q>7 + 1 3" 2(n + 1) n + 1
n+1
r — lim lim --- lim lim —-—
n—>oo a, n—>00 2/1 >2—>00 3" + 1 (2/z) o° in
3"
1f 1
= lim —( 1 H—
n—>oo 3 V n
Since r < 1, the given series converges.
SECTION 4.2 Ratio and Integral Tests 115

t
The ratio test is especially helpful in testing expressions involving factorials. Recall that
5! = 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
10! = 10 • 9 • 8 • 7 • 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
n! = n(n - l)(n - 2) ••• 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 (n must be a positive integer.)
EXAMPLE 2
oo 2n
Determine whether the series ^ — converges or diverges.
n= 1 n\
2n+l
■ln+ 1 (,n + 1)! n! 2n+l
r = lim lim lim
n-* oo fl n->oo 2” (n + 1)! 2"
/;!
= lim- 0 < I
n—>oo n + ]
Since r < 1, the given series converges.
EXAMPLE 3
OO --)n

,= l fl¬
irt+1
a n+ 1 2 ^n+ 1
nl 2
r = lim -= lim
(” + o2 = lim
n-KX) an n->°o 2" (n + l)2 2"
72
1(2)
= lim t—= 2 > 1
1 +
n.
Since r > 1, the given series diverges.
INTEGRAL TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

OO
Let ^ an be a series of positive terms and f{x) be a continuous, decreasing func-

n= 1
tion for x > 1 such that f(n) = an for all positive integers n. Then an and
n= 1
f(x) dx both converge or they both diverge.

Note: Before using the integral test, you must be certain that the function f(x) is
decreasing and continuous.
EXAMPLE 4
1
Determine whether the series ^ -converges or diverges.
n 'n n
Note: This series begins with n = 2 because In 1 =0.
I
Let f\x for x ^ 2; /(x) is continuous and decreasing for x >: 2.
x In x
'00
r dx ' dx
f(x) dx = — lim
2 J
2 X In X b-*oo J x In x
dx
First, integrate
x In x
dx _ du
u = In jc
x In x it
= Inn du = — dx
x
= lnlnx or In (In jc)
Then
rb
dx
lim lim In In x = lim (In In b — In In 2) = oo
b—> oo x In x *->0°
Since f(x) dx diverges, the given series also diverges.
EXAMPLE 5
°° n
,=i e
Let f{x) = xe x for .v > 1; f(x) is continuous and decreasing for x > 1.
) rb
f(x) dx = xe x dx = lim xe~x dx

b—>oo
Integrate xe x dx using integration by parts.
u dv v du
du dx
II
=
->
1
v = — e~x
II
u dv = uv v du
xe xdx = —xe x — J (~e x) dx
= -xe~x - e~x
= e~x{-x- 1)
Then
lim xe x dx = lim [e '{—x — 1)]

b—+oo b—>oo
SECTION 4.2 Ratio and Integral Tests 117

r
= lim [e~\-b - 1) - e~\-\ - 1)]

b—>oo
-b - 1 2 2 2
= lim -;- + - = 0 + - = -
b—>oo e e
Since f(x) dx converges (has a finite value), the given series also converges.
The integral test can be used to find the values of p for which the p-series
converges. Let’s begin by considering the p-series
OO |
for/? > 0
= i rr
71=1
1
Note: For p < 0, lim —- + 0, so the p-series diverges for p < 0.
n—>oo Y\l
l
Let f(x) = — for p > 0;/(x) is continuous and decreasing for x > 0. We need two
cases: For p + 1,
rb
dx
= lim x p dx
b—>oo
Y]-P
= lim-
b—+oo 1 — p
1
b'-p if p > 1
— lim p — 1
b—^co \ ] l -p
OO if p < 1
For p = 1,
r oo j
dx dx
— = lim — = lim In x = lim (In b — In 1) =
X b-> oo X b—xx) b—►oo
i
So, the p-series converges for p > 1 and diverges for p < 1.
Exercises 4.2
Use either the ratio test or the integral test to determine whether each series converges or diverges.
OO oo
n + 1 n + 2
i- 2 2. 2 3. 2 ft 4. 2
71= 1 n • 3" n— 1 tl\
71=1 n\
oo on
n n!
5- 2
n\
6. 2
2" 7- 2
, n • 2'1
8. 2 10"

2/2 + 3 2n
2' 1 1
9. 2 2"
10. ^
/22 + 1
11. 2 2/2 + I 12. 2
n= 1 22 V/2
oo
1 1
13. 2 14. 2
n= 2 22 Vln 22 'STn
1 1111
15. 1+1+1+ -h • • • 16. — + — H-+ — +
3 5 7 2 4 6 8
n OO
In n °° n
17. 2 18. 2 19. 20. 2
n2 + 1 n=2 n 2;c n
n=1 n= 1 + 1
4.3 ALTERNATING SERIES AND

CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE
Up to now we have considered only series with all positive terms. An alternating series is
a series whose terms are alternately positive and negative. Examples of alternating series are
2 (_l)« + i 2" = 2 - 4 + 8 - 16 +
n= 1
£(_1).2__3 + 3_3 + 2_2 + ...

’ n 2 3 4 5
2
n= t
(- 0”+ 1 a,. = a\ ~~ a2 ~ a4 d" ' ’ • (an > 0 for each n)
We have a relatively simple test for convergence of alternating series.
ALTERNATING SERIES TEST
The alternating series

OO
^ (— 1)',+ 1 an = ax — a2 + a3 — a4 + ■■■ (an > 0 for each n)

n— 1
converges provided that both of the following conditions are fulfilled:
(a) 0 < an+1 ^ an for n> 1 and

(b) lim an = 0
w—> OO
In addition, if S is the sum of the infinite series and Sn is the nth partial sum, then
IS - 5„| < an+\
Note: Condition (a) guarantees that the terms decrease in absolute value as n increases.
EXAMPLE 1
“ (-l)"+l 1 1 1
Determine whether the alternating series > -= 1 — T + t —7 + "' converges or
»= i « 2 3 4
diverges.
1 1 1
Since an + 1 =- < — = an and lim — = 0, this alternating senes converges.
22 4- 1 22 «->0° n
SECTION 4.3 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence 119

r
We have already shown that the harmonic series
“ 1 111
2 3 4
diverges, even though an+x < an and lim an = 0. The alternating series in Example 1 is
n—* oo
sometimes called the alternating harmonic series.
EXAMPLE 2
oo / _ i yi +1
Detemiine whether the series ^ —;-converges or diverges.
n=2 n In n
Since
*n+ 1
< —-— = a„ and lim —:-= 0
(n + 1) In (n + 1) n In n h-hx) n In n
this alternating series converges.

1
We have shown that the series of positive terms y —;- diverges in Example 4 of
„ = 2 n ln n
Section 4.2
ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE
Suppose that y an converges.

n= 1
OO oo
1. If y \an\ converges, then y an converges absolutely.

n= 1 n= 1
oo oo
2, If y \an\ diverges, then y an converges conditionally.

n= 1 «= i
OO Y oo J
For example, the series y (—1)" + 1 —r converges absolutely because y —r con-

«=i n „=i n
OO J OO |
verges and the series y (— 1)', + 1 — converges conditionally because y — diverges.

n=1 H n=1 n
Absolute convergence is a subtlety that plays an important role in analyzing the qual¬
ity of a series representation. The names even seem to imply that absolute convergence is
of higher quality than conditional convergence. An absolutely convergent alternating
series converges because of the rapidly decreasing size of its terms (remember, it would
still converge even if you changed all of its signs to positive). By contrast, a conditionally
convergent alternating series only converges because of the “gimmick”of alternating signs
(remember, it would diverge if all of its signs were made positive). Absolutely convergent
alternating series tend to converge rapidly and often need only a few terms to give very good
approximations (see Section 4.8). On the other hand, conditionally convergent series are
notorious for slow convergence, sometimes requiring thousands or even millions of terms
to yield three or four decimal place accuracy. Worse yet, advanced calculus has revealed
that an infinite rearrangement of the terms of a conditionally convergent series can liter¬
ally add up to any sum imaginable (or might even diverge). By contrast, an absolutely con¬
vergent series will always add up to the same sum, no matter how its terms might be
rearranged.

Exercises 4.3
Determine whether each alternating series converges or diverges. If it converges, find whether it
converges absolutely or converges conditionally.
i- 2 (-i)n + 1 2n + 1 2. 2 (-1)"
+1
2 3. 2 Mr
n= 1 /;= 1 "
n=1 (2 «)
oo oo
n 2n
4- 2 (-1)"
n=i 2n 1
5. 2 Mr +1 2n — 1 o. «=i
2 Mr1-
n I
oo oo
1
* 2
^2 In n
s. x Mr +1
n=\ \fn »• 2
n=1
oo
io. n=l
2 Mr-7
n\
n. >22
=1
12. 2 (-1)"
+ i JL
e"
n= 1
“ nl 2n + 1
2 (-ir1^
n= i ««■ 2 (-I)”*'y
21= 1
15. 2 (-1)"
/i = 1 n2
1 +1 ” +1 Sin 7777
16. 2 M)"
X//!2
I?. 2 Mr
In n
is. 2 Mr
«=1 + 1 n=2 1
cos n n + 1
19. 2 (-ir 20. 2 (-0"
n=1 n2 n\fn
4.4 POWER SERIES
A more general example of an infinite series is the power series. A power series is an infi¬
nite series in the form
OO
2 = a0 + axx + a2x2 + + anxn + •••
«=o
Certain functions can be written as a power series. For example, the function
/(x) = -—;— can be expressed as a power series as follows:

1 + x
1 — X + x2 — x3 +
1 + xJT
1 + X
X — X
x2 + x3
— X'
Thus
/« = = 1—x + x2 — x3 +
1 + X
Note, however, that the infinite division process as indicated is valid only for |x| < 1
because the right-hand side is a geometric series (Section 3.2) with a = 1 and r = —x,
which has the sum only for |x| < 1. Thus, the equality is not valid for |x| > 1.
1 - (—x)
SECTION 4.4 Power Series 121

■n t
A more general series in the form

OO
^ an(x — a)'1 — a0 + afx — a) + a2(x — a)2 + a3(x — a)2 + ••• + ajx — a)" + •••
n=0
is called a power series centered at a.

For each particular value of x (x is the variable in the power series), we have an
infinite series of constants, which either converges or diverges. In many power series, the
series converges for some values of x and diverges for other values of x. The ratio test is
usually the simplest initial test to use on a power series.
Let
un+ 1
lim r(x)
n-* oo U„
where un + 1 is the (n + 1 )st term and w„ is the /7th term of a power series. This ratio is most
often a function of x, namely r{x). Then the series will
1. converge absolutely for r(x) < 1 and

2. diverge for r(x) > 1.
Recall that the ratio test is not valid for r = 1 or r(x) = 1. These values of x must be checked
individually using other tests.
A power series always converges on an interval, which may vary from a single value
of x to all real numbers x—the entire number line. This interval is called the interval of con¬
vergence. The interval of convergence may include both endpoints, only one endpoint, or
neither endpoint. The interval of convergence of the power series
OO
X
n=0
an(X ~ ^
is always centered at x = a. The radius of convergence is the distance from the point x = a
to either endpoint of the interval. Thus the radius of convergence is one-half the length of
the interval of convergence.
Power series is centered at a.

si_radius of convergence R
-1-1-1-> x-axis
a — R a a + R
v_ _
V
J
interval of convergence
EXAMPLE 1
OO
For what values of x does the series ^ 5(x — 3)" converge? That is, find the interval of con-
n= 0
vergence.
«»+ 1 5(x - 3)"+1

lim = lim = lim lx — 31 = x — 3
n—> oo n—K50 5(x - 3)" n—>oo
«»
This series converges for
|x — 3| < 1
-1 < x - 3 < 1
2 < x < 4

Next, check the endpoints. For x = 2, the series is
OO
2 (~l)n(5), which diverges.

n —0
For x = 4, the series is
oo
^ 1"(5), which also diverges.

«=o
Thus, the interval of convergence is 2 < x < 4, whose graph is
■©^-> x
2 3 4
Note: The interval of convergence is centered at x = 3 and the radius of convergence

is 1.
EXAMPLE 2
00 xn
Find the interval of convergence of the series ^ :—.
,7~o n-
xn+1
+1 (n + 1)! X
lim = lim = lim
n—> oo n—>oo n—>oo n + 1
«/. xn
n\
Since r(x) < 1 for all values of x, this series converges for all real numbers or for all
values of x, which may also be written
— 00 < X < 00
EXAMPLE 3
OO
Find the interval of convergence of the series ^ nl xn.

n=0
W/7+ 1 (n + 1)! x” + 1
lim = lim
n—> oo
«/, n—>oo n\| xYn
0 if x — 0
= lim ](« + l)x| :
n—>oo oo if x ¥= 0
This series converges only for x = 0. This interval of convergence consists of one
point.
EXAMPLE 4
00 n2
Find the interval of convergence of the series ^ — (x — 1)".
n=0 2
(n + l)2 n+\
■1/7+ I
*n+ I {n + I )2(x - 1)
r(x) = lim = lim lim
n—> oo n—^ oo 2/i2
— (JC -
on \ 1)"
/
lim
U AY A =
X — 1
n—>oo 2\ «/ V J 2
SECTION 4.4 Power Series 123

f
This series converges for
x — 1
< 1
x — 1
1 < —— < 1
-2 < x - \ <2
-\ < x <2
Check the endpoints. For x = — 1, the series is
n\- 2)"
2 —~—= 2 (-1)"«2> which diverges.
n =0 ^ n =0
°° n2 2n 00
^ ^ ^2, which also diverges.
«=o 2" n=0
Thus, the interval of convergence is — 1 < x < 3.
-e* ■©-
-l
EXAMPLE 5
nx
Find the interval of convergence of the series ^
(n + if
(n + \)xn+l
*n + l (.n + 2)2 [n + l)3*

r(x) = lim = lim lim
n—>oo nx n—> oo n(n + 2)2
{n + l)2
This series converges for |jc| < 1 or —1 < x < 1.

Check the endpoints. For x = — 1, the series is
- n(-iy
which converges conditionally
h (n + l)2
n r
which diverges
„=o {n + l)2

Thus the interval of convergence is — 1 < x < 1.
-#■' C
-1 1
Exercises 4.4
Find the inter\>al of convergence of each series.

OO OO
/xY (-l)"xn
1.
2 2. 2 3.
>1=0 \2/ >2=1
n
CX) OO OO
(4x)n
4. 2
xn
nxn 5. 6. 2 n
n=0 >2=1 (2 n)\ >2=1
OO OO OO
(-l)n+1xn {-\)n + lxn nxn
7. 2 8. 2 9. 2
>2 = 1 (« + 1)(« + 2) >2 = 0 4" >2 =0 (n + l)2
OO OO OO
2"xn (-l)n+1(x - 1)" + 1
10.
2 3nx" 11. 2 12. 2
«=0 >2 = 0 3" n= 1 n + 1
OO OO OO
(-l)n+1xn (-l)"(x-2)"
13. 2 14. 2 (—2)n(x + ir 15. 2
n= 1 n • 2n >1 = 1 >2=1 Vn
OO OO OO
(x + 3)" x" x"
16. 2 17. 2 18. 2
n=1 n2 • 2" >2=1 n2 >2=1 Vn2n
OO
(-l)nx2n OO
n\ x" OO
2"xn+1
19. X 20. 2 21. 2
n= 1
n\ >2=1 (2n)! >2=1 n(3" + 1)
OO
(-l)nxn OO
(2x - 5)n OO
sin"x
22. 2 23. 2 2
24. 2
n=1 nn n= 1 n >2=1 n!
4.5 MACLAURIN SERIES
The Maclaurin series expansion of a function is a power series developed by differentiation.

If a function can be differentiated repeatedly at x = 0, then it will have a Maclaurin series
expansion. Thus we can write
f{x) = a0 + axx + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + ••• + anx" + •••
f'(x) = a{ + 2a2x + 3 a3x2 + 4 a4x3 + ■■■ + na„xn~l + •••

/"(x) = 2a2 + 2 • 3a3x + 3 • 4a4x2 + ••• + (« — l)(n)a„x"_2 + •••
/"'(x) = 2 • 3a3 + 2 • 3 • 4a4x + ••• + («- 2)(n - l)(»Ki"'3 + •••
If we let x = 0, then
f(0) = a0, f'(0) = au /"(0) = 2a2, and /'"(0) = 2 • 3«3
If we continue differentiating, the nth derivative at x = 0 is
/(")(0) = 1 • 2 • 3 ••• (n - 2)(n - 1 )(n)a„ = n!a„
SECTION 4.5 Maclaurin Series 125

Rewriting, we have
a„=m
a, =/'( 0)
/"(0)
_ /W(0)
n\
Replace the coefficients of the powers of x in the power series
/(.*) = a0 + ci\X + a2x2 + a3x3 + ••• + anxn + •••
by the preceding equivalent expressions to obtain the following result:
MACLAURIN SERIES EXPANSION
/"(0) , /'"(0) f{n\Q)

Ax)=m+f(o)x+J-^x2 + —r—x
3
+ ••• +
n!
The expansion is valid for all values of x for which the power series converges and for
which the function f(x) is repeatedly differentiable.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the first four terms of the Maclaurin expansion for fix) =-.
1 + x
/M = /«>> = i
/,W = (TT^ AP)--i
/■« = m2
rw = (1 + x)
/'"(°) = ~6
So
f(x)
jv ) = 1 — x + —x2
2, H--jc3
3, + ••■
= 1 - x + x2 - x2 + ■■ ■
which is the same power series we obtained earlier by division.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the first five terms of the Maclaurin series expansion for /(x) = cos 3x.
f(x) = cos 3x m= i
f'(x) = -3 sin 3x /'(o) = o
f"{x) = -9 cos 3x /"(0) = -9
f"'(x) = 27 sin 3x /"'(0) = 0
/(4,(x) = 81 cos 3x /(4)(0) = 81
Thus,
-9 81
f(x) = cos 3x 1 + Ox +-x2 + Ox3 + —x4 +
2! 4!
= 1 - -x2
,
+ _x
27 4
EXAMPLE 3
Find the Maclaurin series expansion for /(x) = ex.
Since ~(ex) = ex, we have /(n)(x) = ex for all n. Thus,

dx
m =/'(0) =/"( 0) =/"'(0) = ••• =/")(0) = e° = 1

Thus,
i,i,i. i
/M 1 + x H-x~ H-x3 H-x4 + ••• H-xn +
2! 3! 4! n\
x2 x3 x4 x"
1 + X + — + — + — + + — +
2! 3! 4! n\
Note: This series converges (has a sum) and is a valid representation for /(x) = ex for
all values of x (see Example 2, Section 4.4).
EXAMPLE 4
Find the first four nonzero terms of the Maclaurin expansion for /(x) = ex cos x.
/(x) = e* cos x /(0) = 1

/'(x) = e*(—sinx) + e^cosx
= e*(cos x — sin x) /'(0) = 1
f"(x) = ex(—sinx - cosx) + e'(cosx — sinx)
= —2^ sinx /"(0) = 0
/'"(x) = —2^ cosx — 2ex sinx
= —2ex (cosx + sinx) /"'(0) = —2
f^\x) = -2eA(-sinx + cosx) - 2et(cosx + sinx)
= —Aex cosx /(4)(0) = -4
Thus,
Ox2 2 4
/(x) = 1 + x +
2! 3!'
1
= 1 + X-x3 - —X4
3 6
SECTION 4.5 Maclaurin Series 127

Exercises 4.5
Find a Maclaurin series expansion for each function.
1. f(x) = sinx 2. /(x) = cosx 3. /(x) = e *
4. /(■*) = 5. /(x) = In (1 + x) 6. f(x) = e3x

1 — X
7. /(x) = cos 2x 8. /(x) = sin 4x 9. f(x) = xex
10. f(x) x sin x 11. fix) = V4 - x

12' = vfc
77
13. fix) = sin [x~-
14-- TTT? 1S- /w = <T^
16. fix) = (1 + x)3/2 17. f(x) = (1 + x)1 18. fix) = (2x-l )*
19. f(x) = e~x sin x
n(n ~ 1) 2 njn - l)(w - 2) 3
20. Show that (1 + x)" = 1 + nx + ~xz + xJ + • • • by using the
2! 3!
Maclaurin expansion. This series is called the binomial series, which is valid for all real
numbers n for lx I < 1
4.6 OPERATIONS WITH SERIES
We now summarize four important series that were developed previously as exercises.
r „ X
2
ex = l + x + — + — + — +
r
X- X
4
+ — + (1)
2! 3! 4! n!
sin x (2)
' 3! + 5! "
x2 x4
cos x (3)
" 2! + 4!~ "
x2 x3 r4
) = X - — + --- + • • • (4)
2 3 4
From these and similar basic power series expansions we can often obtain power series of
other functions.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the Maclaurin series expansion for f(x) = cos 3x.

Substituting 3x for x in Equation (3), we obtain
M2 | (3x)4
cos 3x = I —
2! 4!
9x2 81x4
- + - —
2! 4!
9x2 27x4
2 8
Compare this result with Example 2, Section 4.5.
EXAMPLE 2
In (1 + x)
Find a power series expansion for /(x) =
Dividing each side of Equation (4) by x, we have
In (1 + x) _ x _ F F x4
x x 2x 3x 4x
X X
2 X
3
— 1 — — + —-+
2 3 4
EXAMPLE 3
— „-3x
Find the Maclaurin series expansion for f(x) = e
Substituting —3x forx in Equation (1), we have
( — 3x)2 ( — 3x)3 (—3x)4

= 1 + ( —3x) + --- + --- + --- +
2! 3! 4!
9x2 9x 21 x 4
= 1 - 3x +
8
EXAMPLE 4
Compare the graph of /(x) = sin x (shown with a dotted line) with the graphs of its first-, third-,
and fifth-degree Taylor polynomials.
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SECTION 4.6 Operations With Series 129

f
A similar pattern can be found in Example 6 in Appendix C, Section C.12, which shows the
graphs of f(x) = cos x and its 2nd-, 4th-, 6th-, 8th-, and 20th-degree Taylor polynomials.
EXAMPLE 5
r1
sin x
Evaluate dx.
sin x
We use the function-- to find the derivative of y = sin x. We have no trouble differ-
x
entiating this function, but none of the techniques of integration introduced in the
sin x
preceding chapters leads to finding the integral dx. However, if we divide each side of
Equation (2) by x, we have
sinx _ x x3 x5 x7
x x 3!x 5!x 7!x
x2 x4 x6
— 1 — — + — — — + •••
3! 5! 7!
Then,
sin x x2 x4 X6
dx = 1 ~ — H-— + ■ • dx
3! 5! 7!
x3 x5
= x +
3!3 + 5!5 7!7
1 1 1
1 — — +- + (0)
18 600 35,280
0.946083 (sum of the first four nonzero terms)
EXAMPLE 6
1
e -X - 1
Evaluate dx.
Using Equation (1), we have
1 , —X , (~xf (-x)3 (-x)‘

= - + + + + +
X 2!x 3!x 4!x
1 , x x2 x3
— —- 1 +-1-
X 2! 3! 4!
So
- 1 1 X
2 1
xJ l
1-1+^- - + -
x x 2! 3! 4! x
2 3
, X X X
— — 1 H---1-
2! 3! 4!
rI 2 3
(e~x - 1) , X X X
dx = ■ 1 H-1- dx
•'o.i •'o.l
2! 3! 4!
x2 x3 x4
= —x H-1-
4 18 96 o.i

1 1 1
— I — 1 H-- — + —
4 18 96
0.01 0.001 0.0001
— I —0.1 + +
4 18 96
-0.6976 (using the first four terms)
The exponential form of a complex number is based on the expression
eje = cos 9 + j sin 9, where j = V—T

We will now show that this is a valid identity. Recall from Equations (1) through (3) that
2 14 5
X X X X'
ex = 1 + jt + — + — + — + — + ••• (1)
2! 3! 4! 5!
x2 x4
COS X = 1 ~Y\+V.~'" (3)
x X.5
sin .r (2)
3!~ 5!
If we let x = j6 in Equation (1) and x = 9 in Equations (3) and (2), then we have the
following equations, respectively:
- 1 +jd
(. ft)2 + w w_ + w + +
2! 3! 4! 5!
62 d} 94 ,05
— - ;— -|_ — -|- ;— _
(5)
= 1 +J0
2! J 3! 4! 7 5!
a2
cosfl= 1 -x + u~- (6)
6_
j sin 6 =j[ 6
3! + 5!
d3 95
= j9 — j-1- j— (7)
J 3! 5!
Adding Equations (6) and (7), we have
. 93 95
cos 9 + j sin 9 = ( 1
2! + 4! + ^6'_;3! +75T
d2 03 04 05
[same as Equation (5)]
= i +^-^T-^ + iT+-'iT-
= eje
Exercises 4.6
1. /(*) = e~x 2- /W == cos Vr 3. Ax) = e*2

4. /(•*) = sin x2 5. f(x) -= In (1 - *) 6. Ax) = e~4x
7. /(*) = cos 5.v2 8. f(x) --= In (1 + 3x) 9. Ax) = sin .v3
10. /« = 11. /w == xex 12. Ax) = x2 sin
cos x — 1 ex
13. /(*) = 14. f(x) -
X ~ x - 1
SECTION 4.6 Operations with Series 1 31

15. Evaluate e x dx. (Use first four nonzero terms.)
cos x — 1
16. Evaluate dx. (Use first three nonzero terms.)
x
-l
17. Evaluate dx. (Use first three nonzero terms.)

x — 1
18. Evaluate cos x dx. (Use first four nonzero terms.)
19. Evaluate sin Vjc dx. (Use first three nonzero terms.)
7T/2
20. Evaluate Vx cos x dx. (Use first six nonzero terms.)
21. The hyperbolic sine function is defined by sinh x — ex — e~x). Find its Maclaurin series.
22. The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by cosh x = \(ex + e~x). Find its Maclaurin series.
23. If i = sin t1 amperes, find the amount of charge q (in coulombs) transmitted by this current
from t = 0 to t = 0.5 s. Note: q = i dt.
1 - cos t
24. The current supplied to a capacitor is given by i = amperes. Find the voltage V
across the capacitor after 0.1 s, where the capacitance C = 1 X 10 6 F. Note: V = ^ i dt.
Using power series for sin x, cos x, and ex, show that
ejx + e~jx
25. sin x = 26. cosx
2/
4.7 TAYLOR SERIES
When a function f(x) is repeatedly differentiable at a number a and at x as well as all numbers
between a and x, then the function usually has a Taylor series expansion that is a valid
representation of the given function at x.
TAYLOR SERIES
A Taylor series expansion of a function f(x) is a power series in the form

f"(a)
f(x) — f(a) +f'(a)(x - a) + ~—{x - a)2 + —~(x - a)3 +
f'Ka)
I —T' (.v - a)" + ■■■
nl
Note that a Maclaurin series is a special case of a Taylor series with a = 0.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the Taylor series expansion for f(x) = In x with a — 2.

/(x) = In a: /(2) = In 2
m-j /'(2) = \
rw = f"(2) =4
r w = -j
x
/"'(2) = - = -
J v ’ 8 4
3
/™w =
X
/' ,(4 2)=4 = 8
So,
1
f(x) = \nx = In 2 + -(x - 2) +
(* ~ + 3!^ ~ 2^ + ~ ^ +
= In 2 + — (x — 2)-(x — 2)2 H-(x — 2)3-(x — 2)4 +

2v ' 8v 2 24v ’ 64v ’
EXAMPLE 2
Find the Taylor series expansion for /(x) = ex with a = 1.
Since — (ex) = we have

dx
/(l) =/'(!) =/"(!) =/"'(!) = ••• = /n)(l)
So,
/(x) = e* = e + e(x - 1) + ^-(x - l)2 + ^r(x - l)3 + ■■■ + -^(x - 1)” + ■■

2! J! n!
1 + (x - 1) + ^-(x - l)2 + ~(x - I)3 + ••• + ”7(x - 1 r +

2! j! n\
EXAMPLE 3
Find the Taylor series expansion for /(x) = sin x at a = 7t/2.
/(x) = sin x
/(f)
/'(x) = COS X
/(f)
/"(x) = -Sinx
Kf)
/'"(x) = — cosx r(f)
f-\x) — sinx
/"(f)
f(x) = sin, = 1 - 4(x - fj + 4^ - |) -
SECTION 4.7 Taylor Series 133

Exercises 4.7
Find the Taylor series expansion for each function for the given value of a.
77 77
1. /(x) = cos x, a = 2- f(x) sin x, a — —
A
3. /(x) = a = 2
77
4. f{x) = Vx, a = 4 5. fix) = Vx, a = 9 6. fix) = tan x, <3 = — .
7. f{x) = -,a = 2 8- /0) = a = 1 9. fix) = In x, a = 1

X
10. f(x) = x In x, a = 1 11- /(•*) = 7Vx

^’° = 1 i2-/w = TT7-',= '
77
13. fix) = a = 1 14. fix) = cos x, a = — 15. fix) — cos x, a = -nr
x
16. fix) = e~x, a = — 3
4.8 COMPUTATIONAL APPROXIMATIONS
One important use of power series expansions is to compute the numerical values of tran¬
scendental functions. Unlike the geometric series, it is difficult to compute the sum of a
power series. Usually we must settle for an approximate value by simply evaluating only
the first few terms of the series.
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate In 1.1.
From Exercise 9 in Section 4.7 we found that
(*- 02 , (*- I)3 (*- I)4 ,

In x = (x — 1) —
Then,
(1.1 - l)2 (1.1 l)3 (1.1 - l)4

In 1.1 = (1.1 1) - --- + --
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

0.1 - + +
3 4
0.095308 (sum of the first four terms)

From the alternating series test, we know that the absolute error in this estimate is less than the
numerical value of the next term in the series.
I $ ~ $n I ^ an + 1 (alternating series test)

|S - S4| < a5 (for n = 4)
(ai)5
error < -= 2 X 10 6
1 1 5
Thus, the last digit shown is off by no more than 2 (and all other digits are accurate). We can
conclude that In 1.1 = 0.09351.
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate e~02.
From
x2 x3
1 + x + — + — + •••
2! 3!
we find
0, (—0.2)2 (—0.2)3
r0-2 = i - 0.2 + + .. +
2! 3!
= 0.81867 (sum of the first four terms)
To analyze the error in this estimate, note that
| S — S41 < a5 (alternating series test, n = 4)

(-0.2)4
I error I <-= 0.0000667
4!
Thus, the last digit shown is off by less than 7 (and all other digits are accurate). We can
immediately conclude that e~0'2 is either 0.8186 or 0.8187 when rounded to four decimal places.
More subtly, we can tell if an estimate obtained from an alternating series is too large or too small
by noting whether the final term in the estimate is positive or negative, respectively. Since the
(—0.2)3
fourth and final term, ———, is negative, we know that the estimate 0.81867 is too small. So
adding the error estimate (or anything smaller), we can actually infer that e~°2 = 0.8187 to four
decimal place accuracy.
EXAMPLE 3
Calculate sin 3°.

From
sin x = x —
SECTION 4.8 Computational Approximations 135

f
and the first two terms, we have

\3
^1
77 77 60/ 7T
+ 3° = —rad
Sln 3° = sin m = so 3! 60
= 0.0523599 - 0.0000239
= 0.0523360
Error analysis:
\S - S2| <' a3 (alternating series test, n = 2)

,
77
\5
,60/ -
|error| < ——— = 3.3 X 10
Thus, all of the decimal digits shown are accurate.
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate cos 32°.

The Taylor series expansion for f(x) = cos x at a = 77/6 is found as follows:
IT V5
f(x) = COS X f
2
_\_
f'(x) = — sinx
'ifi- 2
_V3
f"(x) = - cosx f
2
J_
f"'{x) = sinx f"
2
So,
V3 1 V3 {x ~ 77/6)” 1 (x - 77/6)
"f*-
COSJf 2 21V 6 2! 2 3!
Note: We need to write x = 32° = 30° + 2° = .

6 90
Then,
77 7 77 77 77 77
x — a = x-=-1-
6 6 90 V ~6 ~ 90
and
V3 I/77 V3 (77/90)2 1 (77/9O)2

cos 32° =-—
2 2V90 2 2! + 2 3!
= 0.848048 (using the first four nonzero terms)
Since this is not an alternating series, we will not attempt to analyze the error.
More advanced texts explain how many terms need to be used in approximating the
value of a function to a desired accuracy. In the exercises that follow, the number of terms
to be used will be specified.

If one desires to evaluate eiA, then it is better to use the Taylor expansion with a =
ex = e 1 + (x - 1) + — (x - l)2 + — (x - l)3 +
rather than the Maclaurin series,
x2 x3
ex — 1 + jt +-Y — +
2! 3!
because the powers of x — 1 become smaller faster than do the powers of x when x = 1.1.
Thus, an accurate approximation can be obtained with the Taylor expansion using fewer
terms. This observation illustrates the importance of the Taylor series expansion.
Exercises 4.8
Calculate the value of each expression.
1. e° 1 (Use first four nonzero terms.) 2. e~0'3 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
3. cos 1° (Use first two nonzero terms.) 4. sin 2° (Use first two nonzero terms.)
5. In 0.5 (Use first four nonzero terms.) 6. In 1.5 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
7. VTT (Use first four nonzero terms.) 8. V(X9 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
9. e13 (Use first four nonzero terms.) 10. VT9 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
II. sin 29° (Use first three nonzero terms.) 12. e0,9 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
13. Find the value of a current i = sin cut when cut — 0.03 rad.
14. Find the value of a current i = 3e'~ when t = 0.1 s.
4.9 FOURIER SERIES
One of the difficulties with Taylor series expansions is that, in general, they can be used to
represent a given function only for values of x close to a [when expanded in powers of
(x — a)]. A Fourier series expansion is often used when it is necessary to approximate a
function over a larger interval of values of x.
SECTION 4.9 Fourier Series 137

The following expression is called a Fourier series expansion representing f(x):
FOURIER SERIES
f(x) = a0 + a| cosx + a2 cos 2x + ■■■ + an cos nx + • • •

+ b | sin x + b2 sin 2x + ■ • ■ + bn sin nx +
The coefficients are determined as follows:

•27T
f(x) dx
■x)
• 2tt
f(x) cos nx dx (n ~ 1, 2, 3,...)

3
r 2ir
f(x) sin nx dx (n = 1,2, 3,...)

o
Note that n is a positive integer and that the Fourier series expansion is periodic
with period 27r.
Four of the basic periodic waves that commonly occur in the analysis of electric and
mechanical systems are shown in Fig. 4.1.
Square
wave
. . ... sin 3x sin 5x sin lx

f(x) = — ( sin x + —— + +
, . _ , sin 2x sin 3x sin 4x

f(x) =-sin x H-1-1-
Jw -1 2 3 4
f(x) Half-sine
wave
1 / 77
(c) /to = - - sin x-cos 2x-cos 4x-cos 6x + • • •
2k 7T 2 3 15 35
f(x) Full-wave
rectification
(d) f{x) = — I 1 — — cos 2x-cos 4x — — cos 6x

2tc 3 15 35
Figure 4.1 Four basic periodic waves.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the Fourier series that represents the square wave of period 2tt and amplitude 3 shown in
Fig. 4.2. Its formula is given by
0 < X < TV
fix) =
77 — X < 27T
To calculate the coefficients, we will need to split up all of the integrals at x = it.

Figure 4.2
Z7T
1
Finding a0: aQ f(x) dx
277
0
1 / f71 2ir
3 dx + -3 dx
aJ
1
7T
3x + ("
277 0
I
[377 — 0 + ( — 677) — ( — 377)]
277
= 0
Finding an: a„ = — f{x) cos nx dx (n = 1,2,3,

77
1_
3 cos nx dx + - 3 cos nx dx
77
2lT
1/3 sin nx —3 sin nx
77 \ n 0 n
3 sin mr — 3 sin 0 _|_

—3 sin 2nir — -
- —3 sin mr
77 V n n n n
= -(0 -0 + 0-0)
77
= 0
Therefore, the constant coefficient and all of the coefficients of the cosine terms are zero.
<• 27r
Finding bn: bn — /(x) sin nx dx (n = 1,2,3,...)

77
0
C 77 r 2tt
3 sin nx dx + —3 sin nx dx
77
"0
2tt
1 / —3 cos nx 3 cos nx
77 V n 0 n
1 / — 3 cos «77 —3 cos 0 3 cos 2mr 3 cos mr

/-+
77 V n n n n
1/6 6 COS «77
(cos 0 = 1 and cos 2iut = V
77 \n n
6 _ 6
0 if n is even
77 \n n
1 / 6 + 6 \ _ 12 if n is odd
77 \n nJ mr

Therefore, the Fourier series is
12 12 12 . 12
/(*) = —— sin lx + —— sin 3x + —— sin 5x + sin lx + • • •
(1)77 (3)77 (5)77 (7)tt
12 sin 3x sin 5x sin lx

sin x 3-H- T
+ '- -
77 7
Note that this is just 3 times the formula for the square wave of period 2tt and amplitude 1
given in the table in Fig. 4.1.
Using a graphing calculator to visualize an approximation of the square wave by the
first three terms of the series, we have
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+sin(3X >s3+sin(5 2:Zoom In
XV5 3:Zoom Out
xVs = 4:ZDecinal
xV; = 5: Z5-=iuare
vVh= 6: ZStandard
aszTrig
Y= ZOOM 7
EXAMPLE 2
Find the Fourier series which represents the wave function f(x) = x (0 < x < 277) with period
277 shown in Fig. 4.3.
r2ir
1 T. 11 X~
*2 ""
Finding a0: a0 = ~ x dx =- = 77
277 277 2 0
0
r 2tt
Finding a„: an = — x cos nx dx

77
Figure 4.3

From Appendix B, Formula 81, we have
u cos u du = cos u + u sin u + C
r
u du
x cos nx dx = cos u — u — nx
J J n n du = n dx
c
1
u cos u du
n1
= —7 (cos u + u sin u) + C
n
1 .
= —r (cos nx + nx sin nx) + C
n
Thus,
27T
an — —- (cos nx + nx sin nx)

7Til
I
{(cos 2mr + 2nir sin 2nir) — [cos 0 + n(0) sin 0]}
irn
_1
2(1 + 0— 1 — 0) = 0 (Recall that n is a positive integer.)
7772
r 2tt
Finding bn: bn = x sin nx dx

77
From Appendix B, Formula 80, we have
u sin u du — sin u — u cos u + C
So,
u du u = nx
x sin nx dx = - sm u —
J n n
du — 72 dx
u sin u du
n'
= -r(sin u — u cos u) + C
n
= —7 (sin nx — nx cos nx) + C

nr
Thus,
2tt
bn = —- (sin nx — nx cos nx)

irn
= —- {(sin 2mr — 2mr cos 2nn) — [sin 0 — «(0) cos 0]}

7772
= -r (0 — 272 77 — 0 + 0)
7772
_2
72
That is, b\ — f — —2,b2= —\= — 1, &3 = — f,..., and the Fourier series is
f(x) = 77 — 2 sin x — sin 2x — — sin 3x

Note: There are no terms involving cosine because ax = a2 = <33 = = an — 0. The
graphs of the sums of the first few terms are sketched in Fig. 4.4.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the Fourier series for the wave function given by
r, x _ f 77 • 0 < * < 77
\ 2tt — x, 7r— x < 2tt
First, sketch several periods of fix) as in Fig. 4.5.
J_
Finding a0: aQ = 77 dx + -— (277 — x) dx
277 277
0
J_ 77 1
77 x) + - 1TTX
277 0 277
77 77 377
- -
2 4 4
Note: Two separate integrals must be used to determine the coefficients. This is because
the function is defined differently on the two intervals 0 < x < it and v < x < In.
y y=K

2it
Finding an: an tt cos nx dx 4- (2tt — x) cos nx dx

77 77
2tt 2tt
cos nx dx + 2 cos nx dx x cos nx dx

77
— (sin nx) + — (sin nx)

n
2tt
—2 (cos nx + nx sin nx) (from Example 2)
77/7“ 7T
0 + 0 if n is odd
77 n 77n
if n is even
2v
Finding bn: bn 77 sin nx dx H- (277 — x) sin nx dx

77 77
• 7T * 27T 2tt
sin nx dx + 2 sin nx dx- x sin nx dx
■o TT
77
2tt
= (-I (cos nx) + (-I (cos nx)
2tt
-r (sin nx — nx cos nx) (from Example 2)

irn
'2 4 3 1
J I — — if n is odd
— \ n n n n
0 if n is even
We thus obtain the Fourier series
377 2 1 1
/(x) = —-1 cos x + —cos 3x H-cos 5x +
77 25
. 1 . 1
+ sin x H— sin 3x H— sin 5x + •
3 5
We will now show how the formulas for the coefficients a0, an, and bn are obtained.
Note that if we integrate each side of the equation
/(x) = a0 + a, cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + • • •

+ b| sin x + b2 sin 2x + b^ sin 3x + ■ • • (1)
from 0 to 277, then the integrals should be equal. That is,

•2v * 27T * 277 * 2tt
fix) dx = a0 dx + a] cos x dx + a2 cos 2x dx +

J0 Jo 0 ^0
r 2tt 2tt
+ b, sin x dx + b0 sin 2x dx. -V
r 2tt
All terms on the right-hand side are zero except for a0dx — 27ra0, so
27T
f(x) dx = 2t7«0
' 2tt
a0 f(x) dx
277

t
Multiply each side of Equation (1) by cos nx. Then integrate each term to obtain
* 277 ' 277 C 27r
f(x) cos nx dx = a0 cos nx dx + ax (cos nx) cos x dx

o ô J
r 2tt
+ a2(cos nx) cos 2xdx + •••
2tt
+ bx (cos nx) sin x dx
+ b2{cos nx) sin 2x dx +
All terms on the right-hand side are zero except the term
r 2tt
cin (cos nx)(cos nx) dx = iran
So,
r 2tt
f(x) cos nx dx = Tran
r 2 tr
a„ = f(x) cos nx dx
77
In a similar manner [multiplying each side of the Fourier series equation (1) by sin nx and
integrating each term], we can show that
2tt
l
bn = — f(x) sin nx dx
IT
Note: If the function to be analyzed ranges periodically from — 77 to 7i, then the
coefficients become
a0 = f(x) dx
277
77
a„ f(x) cos nx dx
77
— 77
C 77
f(x) sin nx dx
b" = w
77
In general, if you need to find a Fourier series of a function which ranges periodical¬
ly from — L to L, the coefficients become
an = f(x) dx
2L
tlTTX
a„ = f(x) cos —— dx
L J L
r L.
ft \ ■ U7TX J
b„ = j{x) sin-dx
L Zy
—L

The period of the function is 2L. The Fourier series is
r/ \ _ . nx 2ttx 3ttx mrx

j(x) - a0 + ax cos —- + a2 cos-b a3 cos-b + a„ cos-b
L jL, l_j " L
, .ttx Ittx . 3nx . mrx
+ b, sin —- + b2 sin —--b b3 sin-b + b„ sin-b • • ■
b L f
Exercises 4.9
Sketch several periods of each given function and find its Fourier series expansion.
1. /to = --x, 0 ^ X < 277 2. /to

3.
<N
V
VI
4.
II
x, 0 fH*
/to 2x, 77 < X < 77
fo 0 :£ X < 77 IT 0 £= X < 77
5. 6.
II
u 77 — X < 277 /to

0 77 — X < 277
7. /to = \
fi
i-i
0 Sx < 77
77 < X < 277
8. /to
X
77
0 ^ X < 77
77 < X < 277
fo —5 < X < 0 I -4 < x < 0

9. /to = \[6 0 < X < 5
10. /to
-1 0 <x < 4
0
V V
VI
fx 0 0
b
< X < 77
11. /to = | 12. /to
VI
H
b
(277
1
X 77 < X < 277
13. /to = e/ 0 ^ X < 277 14. /to

— n ^
sin X 0 S' X < 77 sin x 0 ^ x < 77

15. /to = | 16. /to
,0 77 — X < 277 — sin x 77 — X < 277
CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY
1. Definition of convergence and divergence:

OO
^ fl„ = «! + fl2 + fl3 +

n= 1
Then,
5, — <3)
52 = + fl2
53 = a\ + a2 + <33
Sn — a | + a2 + a3 + • • • + an
where is the sum of the first term, S2 is the sum of the first two terms, S3 is the sum
of the first three terms, . . ., Sn is the sum of the first n terms (or sometimes called the
nth partial sum).

f
(a) If lim Sn = S (where S is finite), the series ^ an converges and S is the sum of
n—xx)
n=\
the
infinite series.
(b) If lim Sn does not exist, the series ^ an diverges.

«->°° „=|
2. nth-Term Test for divergence of a series: If lim an =£ 0, then the series diverges. Stated
n—> oo
CO
another way, if the series "V an converges, then lim an = 0.

n—kx)
n= 1
3. Convergence and divergence of a p-series: Any series in the form

00 1 1 1 1
"V — =-1-1-where p is a real number, is called a p-series. The
np V 2P 3P
p-series
(a) converges for p > 1 and
(b) diverges for p ^ 1.
4. Comparison test for convergence and divergence: Let N be a positive integer, V an

OO n= 1
and ^ bn be series of positive terms, and 0 < < £>„ for all n > N.
n= 1
(a) If ^ bn converges, then ^ an also converges.

n= 1 n=\
OO oo
(b) If ^ an diverges, then ^ bn also diverges.

n= 1 n=1
In other words, the comparison test says

(a) A series of positive terms that is term by term smaller than a known convergent
series must also converge.
(b) A series of positive terms that is term by term larger than a known divergent series
must also diverge.
OO OO
5. Order of magnitude: Let ^ an and ^ bn be two series of positive terms.

n= 1 n— 1
(a) Then a„ and bn have the same order of magnitude if lim — = L, where
1
n-¥OO is
hn
n= 1 n =
L is a real number and L =£ 0.
(b) The series V an has a lesser order of magnitude than 'S' bn if lim — = 0.
n—>oo h
n=\ n= 1 'n
oo
a„
(c) The series S' an has a greater order of magnitude than S' bn if lim — = oo.
n—>oo h n
n= 1 n= 1
6. Limit comparison test: Let ^ an and 2 bn be series of positive terms.

n= 1 n =1
(a) If these series have the same order of magnitude, then either both series converge
or both series diverge,
OO OO OO
(b) If the series ^ an has a lesser order of magnitude than ^ bn and ^ bn is

n=1 n= 1 n= 1
OO
known to converge, then ^ an also converges.

n= 1
OO
(c) If ^ an has a greater order of magnitude than ^ bn and ^ b„ is known to

n= 1
OO
n=1 n= 1
diverge, then ^ an also diverges.

n= 1

oo
7. Ratio test for convergence and divergence: Let ^ an be a series of positive terms and
«= 1
a n+ 1
r — lim
n-> oo an
(a) If r < 1, the series converges.

(b) If r > 1 (including r = co), the series diverges.
(c) If r = 1, the test fails. Some other test must be used.
OO
8. Integral test for convergence and divergence: Let ^ be a series of positive terms
n= 1
and f(x) be a continuous, decreasing function for x > 1 such that f(n) = an for all
oo r oo
positive integers n. Then ^ an and f(x) dx both converge or both diverge.

n=l J,
9. Alternating series test: The alternating series

OO
2 an = ai ~ a2 + a3 — a4 + ■ ■ ■ (a„ > 0 for each n)

n— 1
converges provided that both of the following conditions are fulfilled:

(a) 0 < an +, < an for n > 1
(b) lim an = 0
n—>oo
In addition, if S is the sum of the infinite series and Sn is the nth partial sum, then
|S - S„| < an + x
10. Absolute and conditional convergence: Suppose that ^ an converges.

n= 1
oo oo
(a) If ^ |an | converges, then ^ an converges absolutely.

n=I n=1
oo oo
(b) If 2 kl diverges, then an converges conditionally.

n=1 n=1
11. A power series is an infinite series in the form

OO
2 anxn = ao + a\x + a2x2 + + anxn + •••

n=0
A series in the form
2 «„(* — «)" = a0 + afx — a) + a2(x — a)2 + afpc — a)2

n=0
+ • • • + an{x — a)n + • • •
is called a power series centered at a. Let
un+ 1
lim = r(x)
n = oo
where un + ] is the (n + l)st term and un is the nth term of a power series. Note that the
ratio will most often be a function of x, namely r(x). Then the series
(a) converges absolutely for r(x) < 1 and
(b) diverges for r(x) > 1.
Recall that the ratio test is not valid for r = 1 or r(x) — 1. These values of x must be
checked individually by other methods.

n r
12. A power series converges on an interval, called the inten’al of convergence. The interval
of convergence may include both endpoints, only one endpoint, or neither endpoint.
The interval of convergence of the power series
OO
2
n=0
an(x ~ aT • .
is centered at x = a. The radius of convergence is the distance from the point x = a to

either endpoint of the interval. Thus the radius of convergence is one-half the length of
the interval of convergence.
Power series is centered at a.

•I_radius of convergence R
-1-1-> x-axis
a a + R
interval of convergence
13. The Maclaurin series expansion of the function f(x) is
f"( 0) f"'( 0) /W(0)

f(x) = f(0) + /'(0)x + J~^x2 + ^ ■-3 + + +
2! 3! n\
The expansion is valid for all values of x for which the power series converges and for
which the function /(x) is repeatedly differentiable.
14. A Taylor series expansion of /(x) is a power series in the form
f"(a) „ f'"(a)
fix) =f{a) +f'{a){x - a) + -^-(x - af + —— (x - a)- +
2! 3!
f(n\a)
+ —-^(x - a)n +
Note that a Maclaurin series is a special case of a Taylor series with a = 0.

15. The Fourier series expansion of the function /(x) is
/(x) = a0 + <2, cosx + a2 cos 2x + ••• + a„ cos nx + • • •

+ b\ sin x + b2 sin 2x + • • • + b„ sin nx + •••
The coefficients are determined as follows:

r 27r
/(x) dx
2tt
0
r 2rr
a.. = /(x) cos nx dx

7T
o
r2n
K = ~ fix) sin nx dx
IT
Note that n is a positive integer and that the Fourier series expansion is periodic with
period 2tt.

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
Write the expanded form of each series.
1- 2 (i ~ 3")
>!= 1 2- k=l
2^
Write each sum using sigma notation.
, 1 , 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 10
4. —I-1-1-)-•■• + —
3 9 27 2187 4 5 6 7 13
Determine whether each series converges or diverges.
1
5- 2 2. 2
n= 1 6' ^ n't"! 6/i2 + 2
Vn 5/? + 2
8- 2 9- 10. 2
n=2 « - 1 n=2 In n „=i (3n +1)4"
00 n3 3 n 4- 1 n + 1
ii. y- DU 12- 2 13. 2
n= 1 z n= = i1 4 n — 5 „= i n + 4n
sin n
14- 2
«=i n +1
Determine whether each alternating series converges or diverges. If it converges, find whether it
converges absolutely or converges conditionally.
(-1)" + 1 3" (—l)n+12"

15- 2 16. £
5n(n + 1)
n + 1
17. y ("I)"
n — 1
is. 2 (-1) „+i n + 2
n=2 n= 1 n{n + 3)
Find the interval of convergence of each series.
°° n
19. £ r(* - 2)" 20. £ /i2(x - 3)"
n=0 z «=o
(*" 1)" 3"(x - 4)"
21- 2 22. 2
n= 1 n= 1 n
1
23. /(x) = 24. /(x) — Vx + I 25. /(x) = sin x + cos x
1 - x
1 - ex
26. f(x) = ex sin x 27. f(x 28. f(x) = cos x ‘
29. /(x) = sin 3x 30. /(x) = csinx

,‘0'1 In (x + 1)
31. Evaluate | -dx. (Use first four nonzero terms.)
o
sin t
32. If i =-amperes, find the amount of charge q (in coulombs) transmitted by this current
from t = 0 to t = 0.1 s. Note: q — \ i dt.

t
Find the Taylor series expansions for each function for the given value of a.
33. /(x) = cos 2x, a = — 34. f{x) = In x, a = 4

6
3tt
35. f{x) = ex~, a = 1 36. fix) =. sin x, a =
Calculate the value of each expression.
37. sin 31° (Use first three nonzero terms.) 38. e'2 (Use first four nonzero terms.)
39. In 1.2 (Use first four nonzero terms.) 40. y/4A (Use first four nonzero terms.)
Find the Fourier series for each function.
f0 0 ^ X < 77 (x2 0 ^ X < 77

41. fix) 42. fix)
\ — 1 77 — X < 277 \0 77 < X < 277

First-Order
Differential Equations
INTRODUCTION
Often in physics, engineering, and other technical areas, we need to search for an unknown
function. In many cases, this search leads to an equation involving derivatives (or differen¬
tials) of the unknown function. Such equations involving derivatives (or differentials) are
called differential equations.
Objectives
■ Solve differential equations by the method of separation of variables.
■ Solve differential equations by using an integrating factor.
■ Use differential equations to solve applications problems.
5.1 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
In Chapters 5 and 6 we present methods of solving differential equations; that is, we find
ways to use differential equations to determine an unknown function.
EXAMPLE 1
The following are examples of differential equations:
dy ,
(a) — = x2y
dx
dy
(b) — = sin x
dx
d2y dv
(c) — + x — + y = 0
dx dx
(e) ex dy — x2y dx = 2
The order of a differential equation is n if n is the highest order derivative that appears
in the equation.
151
r
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the order of the differential equation
dy
+ 5 = 0
dx2
The order is 2 since the second derivative d2i (order 2 derivative) is the highest-order
dx2
derivative appearing in the equation.
The degree of a differential equation is the highest power of the derivative of highest
order.
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the degree and order of each differential equation:
d2y dy ( dy\3
7 — + — =0 (1)
~d? dx \dx)
dy\2 dy
(2)
7x) ~}7+y = 0
d2y .
Equation (1) is a first-degree differential equation of order 2 since —f~2 is the highest-
dx‘
.dy
order derivative in the equation and is raised to the first power. Note that the third power of
dx
dy d2y
has no effect on the degree of Equation (1) because — is of lesser order than ——.
dx dx
dy
Equation (2) is a second-degree, first-order differential equation. — is the highest-order
dx
dy
derivative (order 1), and 2 is the highest power of — appearing in the equation.
dx
A solution of a differential equation is a function y = fix) that together with its

derivatives satisfies the given differential equation.
EXAMPLE 4
Verify that y = ,r2 + 5x is a solution of the second-order, first-degree differential equation

d2y dy
x —, - -p- + 5 = 0
dx" dx
dy d2y
First, 2x + 5 and —+ = 2. Then substitute in the differential equation:
dx Jv ^
dx-
d2y dy
0
dx2 dx
x{2) - (2x + 5) + 5 = 0
2jt — 2x — 5 + 5 = 0
0 = 0
EXAMPLE 5
Verify that y = —- is a solution of the first-order, first-degree differential equation

x + C
dy
= —2xy2
~dx
152 CHAPTER 5 First-Order Differential Equations

dy 2x
First, — . Substitute this result in the given differentia] equation:
dx (x2 + C)2
dy
= —2xy‘
dx
—2x = (_1_V
(x2 + C)2 _ \x2 + Cj
—2x _ — 2x
(x2 + C)2 (x2 + C)2
The solution y = x2 + 5x in Example 4 is an example of a particular solution of a

differential equation. One can verify that y = x2 + 5x — 7 is also a particular solution of
the differential equation in Example 4. A differential equation can have infinitely many
particular solutions.
A solution v = f(x) of a differential equation of order n containing n arbitrary constants
1 ,
is called a general solution. Thus, the solution y = 0 + in Example 5 ory = x + 5x + C
in Example 4 is an example of a general solution.

We will solve only first-degree equations. Differential equations that do not contain
partial derivatives are called ordinary differential equations. We restrict our considerations
to first-degree ordinary differential equations.
Recall the use of other notations for derivatives:
dy
y
dx
EXAMPLE 6
Verify that y = Ct + C2x + C3ex is a general solution of the differential equation y'" = y".
First, find the first three derivatives of the given function:
/ = C2 + C3ex
y” =
y'" = c3e*
Substituting in the differential equation, we have
ym = y"
Cê* = C3ex
Therefore, y = Cx + C2x + C3ex is a general solution of the given differential equation because
it has three distinct arbitrary constants.
Exercises 5.1
State the order and degree of each differential equa tion
dy 2 2 dy dy
i. — = X2 -y 3x -j- + 2 = 0 + 5xy — — x
dx dx dx
.2 dy 5. y'» - 4y" + xy = 0 6. y' + x cos x = 0

4- *2* + -v(*)=0
1. (y")3 - xy' + y" = 0 8. y" + exy = 2
SECTION 5.1 Solving Differential Equations 153

Verify that each function y — f(x) is a solution of the differential equation.
dy dy , .
9. — = 3;y = 3x - 7 10. — + y + 2x + 4 = x2; y = x2 — 4x
dx dx
dy . d2y
11. x-2y = 4x; y = x" — Ax 12. + y = 0; y = 2 sin x + 3 cos x
dx dx2
dy dy . ,
13. — + y = e~x\ y = (x + 2)e~x 14. x — = x2 + y; y = x2 4- Cx
dx dx
d2y dy
15. —r + 16y = 0; j = C[ sin Ax + C2 cos Ax 16. ^ = 20x3; y = x5 + 3x - 2
dx~ ~d?
dy d2y
17.-V y — 2 cos x = 0; y = sin x + cos x — e 18. —r — y + x =2;y = c * + x‘
dx dx
( d2y V (dy\ d2y
19. —- +4 — = 4; y = sin * cos x 20. -A: =9y; y = e3*
\dx2J \dxj dx
d2y (dy\ . d2y (dy
22. -—y + 2 — ] + y = 0\y = e~
2,-^-5Uj+4j=0;y“e dx \dx /
d2y (dy\ d2y f dy\ e
24. —- - 2 — + y =-r ; y = ex In x
lxy? + 1\jx) + y = (>:y=“x dx' dx
5.2 SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
There are numerous methods for solving ordinary differential equations. We present a few
of these methods. Certain first-order differential equations can be solved most easily by
using the method of separation of variables.
A first-order differential equation is an equation involving a function and its first
derivative. That is, it can be written in the form
dy
N (x, y) — + M(x, y) = 0 (1)
dx
or (by multiplying each side by the differential dx, where dx A 0)
M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0 (2)

where M(x, y) and N(x, y) are functions involving the variables x and y.
EXAMPLE 1
Rewrite the first-degree differential equation x2y' — exy = 0 in the form of Equation (2).
*2/ - e* = 0
9 dy
x2 — ~exy = 0
dx
x2 dy — exy dx = 0 (Multiply each side by dx.)
-exy dx + x2 dy = 0
In this example, M(x, y) = — and N(x, y) = x2.
Some first-degree equations in the form M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0 can be rewritten

in the form
fix) dx + g(y) dy = 0 (3)
where f(x) is a function of x alone and g(y) is a function of y alone.

EXAMPLE 2
Rewrite the first-degree differential equation x2yy' — 2xy3 = 0 in the form of Equation (3).
x2yy' - 2xy3 = 0
, dy ,
x2y-2xy3 = 0
dx
x2y dy - 2xy3 dx = 0 (Multiply each side by dx.)
(Divide each side by x2y3.)
1 2
—r ay-dx — 0
y x
or
2 1
-dx -\—; dy = 0
x y
The process demonstrated in Example 2 is called separating the variables. By

appropriate multiplications and divisions, we separate the equation into terms such that each
term involves only one variable and its corresponding differential. Because of the expression
e™ in Example 1, it is impossible to separate the variables.
When a first-order differential equation can be separated so that we can collect all y
terms with dy and all x terms with dx, then the general solution can be obtained by integrating
each term. If we separate the variables to opposite sides of the equation, the general solu¬
tion of a differential equation in the form
f(x) dx = g(y) dy
is
fix) dx g(y) dy
F{x) = G(y) + C
where F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x), G(y) is the antiderivative of g(y), and C is the
constant of integration.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the general solution of the differential equation x2yy' - 2xy 3 = 0.

In Example 2 we wrote x2yy' — 2xy3 = 0 as
2 1
-dx H—; dy = 0
x y
—zdy = — dx
— dy = : dx (Integrate each side of the equation.)

y
i
— = 2 In x + C
y
l
y~~2\nx + C
Note: When the solution of a differential equation involves integrating a term in the form
du du _ du
, we will now write — = In u + C rather than = In u! + C. We now assume that
u
the solution is valid only when u is positive. Remember also to include the constant of
integration C.
SECTION 5.2 Separation of Variables 155
EXAMPLE 4
y
Solve the differential equation y'
x2 + f
Rewriting, we have
dy y
dx x2 + \
dy (Multiply each side by dx.)
dy dx 1
Multiply each side by—.
y x2 + 1
dy dx
(Integrate each side.)
y . x2 + 1
In y arctan x + C
2nd 7 I/y,y)= 2nd 7 l/(xA2+l),x,c) ENTER F3 alpha C y 2nd = =y/(xA2+l),x,y) ENTER
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Note that if we use both sides of the implicit solution In y = arctan x + C as exponents for e,
we get the solution shown in the last frame, that is,
g\ny _ ârctan x + C
y = ec . ârctan*
y = C1earctanx, where C, = ec
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the differential equation x{ I + y2) — y(l + x2)y' = 0.

Rewriting, we have
dy
x{\ + y2) - y(l + x2) -f- = 0
dx
x( 1 + y2) dx — y( 1 + x2) dy = 0
dx — dy = 0 [Divide each side by (I + y2)(l + x2).]

1 + x' 1 + y-
x
dx = dy
I + x2 1 + y
X
dx dy
1 + x2 i + v"
Mn(l +x2) = ~\n(\ +y2) + C

Mn(l + x2) - -In (I + y2) = C
I + x‘
— In - C
2 1 + V'
Since C is an arbitrary constant, we could rewrite this constant as C = 5 In k, where

k > 0. Then we have
1 + x-
In = — In k
1 + y2 2
I + X2
1 + y2
1 + x = k + ky"
x2 - k\’2 + 1 - k = 0
This last equation is easier to work with since it no longer involves natural logarithms. The
1 /1 + jc2 \
equations — In I-j—j— — J = C and.r — ky + 1 — k = 0 are equivalent. They differ only in
the form of the constant of integration. By working the exercises, you will gain experience in
choosing the most appropriate form for this arbitrary constant.
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the differential equation y' — 2x = 0.

Rewriting, we have
dy ?
dx
dy = 2x dx
dy = 2x dx
y = x2 + C
This general solution represents a family of functions where each function y = f(x) is a par¬
ticular solution of the differential equation y' - 2x = 0. In this case, the solution is a family
of parabolas some of which are sketched in Fig. 5.1.
¥
j
Figure 5.1 Family of parabolas y = x2 + C.
SECTION 5.2 Separation ofVariables 157

A unique particular solution can be obtained if certain initial conditions are given. An
initial condition of a differential equation is a condition that specifies a particular value of
y, y0, corresponding to a particular value of x, xQ. That is, if y = f(x) is a solution of the
differential equation, then the function must satisfy the condition y0 = f(xQ). A differential
equation with initial conditions is called an initial value problem.
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the differential equation y' — 2x = 0 subject to the initial condition that y = 1 when
x = 2.
From Example 6 the general solution is
y = x2 + C
Substituting y = 1 and x — 2, we have
1 = (2)2 + C
-3 = C
So, the particular solution is
y = x2 — 3
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the differential equation y + xy' = 0 subject to the initial condition that y = 2 when
x = 3, which may also be written y(3) = 2.
Rewriting, we have
dy
y + x — = 0
dx
y dx + x dy = 0
dx dy
— + — = 0
x y
dx dy
X y
dx dy
X y
In x = — In y + C
In x + In y = C
In xy = C
or
In xy = In k, where C = In k
xy = k
Substituting y = 2 when x = 3, we have
(3)(2) = k
6 = k
So, the required particular solution is
xy = 6
or
CHAPTER 5 First-Order Differential Equations

Exercises 5.2
Solve each differential equation.
1. x dy — y2 dx — 0 2. 3a 3y2 dx — xy dy = 0 3. x dy + y dx = 0
4. sec x dy + esc y dx — 0 dy
5. 6. (y2- 1
dx 4)i =
dy
- 9.99 dy dy
7. — — X L X ~V *" 8. y— = sin x 9. x— + y = 3
dx dx dx
dy dy a2 xy
10. — = 1 - v 11. 12. dy _
dx dx y dx A2 + 3
dy , dy ex _ dy
13. ——E y cos x ~ 0 14. 0 15. e3x — - ex = 0
dx ' dx y2 dx
16. xVl — y2 dx — 3 dy = 0 17. (1 + a 2) dy - dx = 0 18. (1 + a:2)dy + a dx = 0
dy ■, 7 dff = e,+,
19. — = 1 + x2 + y2 + A2y2 20. 21. y' =e,x~y
dx dx
<N
+
H
22. 23. + iy = y2 + 4 24. Vi - 16y2 - (4a2 + 9)y'

II
(a
25. (4xy + 12.x) dx = (5a 2 + 5 )dy 26. 8a3(1 y2) ~= 3y(l + a 4)y'
Find the particular solution of each differential equation subject to the given conditions.
dy - a dy
27. — = x ~y ; y = 1 when a = 1 28. ye x —- + 2 = 0; y = 2 when x = 0
clx dx
dy 2x
29. -;y = 4 whenx = 0 30. x2 dy = y dx\y = 1 when x = 1
dx yy +
+ *~2y
dy , dy
31. yf = efy(0) = 6 32. y2x — - 2x + 4 = 0;y(l) = 3
dx dx w
. dy
33. V* + Vy^~ = 0; y(l) = 4 34. e~2y ~~ = x - 2;y(l) = 0
dx dx
dy dy
35. xy— = In jc; >^( 1) = 0 36. -j- = ex~y\ y(0) = 1
dx ax
5.3 USE OF EXACT DIFFERENTIALS
Not all differential equations can be solved by separating the variables. There are some dif¬
ferential equations, however, that can be solved by recognizing a combination of differen¬
tials that can be integrated. For example, we recognize the left-hand side of the differential
equation
SECTION 5.3 Use of Exact Differentials 159

x dy — v dx
J /— =3 dx
x
as
so we can integrate as follows:
x dy — y dx
?
3 dx
X
3 dx
y
- = 3x + C
x
y = 3jc 2 + Cx
is the general solution.

Some easily recognizable differentials are expressed below:
y dx — x dy
x dy — y dx
( v\ x dy — y dx
3. d arctan - = —-x-y—
V x) X2 + y2
( x\ >’ dx — x dy
4. d arctan - = ~-T-
V y) x1 + y2
5. d (xy) = x dy + y dx
x dx + v d y
6. d(\n\/x2 + y2) =
x2 + y2
7. d(x2 + y2) = 2(x dx + y dy)
Thus, be on the lookout for the terms x dy — y dx, x dy + y dx, and x dx + y dy appearing in
a differential equation. It may be possible to integrate the differential equation after multiplying
or dividing the equation by an appropriate expression, called the integrating factor.
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the differential equation
x dy — y dx = {x2 + y2) dy
Divide each side of the equation by (x2 + y2).
x dy — y dx
= dv
x2 + y
d | arctan - dy
d{ arctan - ) = dy
\ Xj

Then
y
arctan - y + C
x
EXAMPLE 2
xdy + y dx = 3xy dx
Divide each side of the equation by
xdy + y dx
3 dx
xy
dixy)
3 dx [d(xy) = xdy + y dx]
xy
d(xy)
3 dx
•
xy
Then
In xy 3x + C
EXAMPLE 3
Find the particular solution of the differential equation
y dx — x dy + dx = 4x4 dx
subject to the initial condition that y = 5 when x = 1.

Rewriting, we have
_ A „4
y dx — x dy — 4x dx — dx
y dx — x dy dx
-r- =4x dx-r (Divide each side by x‘
x x
dx
-d\-] = 4x2 dx - ^2
dx
4x2dx
y 4jc3 1
-+ - + C
X 3 x
4 v4
and y = 1 — Cx is the general solution. Substituting y = 5 when x 1, we have
-U--(i)4-i-c(i;
c
3 3
8
- = C
3
So,
4 4 8
+ 3X_ '
is the desired particular solution.
SECTION 5.3 Use of Exact Differentials 1 61

H r
Exercises 5.3
1. x dy + y dx = y2 dy 2. x dx + y dy = (x2 + y2) dx
3. x dy — y dx = 5x2 dy 4. x dx + y dy = x3 dx
5. y dx — x dy + y2 dx = 3 dy 6. x dy — y dx = x4 dx + x2y2 dx
7. xVx2 + y2 dx — 2x dx = 2y dy 8. x dy — y dx + xAy2 dx = 0
9. x dx + y dy = (x 3 + xy2) dy + (x2y + y3) dx 10. (y + x) dx + (y — x) dy = (x2
Find the particular solution of each differential equation for the given initial conditions.
11. x dy + y dx = 2x dx + 2y dy for y = 1 when x = 0

12. y dx — x dy = y2 dx for y = 3 when x = 1
13. x dy — 4 dx = (x 3 + xy2) dy + (x 2y + y3) dx for y = 2 when x = 2
14. x dy — y dx = x5 dx for y = 4 when x = 1
5.4 LINEAR EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER
A differential equation where both the unknown function y = f{x) and its derivatives are of
first degree is called a linear differential equation. A linear differential equation of first
order can be written in the form
dy
+ yP(x) Q{x) (1)
dx
or
dy + y P(x) dx Q(x) dx (2)
where P(x) and Q(x) are functions of x.

A method has been devised for solving linear equations of first order. A/7 integrating
factor is an expression that, when multiplied on both sides of a differential equation, gives
a differential equation that can be integrated to find its solution. We will show that dx
is an integrating factor for these equations. Multiplying each side of Equation (2) by gEA)dx,
we have
eSm^dy + e^x)dxy P(x) dx = e^x)dx Q{x) dx
First, observe that
d(yefp{x]dx) = y d{e$p[x)dx) + e^x)dx dy
= VgEA) ^ d P(x) dx + e^x)dxdy

yeSP(x)dx dx + eSP(x)dx dy
efp^dx[yP(x) dx + dy]
e/p(x) dx dx
[from Equation (2)]
Thus,
d{yffF^dx) = [Q(x)e^x)dx] dx
r
d{yffp^dx) = [Q{x)e^x)dx] dx (Integrate each side.)

JP(x)dx _
ye Q(x)e^x)dx dx
So e^P{x)‘h is an integrating factor. The general solution of the first-order linear differential
equation
dy
+ y P(x) = Q(x)
dx
is
c\M
fP(x) dx
Q(x)e^x)dx dx
EXAMPLE 1
dy
Solve-h 2jcv = 5jc.
dx
Here, P(x) = 2x, Q{x) = 5x, and P(x) dx = 2x dx = x . We do not write a constant
of integration for P(x) dx because we are merely obtaining an integrating factor. The
solution is
'
yeJP(x)dx _
Q(x)eip{x)dx dx
let u = x2
ye-' 5xe x dx
du = 2x dx
' 5
ye' -eu du
2 5
yex = ~eu + C
2
ye — —e + C
2
y = -+ Ce~xl
2
EXAMPLE 2
Solve y’ + y — e x cos x.
Here P{x) = 1, Q(x) = e~x cos x, and P(x) dx dx — x. The solution is
YefP(x)dx
Q(x)e^[x)d' dx
yex (e x cos x)(ex) dx

.
cos x dx
.
yex sin* + C
y e~x sin x + Ce~x
EXAMPLE 3
Solve (2y - 6x2) dx + x dy = 0.

Rewriting this equation, we obtain
2y
dy H-dx = 6x dx
x
SECTION 5.4 Linear Equations of First Order 163

f
where P(x) = 0(x) = 6x, and
P(x) dx — dx = 2 In x = In x2
x
The solution is then
xeiP[x)cU =
Q(x)ef^dx dx
yeXnx2 m 6xeln x2 dx
t In 2\
yx = 6x3 dx (since e = x j
yx2 = — x4 + C
2
3 , C
T = T* + “2
Exercises 5.4
Solve each differential equation,
dy dy 9
I. — - 5y = e3x 2. -f- + 3>- = e-2c
dx dx
dy 3y dy 2y
3. — + — = x3 - 2 4.-= x' + 5
dx x dx x
5. y' + 2xy = e3jr(3 + 2x) 6. / - 3x2j = ex(3x2 - 1)
7. dy — Ay dx = x 2e4x dx 8 . dy — 3x 2y dx = x2 dx
dy
9. x dy — 5y dx = (x6 + 4x) dx 10. x — + 2y = (x2 + 4 3
dx
dy
11. (1 + x2) dy + 2xy dx = 3x2 dx 12 .-y tan x = sin x
dx
13. x2/ + x - - x4 - 7
2 3 14. x2yr - 2xy = x3 + 5
dy dy dy
15. — + 2y = e~x 16. (x + 1) — + 5v = 10 17. x —— y — 3x2
dx dx dx
dy y dy .
18. — + 19. y' + y cos x = cos x 20.-1- y sec x = sec x
dx 3x — 1 dx
Find a particular solution of each differential equation subject to the given initial conditions.
dy dy v
21. —-3y = eZx; y = 2 when x = 0 22. —— — = x2 + 3;v = 3 when x =
dx dx x
dy (n\ 3tt
23. — = esc x — y cot x; y — = — 24. dy = (x — 3y) dx\ y (0) = 1
dx y \2J 2
25. y' = ex — y;y(0) = | 26. y' + 8x2y = 4x2;y(0) = 2
dy dy 3y
27. x— + y = 3; y(l) = -2
dx 28, lx ~ 7x7 = U _ 4) ;>'(5) = 3
29. xy' + y = 4x3;y(2) = 3 30. y' + y sinx - sinx;y(7r/2) = 3

5.5 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST-ORDER
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Many technical problems involve first-order, first-degree differential equations. In the appli¬
cations that follow, observe that certain phenomena involve a rate of change (a derivative). The
presence of a derivative often leads to a differential equation that describes the physical situa¬
tion in mathematical terms. We solve the differential equation, and the mathematical solution
is given a physical interpretation that provides a solution to the original technical problem.
As with all mathematical applications, we create a mathematical model of a certain
physical phenomenon. The mathematical model is usually an approximation. The model is
only as accurate as the interpretation given the physical phenomena.
EXAMPLE 1 RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive material decays at a rate proportional to the amount present. For example, con¬
sider a certain radioactive substance for which approximately 10% of the original quantity
decomposes in 25 years. Find the half-life of this radioactive material. That is, find the time that
elapses for the quantity of material to decay to one-half of its original quantity.
Step 1 : Set up the mathematical model.

Let <20 represent the original quantity present and Q the amount present at any time t in
years. The mathematical model describing the observed rate of decay process is
dQ
~ kQ
dt
where k is the constant of proportionality of decay.
Step 2 : Solve the differential equation.

Separate the variables:
dQ — kQ dt
dQ
— = kdt
Q
Then,
dQ
k dt
Q
In Q — kt + In C
We have the initial condition that Q = Q0 when t 0. So,
In Q() = k(0) + In C
In Q0 = In C
C= Qo
We then have
In Q = kt + In Q0
In Q - In Q0 = kt
In — = kt
Qo
= ek' (Rewrite each side as a power of e.)
Qo
Q = Q0ek‘
SECTION 5.5 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 165

f
which is an expression for the amount of radioactive material present after t years, where k is
the constant of proportionality of decay.
Step 3: Solve the particular problem in question.

To find f, the material’s half-life, first find k. We are given that after 25 years, 10% of
the material has decayed. That is, at r = 25 years, Q — (1 - 0.1)<2o = 0.9<20- Thus,
0.9<2o = Q0e25k
0.9 = e25k
In 0.9 = 25 k (Take the In of each side.)
In 0.9
= k
25
-0.00421 = k
Now determine the half-life. Since the half-life represents the time for the material to
decay to half its original quantity (that is, Q = QJ2), the half-life can be determined by
substituting Q = QJ2 in the equation Q = Q0ekl.
Qo
= Go**
2
1 - **
2
1
In — = kt (Take the In of each side.)
2
—In 2 — kt (In 5 = In 1 - In 2 = 0 — In 2)
-In 2
(half-life formula)
k
-In 2
= t
-0.00421
165 years
EXAMPLE 2 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The current i in a series circuit with constant inductance L, constant resistance R, and a constant
applied voltage V is described by the differential equation
di
L— + Ri = V
dt
Find an equation for the current i as a function of time t.

Rewrite the equation as
di R . V
——I-i — —
dt L L
and apply the method described in Section 5.4:
no, s = R -L
,
ao -
^ y
-L
and
R R
P(t) dt — dt = —t
L L
and
ie(R/L)t= I LeW)tdt
= | \eWL*dt

V I
- • -e^' + C
L R
V
,WL)t
R
It there is no initial current, then i — 0 when t — 0. So we have
0 • e(Rm = + r
R
n V
0=-+c
R
V
C =
R
Finally, we solve for i:
ie(R/L)t _ -em)i _ Z
R /?
-(^ -1)
Ry
I =
*■ = £(i -
This shows that V/R is a limiting value for the current i. As t -
1
,-(R/L)t =
->0
Amt
and
V( V, x V
— 1 - 0) = - (See Fig. 5.2.)
Amt Rk ’ R
The equation for i involves two terms, V/R and ( V/L)e^tR/L]l. The limit V/R is called the
steady state solution and represents the solution when no inductance is present (Ri — V)\ the
other term, (V/R)e~^R/L^, represents the effect of inductance. The addition of this term gives
what is called the transient solution. Thus, the study of this type of differential equation enables
us to understand the effect of inductance in an electric circuit.
EXAMPLE 3 MIXTURES
Salt is being dissolved in a tank filled with 100 gallons (gal) of water. Originally 25 lb of salt
was dissolved in the tank. Saltwater containing 1 lb of salt per gallon is poured in at the rate of

3 gal/min; the solution is kept well stirred, and the mixture is poured out at the same rate of
3 gal/min. Find an expression for the amount of salt Q in the tank at time t. How much salt
remains after 1 h?
dQ
The rate of change of the amount of salt — is equal to the rate at which salt enters the
tank minus the rate at which it leaves. That is,
dQ
— = rate of gain — rate of loss
dt
rate of gain = (1 lb/gal)(3 gal/min) = 3 lb/min
/ Q\b \ 3Q
rate of loss = J(3 gal/min) = — lb/min
SO
dQ= }Q_
dt ~ 100
dt V 100
dQ = J100 - Q
dt v 100
Separating the variables, we have
dQ 3
dt
100 - Q 100
or, after rewriting, we obtain
dQ
dt
Q - 100 100
In (0 - 100) t + In C
100
In 02 - 100) - In C =-1
v ' 100
Q ~ 100
In
C 100
Q - 100 ,-(3/100)?
C
Q = Ce^vl00)t + 100
At / = 0, Q — 25, so
25 = CV^/’OOXO) + joo
25 = C + 100
C - -75
So,
Q = - 75e_(3/100)* + 100
After 1 h = 60 min, we have

Q = -75e-P/'ooX60) + 100
= —75e-1,8 + 100
= -12.4 + 100
= 87.6 lb

EXAMPLE 4 TEMPERATURE CHANGE
The temperature of an object changes at a rate proportional to the difference between the tem¬
perature surrounding the object and the temperature of the object itself (Newton’s law of cool¬
ing). A thermometer registering 75°F is taken outside where the temperature is 40°F. After
5 min, the thermometer registers 60°F. Find the temperature reading on the thermometer
7 min after having been outside.
Let T represent the temperature reading of the thermometer at any time t. Then,
dT
^ — k(T TOUKlde)
dT
k(T — 40)
dt
The equation is subject to the conditions T = 75 when t = 0 and T = 60 when t = 5.

Separating the variables, we obtain
dT
= kdt
T - 40
dT
kdt
T - 40
In (T - 40) = kt + In C
or
T = Cekt + 40
Since T — 15 when t = 0, we can find C:
75 = Cem + 40
75 - 40 = C
35 = C
So,
T = 35ekt + 40
Now, determine k. Since T — 60 when t = 5, we have
60 = 35^5) + 40
20 „5 k
35
20
In — — 5k
35
k= -0.11

So,
T = 35e“an' + 40
After 7 min, we have
T = 35<?(“ailX7) +'40
= 35e~0,77 + 40
= 56°F
Exercises 5.5
l. Find the rate of change of velocity with respect to time of a body moving along a straight line
dv
with acceleration a = —.A body is moving along a straight line with constant acceleration
dt
a = 5 m/s2. If the body had an initial velocity of v = 10 m/s (when t = 0), find the equation
for velocity. Find the velocity at t = 3 s.
2. Find the equation for the velocity of an object moving along a straight line with acceleration
a = r m/s2 if the object started moving from rest. Find the velocity at t = 2 s. (See Exercise 1.)
x - y
3. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1,1) with slope
x
x2
4. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point ( — 1,0) with slope —r.
5. Find the equation for the current i in a series circuit with inductance L = 0.1 H, resistance
R = 80 ft, and voltage V = 120 V if the initial current i0 = 2 A when t = 0. (See Example 2.)
6. Find the equation relating charge q in terms of time t in a series circuit containing only a resistance
and a capacitance if the initial charge q0 — 3 C when t — 0. This circuit is described by the
q dq
differential equation Ri -1-= 0, where i = —.
C dt
7. Find the equation for the current i in a series circuit with inductance L = 1 H, resistance
R = 4 ft, and voltage V = 10 sin 2t V. The initial current i0 = 0 when t = 0.
R = 300 ft, and voltage V = 120 V. The initial current i0 = 0 when t = 0.
9. The isotope 238U of uranium has a half-life of 4.5 X 109 years. Determine the amount of2,8U
left after t years if the initial quantity is 1 g.288U decays at a rate proportional to the amount
present. (See Example 1.)
10. The isotope 234U of uranium has a half-life of 2.7 X 105 years. Determine the amount of 234U
left after t years if the initial quantity is 2 g.234 U decays at a rate proportional to the amount
present.
.
11 A radioactive material with mass 5 g decays 10% after 36 h. The material decays at a rate
proportional to the amount present. Find an equation expressing the amount of material present
at any given time t. Find its half-life.
12. A radioactive material with an original mass of 10 g has a mass of 8 g after 50 years. The
material decays at a rate proportional to the amount present. Find an expression for the amount
of material present at any time t. Find its half-life.
13. Fifty gallons of brine originally containing 10 lb of salt is in a tank. Saltwater containing 2 lb
of salt per gallon is poured in at the rate of 2 gal/min, the solution is kept well stirred, and the
mixture is poured out at the same rate of 2 gal/min. Find the amount of salt remaining after
30 min. (See Example 3.)
14. One hundred gallons of brine originally containing 20 lb of salt are in a tank. Pure water is
poured in at the rate of 1 gal/min, the solution is kept well stirred, and the mixture is poured out
at the same rate of 1 gal/min. Find the amount of salt remaining after 1 h.

15. An object at 90°C is cooled in air, which is at 10°C. If the temperature of the object is 70°C
after 5 min, find the temperature of the object after 30 min. (See Example 4.)
16. A thermometer registering 80°F is taken outside, where the temperature is 35°F. After 3 min,
the thermometer registers 50°F. Find the temperature reading on the thermometer 5 min after
having been outside.
17. Populations tend to have a growth rate that is proportional to the present population. That is,
y' = ky, where y is the present population. Suppose that the population of a country has
doubled in the past 20 years. Find the expected population in 80 years if the current population
is 2,000,000. (Hint: First solve the differential equation y' = ky before determining k.)
18. An amount of money earning compound interest continuously also satisfies the growth equa¬
tion y' = ky (see Exercise 17), where k is the rate of compound interest. Find the value of a
deposit of $500 after 10 years if it is earning 5% interest compounded continuously.
19. A gas undergoing an adiabatic change (a thermodynamic process occurring without heat gain
or loss) has a rate of change of pressure with respect to volume that is directly proportional to
the pressure and inversely proportional to the volume. Solve the resulting differential equation
and express the pressure in terms of the volume.
20. A lake contains 5 X 107 litres (F) of water. Industrial waste in the form of a chemical
compound begins to be dumped into the lake at the rate of 5 F/h. A freshwater stream feeds the
lake at a rate of 345 F/h. Determine how long it will take for the lake in Fig. 5.3 to become
polluted if the lake is considered polluted when the water contains 0.2% of the chemical
compound. (Hint: Q' = 5 — 7 X 10_6<2, where Q is the amount of the chemical compound
present in the water at any time t.)
Figure 5.3
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY
1. The order of a differential equation is n if n is the highest-order derivative that appears

in the equation.
2. The degree of a differential equation is the highest power of the derivative of highest order.
3. A solution of a differential equation is a function y = f(x) that together with its deriva¬
tives satisfies the given differential equation.
4. Separation of variables method: By appropriate multiplications and divisions, separate
the differential equation into terms where each term involves only one variable and its
differential.

5. Some easily recognizable differentials:
y dx — x dy
(a)
x dy — y dx
(b)
/ y\ x dy — y dx
(c) d arctan - =-7-
V x) x- + y2
( x\ y dx - x dy
(d)
\ y) x2 + y2
(e) d (xy) ~ x dy + y dx
, /—z-x xdx + v dy
(f) d In
x + y
(g) d(x2 + y2) = 2(x dx + y dy)
6. Linear differential equation of the first order: a differential equation where both the
unknown function y = f{x) and its derivative are of first power. A method for solving
such equations involves using the integrating factor e^x’dx. The general solution of
dy
-j- + y P{x) = Q{x) is
yefP(.X)dX _
Q{x)e^x)dx dx
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
State the order and degree of each differential equation.
d2y n dy
1. —A — 3x~f~ + x2y3 = 0
d? dx
3. (y")3 - 3/ + x2y5 = 2
4- (IT +-7
Verify that each function y = f(x) is a solution of the given differential equation.
d2y , ,
5. —+ 3y = 3 x3;y = x3 — 2x
dx
6. y" — 2y' + y = 4e~x\ y = 2ex — 3xex + e~x
dy
7. y" + y = x~ + 2; y = sinx + x" 8. — 2y = 5x V*; y = effx5 - 1'
dx
, dy , dy
9. x3 --y = 0 10. e2* — - 3y = 0
dx dx
dy ,
11. (9 + x2)y2 dy + x dx = 0 12. — — ey sec2 x
dx
dy
13. x dy — y dx = 3x4 dx 14. — + 6x2y = 12x2
dx

_ y_
15. 16. x dx + y dy = (x2y + y3) dy
dx x2 x2
17. x dy — y dx — (x4 + x2y2) dx 18. x dy + y dx = 14x5 dx
dy 5y
19. dy + 3)> dx = e~Zx dx 20. — - — = x3 + 7
dx x
dy
21. x dy - 3y dx = (4x3 — x2) dx 22.-E y cot x = cos x
dx
Find a particular solution of each differential equation subject to the given initial conditions.
23. 3x2y3 dx — xy dy = 0; y — — 1 when x = —2 24. ye2* dy + 3 dx = 0; y — -2 when x = 0

25. x dy — v dx = x5 dx\ y(l) = 1 26. x dy + y dx = x In x dx\ y(l) = \
dy 5 dy 2y
27. — - y = e5x\ y(0) = -3 28. -f - — = x3 - 5x; y(\) = 3
dx dx x
R = 60 ft, and voltage V = 120 V if the initial current i = 1 A when t = 0.
30. The isotope 235U of uranium has a half-life of 8.8 X 10x years. Determine the amount of 235U
left after t years if the initial quantity is 1 g. 235U decays at a rate proportional to the amount
present.
31. Two hundred litres of brine originally containing 5 kg of salt are in a tank. Pure water is poured
in at the rate of 1 L/min, the solution is kept well stirred, and the mixture is poured out at the
same rate of 1 L/min. Find the amount of salt remaining after 20 min.
32. The temperature of a block of material registers 30°C. The block is cooled in air, which is at
12°C. If the block is at 25°C after 20 min, find the temperature of the material after 45 min.
33. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (0, 2) and having slope x2y.
34. Find the equation for the velocity of an object moving along a straight line with acceleration
a — 4f3 m/s2 if the object started moving from rest. Find the velocity after t = 3 s.

CHAPTER kJ
SPECIAL NASA
APPLICATION
Under the Sea:
Carbon Dioxide Buildup*
The Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station, created in 1997, is an example of an under¬
water habitat that is closely related to living conditions in space. In both environments inhab¬
itants are isolated and it is necessary to import a breathable atmosphere, food, water, and power.
Underwater and space environments also require special systems for regulating and monitor¬
ing the environment, protecting occupants from heat and cold, communication, and waste
removal. Finally, an underwater environment can be used to simulate weightlessness.
The Station can go to a depth of up to 27 ft due to decompression constraints. It is an
ambient pressure habitat, not designed to have a cabin that is maintained at atmospheric
pressure. The aquanauts breathe air that is pumped into the top of the cabin in a steady
stream. This in turn pushes air out an open hatch at the bottom of the cabin and keeps the
surrounding water from entering the cabin. Therefore, the pressure inside the cabin must be
equal to the pressure outside the hatch.
PART A
The cabin of the Station has an approximate volume of 7000 L, into which air flows through
a line from the surface at a rate of 15 ft3/min, or 424.65 L/min. Air bubbles out through the
open hatch at the bottom of the cabin at the same rate. The air flowing in has a carbon
dioxide (C02) concentration of 0.04%. An aquanaut in the Station exhales air with a car¬
bon dioxide concentration of 4%. This excess C02 must be removed before it reaches a
level that is dangerous to the aquanauts, which is 20,000 parts per million or 2%. This means
that 2% of 7000 L or 140 L would be dangerous to the aquanauts.
We will determine the amount of C02 normally present in the cabin, and then see what
happens if the supply of fresh air is cut off. We will assume that all air mixes instantaneously
in the cabin. This inquiry is developed through a series of questions and exercises. Try to for¬
mulate your own response before looking at the answers.
1. How many litres of C02 are in the air in the cabin when no aquanauts are present,
assuming the air flow from the surface is constant? [0.04%(7000 L) = 2.8 L]
*From NASA-AMATYC-NSF project Mathematics Explorations II, grant principals John S. Pazdar, Patricia L.
Hirschy, and Peter A. Wursthom; copyright Capital Community College, 2000.
174
2. How many litres of C02 are flowing into the cabin each minute?
[0.04%(424.65) L/min = 0.17L/min]
3. If an aquanaut breathes 16 times per minute and each breath has a volume of
0.5 L, how many litres of C02 are exhaled by one aquanaut each minute?
[16(0.5)(4%) = 0.32 L/min]
4. What is the total amount of C02 coming into the cabin each minute, both from
the air flowing in from the surface and from the breathing of the aquanaut?
[0.17 + 0.32 = 0.49 L/min]
5. Let A = the amount of C02 in the cabin t minutes after an aquanaut has
entered the Station. The notation A{t) could also be used to emphasize that the
amount is a function of time. Write an expression in terms of A for the amount
of C02 bubbling out of the hatch at the bottom of the cabin.
A
■jqqq (424.65) L/min = 0.06 A L/min
6. Use this information to write an expression for dA/dt, the rate of change in the
amount of C02 in the cabin at time t. [dA/dt = 0.49 - 0.06,4 where A = 2.8
at t = 0]
Next, we solve the differential equation
dA
+ 0.06 A = 0.49
dt
Let
P(t) = 0.06 and Q(t) = 0.49
The solution is
'
AeW* = Q{t)e^t)dtdt
Ae006' = 0.49 eomdt
0 49
Af)0.06r = 0.06, + K
0.06
A = 8.17 + Ke-°m
At t = 0, A = 2.8, so K = -5.37. Thus,
A = 8.17 — 5.37e~006'
The C02 reaches a limit of approximately 8.17 L, which is below the danger level of 140 L.
If three aquanauts occupy the cabin, then 3(16)(0.5)(4%) or 0.96 Lof C02 is exhaled
in 1 min. The amount of C02 entering the cabin per minute is then 0.96 + 0.17 or 1.13 L.
The corresponding differential equation is
dA
— = 1.13 - 0.06 A
dt
Its solution is A = 18.8 — 16.0e_ao6'. The C02 level reaches a limit of approximately
18.8 L; we see that if more aquanauts are in the cabin, the C02 level increases.
Now consider a situation where three aquanauts occupy the cabin. Assume they leave
the cabin when the level of C02 reaches 18 L. Air continues to be pumped through the cabin
at the same rate. Let t = the time in minutes after the aquanauts depart.
SPECIAL NASA APPLICATION 175

f
7. Write and solve a differential equation involving A(t), the amount of C02 in
the cabin at time t. [dA/dt = 0.17 — 0.06 A. Its solution is A = 2.8 — I5e~006t.
which reaches a limit of approximately 2.8 L.]
PART B
Now look at what would happen if the supply of fresh air from the surface were stopped.
Let A(t) = the amount of C02 in the cabin and t = the time in minutes after the air supply
is cut off.
1. Suppose that one aquanaut has been working in the Station for several hours.
What is the amount of C02 present? [8.17 L, the approximate limit to the
solution of Exercise 6]
2. If the supply of fresh air from the surface is cut off, the air in the cabin will
stop bubbling out the bottom of the cabin and the C02 level will rise. With the
fresh air cut off, what is the amount of C02 entering the cabin each minute?
Where does it come from? [4% (16)(0.5) = 0.32 L/min from the aquanaut’s
breathing]
3. How much C02 is removed from the cabin? Why? [None. No air is being
pushed out the bottom.]
4. Write an expression for dA/dt and solve it. What does the solution tell you?
[dA/dt = 0.32, where A = 8.17 at t = 0. The solution is A = 0.32t + 8.17.
Danger occurs when A = 140, thus there are approximately 412 min before
the aquanaut is in danger.]

6
Second-Order
Differential Equations
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 5, we studied first-order differential equations. However, problems in mechan¬

ical vibrations, buoyancy, and electric circuits require the use of second-order differential
equations, discussed in this chapter.
Objectives
■ Solve homogeneous linear differential equations.
■ Solve nonhomogeneous second-order linear differential equations.
■ Use linear differential equations to solve application problems.
■ Find Laplace transforms of functions using a table.
■ Use Laplace transforms to solve linear differential equations subject to initial conditions.
6.1 HIGHER-ORDER HOMOGENEOUS

We now consider higher-order linear differential equations, that is, equations that have
derivatives of an unknown function with order higher than first order. These equations are
called linear because they contain no powers of the unknown function and its derivatives
higher than the first power. Thus, a linear differential equation of order n is represented by
the form
1
dy cl
n-
y dy
dxn
.n- 1 + ■•• + an -1 ~T
dx
+ a„y b
dx
where a0, a,, a2, ■■■, a„-i, a„, and b can be either functions of x or constants. If b = 0, the
linear differential equation is called homogeneous. If b ^ 0, the equation is called
nonhomogeneous.
We have already seen linear differential equations in which the coefficients of y and
dy
— were not constants. However, in this chapter we consider only equations in which the
dx
coefficients at are constants.
177
I*
EXAMPLE 1
The following are examples of linear differential equations with constant coefficients and with
b constant:
dy
+ 5-h 3y. — 7 (1)
dx
+ 2y" - 5y = 2 (2)
dy
+ y = 0 (3)
dx
y" - 3/ + 2y = 0 (4)
Equations (1) and (2) are nonhomogeneous, whereas Equations (3) and (4) are
homogeneous.
We now present a method of solving homogeneous linear differential equations with
constant coefficients. These equations arise in many practical situations. Although this
method is applicable to equations with order higher than the second, we cover only second-
order equations in the remaining sections.
We introduce a differential operator D, which operates on a function y = f(x) as
follows:
dy . d2 v , d3y
For example, if y = 2x3 + 5 In x, then
Dy = D(2x3 + 5 In x) = 6x2 +
and
D2y = D(Dy) = D \6x2 + - = 12x
Operator D is an example of a linear operator. An algebraic expression in the form

ax + by where a and b are constants is called a linear combination. A linear operator is any
process that after operating on a linear combination results in another linear combination.
We thus observe that for the operator D, we have
D[af(x) + bg(x)] = aD[f(x)\ + b D[g(x)]
We can apply algebraic operations to linear operators. In particular, we can factor

expressions involving the differential operator D. For example, (D2 — 2D — 3)y =
(.D - 3)(D + l)y, which can be used to solve differential equations. The method is
explained in Example 2.
EXAMPLE 2
y" - 2/ - 3y = 0
Step 1: First, rewrite this equation using the differential operator D
y" - 2/ -3y = D2y - 2Dy - 3y = 0

(D2 - 2D - 3)y = 0
Factor:
(D - 3 )(D + l)y = 0
178 CHAPTER 6 Second-Order Differential Equations

Step 2: Next, let z — (D + l)y — Dy + y. Note that z is a function of x and is a linear
dy
combination of the functions — and y, that is,
dx
Step 3: Then, (D - 3)(D + l)y = (D — 3)z = 0. The equation (D - 3)z = 0 is a linear

differential equation of first order which can be solved by the method of separation of variables:
(D - 3)z = 0
Dz -3z = 0
dz
- 3z 0
dx
dz = 3z dx
dz
— = 3 dx
In z = 3x + In Cj (We use In Cx instead of C, as our

In z ~ In C, = 3x constant of integration to obtain a
simpler expression for z.)
ln—=3x
Ci
z = Cxeix
Step 4: Now replace z by (D + l)y and obtain
{D + l)y = Cxe3x
dy 3x
+ y = Cxe
dx
which is another differential equation of first order.
Step 5: Next, solve this differential equation by the method shown in Section 5.4.
P(x) = 1 Q(x) = C,e3x P(x) dx = dx = x
Then,
yex (C,e3x)ex dx
yex C]e4x dx
Ci ,
yer = — <?4t + C2
4
y = —e3x + C,e~x
4
or
y = kxe3x + k2e~x
where
k | = C,/4 and k2 = C2.
SECTION 6.1 Higher-Order Homogeneous Differential Equations 179

t
Let’s consider a second, simpler method. The general solution y = kxe3x + k2e~x of
the differential equation D2y — 2Dy — 3y = 0 in Example 2 suggests that y = kemx is a
particular solution of a second-order linear differential equation
a0 D2y + ax Dy + a2y = 0
Since Dy = D(kenvc) = mkemx and Dry = D{D(kemx)} = D(mkemx) = m2kemx, we can write
a0 D2y + axDy + a2y = 0
a0(m2kemx) + ax(mke,w<) + a2kemx = 0
(a0m2 + axm + a2)keinx = 0
Note: ke,nx + 0 (einx is never zero and k cannot be zero if y + 0).

Thus, a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0 if y = kenlx is a solution.
The equation a0m2 + a{m + a2 = 0 is called the auxiliary equation (characteristic
equation) for the differential equation
a0 D2y + a, Dy + a2y = 0
Observe that y = ke,nx is a solution if m satisfies the auxiliary equation

a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0. To find a solution of the differential equation, find the two roots m,
and m2 of the auxiliary equation.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the differential equation y" — 2y' — 3y = 0 by solving its auxiliary equation.
The auxiliary equation is m1 — 2m - 3 = 0. Since this factors as (m — 3){m + 1) = 0,
the roots are mx — 3 and m2 = — 1. Thus,
y = kxem\x = kxe3x
and
y = k2em^x = k2e~x
are both solutions of the differential equation. Since the sum of the solutions of a homogeneous
linear differential equation can also be shown to be a solution, y = kxe3x + k2e~x is the general
solution. Note that this is the same solution as in Example 2, as should be the case.
GENERAL SOLUTION OF A HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
1. Write the auxiliary equation for a given differential equation
a0 D2y + ax Dy + a2y = 0
as
a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0
Note that the power of m corresponds to the order of the derivative.
2. Find the two roots m, and m2 of the auxiliary equation.

3. Write the general solution as
y = kxem i* + k2em2x
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the differential equation y" + 3y' = 0.
Step 1: Since D2y + 3 Dy = 0, the auxiliary equation is nr + 3m = 0.

Step 2 : Solve for m:
m2 + 3m = 0
m(m + 3) = 0
rri\ — 0 and m2= — 3
Step 3 : The general solution is
y =
y = fcje0 + k2e~3x
y = kx + k2e~3x (since e° = 1)
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the differential equation —r — 5 — + 4y = 0 subject to the initial conditions that

dx2dx
dy
y = — 2 and — = 1 when x = 0.
dx
Step 1: D2y - 5 Dv + 4v = 0
m1 — 5m + 4 = 0
Step 2: {m — 4)(m — 1) = 0
m{ = 4 and m2 = 1
Step 3: The general solution is
y = k{em\x + k2em2x
y = kyeAx + k2ex (1)
dy
Now find the particular solution subject to the conditions that y = — 2 and — = 1 when
dx
dy
x = 0. First, find — from Equation (1).
dx
— = 4kye4x + k2ex
dx
dy dy
Next, substitute y = — 2, — = 1, and x = 0 into the equations for v and —:
dx ' dx
y = k{eAx + k2ex
-2 = kye^ + k2e°
—2 = ky + k2 (since e° = 1)
and
dy
— = 4 £,<? + k2ex
dx
1 = êm + k2e°
1 = 4k{ + k2
Now, solve the resulting system of equations for ky and k2:
~2 = k\ + k2
1 = 4kx + k2
The solution of this system is ky = 1 and k2 = —3. The particular solution is then
y = e4x - 3ex
SECTION 6.1 Higher-Order Homogeneous Differential Equations 181

Exercises 6.1
State whether each differential equation is homogeneous or nonhomogeneous. Also state the order
of each equation.
1. 3y(4) - Iff" + 2y = 0 2. y" - Iff + 3y = 2 ' • 3. ff" - 5ff + 2y + 6 = 0

4. y(5) - 6ff" - y = 0 5. 4y" - ff + 3y = 0 6. y'" - y' + 2 = 0
7. y'" - y" - 5y = 3 8. y" - 2y' = 3y
d2y dv d2y dy
9. — 5— - 14v = 0 11. y" - 2y' - 8y = 0
dx2 dx 10-^+4^5-v
12. y" - y' - 6y = 0 13. . " 0 14. y" - 9y = 0

d2y dy d2y dv
15. — 3-f = 0 16. —^ + 2 — = 0 17. 2D2y - 13 Dy + 15y - 0
dx dx dx - dx
d2y dy
18. 3 D2y + 2 Dy - 5v = 0 19. 3 ~ 7 -f + 2y 20. 2y" + ff - 15y = 0
dx dx
Find the particular solution of each differential equation subject to the given conditions.
21. y" — 4y' = 0; y = 3 and y' = 4 when x = 0

22. y" + 3y' = 0; y = — 1 and ff = 6 when x = 0
23. y" — ff — 2y = 0; y = 2 and ff = 1 when x = 0
24. y" + 3y' — lOy = 0; y = 7 and ff = 0 when x = 0
25. y" — 8y' + 15y = 0; y = 4 and ff = 2 when x = 0
26. y" + y' = 0; y = 2 and ff — 1 when x = 1
6.2 REPEATED ROOTS AND COMPLEX ROOTS
When the auxiliary equation of a differential equation results in a repeated root

(mx = m2 = m), then the general solution has the following form:
REPEATED ROOTS
y = kxenix + k2xemx
Note that the second term includes the factor x.

EXAMPLE 1
y" - 2y' + y = 0
Since D2y — 2 Dy + y = 0, the auxiliary equation is
m2 — 2m +1=0
(m - l)2 = 0
m, = m2 = 1
The general solution is
y = + k2xemx
y = kiex + k2xex
y = e\k{ + k2x)
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the differential equation y" + Ay' + Ay = 0 subject to the conditions that y = 2 and
y' = 1 when x = 0.
D2y + A Dy + 4y = 0
m2 + Am + 4 = 0
[m + 2)2 = 0
m = —2
The general solution is
y = ftXe~2x + ft2xe_2x
Next,
y' = -2ft,e“21 - 2k2pce~2x + ft2e_1,r
Substitute y = 2, y' = 1, and x = 0 in the equations for y and y'\
y = ft^ + kê^
2 = ft,e“2(0) + ft2(0)e“2(°)
2 = ft,
y' = —2k]e~7x — 2k2xe~lx + k2e^2x
1 = —2k]e~2^ - 2k2(0)e-W + k2e~2^
1 = -2 ft! + ft2
But since ft, = 2, we have
1 = —4 + ft2, so k2 — 5
The desired particular solution is then
y = 2e~2x + 5xe-2t, so y = e~Ix(2 + 5x)
When the roots of the auxiliary equation of a differential equation are complex num¬
bers, the method used in Section 6.1 still applies.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the differential equation y" — y' + 2y = 0.
SECTION 6.2 Repeated Roots and Complex Roots 183

f
Solve the auxiliary equation m2 - m + 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula,
-(-1) ± V(-l)2-4(l)(2)
m =
2(1)
1 ± _ 1 ± + jV]_
2 ~ 2 ~ 2 ~ 2
So the general solution is
y = Ic gt(l/2) + 0'V7/2)> + £ J(l/2)-(/V7/2)>
Simplify this expression as follows:
y = + k7ex/2e~*/i/s*c
y = + £2e'XV7/2>:)
Recall that z = reje represents the trigonometric form of a complex number. That is,
z = reje = r(cos 9 + j sin 9) (See Section 10.6.)

or
eje — cos 9 + j sin 9
V7
For 9 = —x,
iiVirDx
eA ' * = cos-x + l sin-x
2 2
V7
and for 9 =-x,
2
e 7(v7/2)i = cos( —-~-x \ + y'sin^ — ~^~x
V7 V7
= cos-x — ] sin-x
2 2
But then
k^/* = k1 cos -~x + jkx sin ——x (1)

2 2
k2e^J>vl/2^ = k2 cos ~~x - jk2 sin x (2)

2 J 2
Adding Equations (1) and (2), we have
k^^ny _(_ ^g-/v7/2)i _ ^ + cos x + j(kx - k2) sin -^-x
V7 V7
= C, cos —— x + C-. sin-x
where C, = kx + k2 and C2 = j(k{ — k2).

The general solution can now be written as
V7 \
y = ex/2 Ci cos | —x J + C2 sin (/—^-x
V7
In general, if the auxiliary equation of a differential equation has complex roots

m a ± bj, the solution of the differential equation is as follows:
COMPLEX ROOTS
y = eax{kx sin bx + k2 cos bx)
where kx and k2 are arbitrary constants.

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the differential equation y" — 2y' + 3y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is m2 - 2m. + 3 = 0. So
2 ±
m jV2
Then, a — 1 and b — V2, and the general solution is
y = ex{k] sin V2x + k2 cos V2x)
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the differential equation y" + 9y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is m2 + 9 = 0. So m = ±3j. Since a = 0andi> = 3, the general
solution is
y = e0x(kl sin 3x + k2 cos 3x)

y — k\ sin 3x + k2 cos 3x
Exercises 6.2
d2y dy d2y dy
1. -4 - 4— + 4y = 0 2- + 6~f + 9y = 0 3. y" - Ay' + 5y = 0
dx2 dx dx dx
4. y" - 2y' + 4y = 0 5. 4V" - Ay' + y = 0 6. y" - 8y' + 16y = 0
d2y dy d2y dy
7. -4 - 4 — + 13y = 0 9. Dy - 10 Dy + 25y = 0
dx dx 8'5? + 2S + ^°
10. D2y + 12 Dy + 36y = 0 11. D2y + 9y = 0 12. D2y + 16y = 0
d2y dry
13. —7 = 0 14. 9-4 + 16y = 0
dx2 dx2
Find the particular solution of each differential equation satisfying the given conditions.
15. y" — 6y' + 9y = 0; y = 2 and y' = 4 when x = 0

16. D2y + 10 Dy + 25y = 0; y = 0 and y' — 3 when x = 0
17. y" + 25y = 0; y = 2 and y' = 0 when x = 0
18. y" + I6y = 0; y = 1 and y' = —4 when x = 0
19. £>2y — 12 Dy + 36y = 0; y = 1 and y' = 0 when x = 0
20. y" — 6y' + 25y = 0; y = 0 and y' = 8 when x = 0
SECTION 6.2 Repeated Roots and Complex Roots 185

6.3 NONHOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
Now consider the solutions of nonhomogeneous second-order linear differential equations

with constant coefficients. We represent such an equation in the form
a0D2y + axDy + a2y '= 'b
where b = g(x) is a function of x (b may be a constant).

Obtaining a solution of a nonhomogeneous differential equation involves two basic
steps. First, obtain a solution called the complementary solution (denoted yc). This is the
solution of the homogeneous equation obtained by substituting 0 for b, that is,
a0D2y + a, Dy + a2y = 0
Next, obtain a particular solution (denoted yp) for the given nonhomogeneous equa¬
tion. The general solution of the nonhomogeneous equation will then be
y = yc + yP
Since we have shown methods of obtaining the complementary solution yc in Sections

6.1 and 6.2, our only problem is to determine a particular solution of a given nonhomoge¬
neous equation. We find yp using the method of undetermined coefficients.
The method relies on inspecting the expression b = g(x) and determining a family of
functions that contains g(x) and all of its derivatives. In most applications, g(x) involves poly¬
nomials, exponentials, sines, and cosines. For these functions, see Table 6.1 for finding yp.
To show how to use Table 6.1, six examples of a differential equation and its corre¬
sponding trial solution for yp are shown in Example 1.
TABLE 6.1 Finding yp a'b
=
Try YP =
by + bn.y~' + ■■■ + b2x2 +

b\X + b0 (polynomial of degree n) Anxn + An-iXn~l + ■■■ + A2x2 + Axx + A0
bem Aenx
b sin nx
b cos nx A sin nx + B cos nx
\
b sin nx + c cos nx I
“ If g(x) is the sum of two or more types in the left column, try the corresponding sum in the right column.
* If a term of g(x) is a solution of the homogeneous equation, try multiplying y„ by x or some higher power of x.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the trial solution yp using Table 6.1 for each differential equation.
Differential equation g(*) = Try YP =
(a) y" — 4/ - 5y = 6.v2 — 1 6x2 - 1 Ax2 + Bx + C

(b) y" — y — 3e“4jc 3e~4x Ae~4x
(c) y" + 16y = 3 sin 5x 3 sin 5a- A sin 5x + B cos 5x

Differential equation gjx) =Try yP =
(d) y" - 9y = 2e3x 2e3x Axe3x

Note: 2e3x is a solution of the
homogeneous equation.
(e) y" + y' = 6x + 4 6x + 4 x(Ax + B) = Ax2 + Bx
Note: 4 is a solution of the
homogeneous equation.
(f) y" + 9y = cos 3x cos 3x Ax sin 3x + Bx cos 3x
Note: cos 3x is a solution of
the homogeneous equation.
The method of undetermined coefficients is illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 2
Find a particular solution of the differential equation
y" - 2/ - 3y = e*
Try yp = Aex. We need to find the value of A. First, find y'p = Aex and y"p = Aex. If yp
is a solution, it must satisfy the given differential equation.
y"P ~ typ - 3yP = **
Aex - 2AeJ - 3Aex = ex

-4 Aex = ex
-4A = 1
EXAMPLE 3
Find a particular solution of the differential equation
y" - 2y' - 3y = x2 + e_lr
Try yp — Ax2 + Bx + C + De~z\ which is the sum of a second-degree polynomial and

an exponential that appears in g(x). To find the values of A, B, C, and D, we lirst find
y'p = 2Ax + B — 2De~lx
and
y"p = 2A + 4 De^
Then, substitute into the given differential equation,
y'p ~ 2y'p - 3yp = x2 + e"2*
Then,
(2A + 4De~lK) - 2(2Ax + B - 2De~2x) - 3{Ax2 + Bx + C + De_2x) = x2 + e_2t

(2A - 2B - 3C) + (-4A - 3B)x + (-3A).r2 + (4D + 4D - 3D)e~Zx = x2 + e~lx
We equate the coefficients on the two sides of the last equation.
SECTION 6.3 Nonhomogeneous Equations 187

t
2A - 2B - 3C = 0 (constants) (1)
o
u>
£
Co
(coefficients of x) (2)
II
1
1
-3A = 1 (coefficients of*2) (3)
5D = 1 (coefficients of e_2x) (4)
' •
Solving this system of four equations, we find that
1 1 4 14
D = - A =- B
5 3 “ 9 27
The particular solution is then
GENERAL SOLUTION OF A NONHOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
To find the general solution of the nonhomogeneous equation
a0D2y + a\Dy + a2y = b
1. Find the complementary solution yc by solving the homogeneous equation

a0D2y + axDy + a2y = 0 using the methods developed in Sections 6.1 and 6.2.
2. Find a particular solution yp by using the method of undetermined coefficients

described in Examples 2 and 3.
3. Find the general solution y by adding the complementary solution yc from Step 1
and the particular solution yp from Step 2:
y = yc + yP
EXAMPLE 4
Find the general solution of

y" - 2y' - 3y = ex
Step 1 : Find the complementary solution yc which is the solution of the homogeneous equa¬
tion y" — 2y' — 3y = 0. We solved this equation in Example 2, Section 6.1:
yc = kxe3x + k2e~x
Step 2 : Find a particular solution yp, which we obtained in Example 2 of this section:
Step 3: The desired general solution is
y = yc + yP
y = kxe3x + k2e~x - -ex

EXAMPLE 5
Find the general solution of y" — 2y' — 3y = x2 +
Step 1: From Example 4, the complementary solution is
yc = kte3x + k2e~x
Step 2: From Example 3, a particular solution is
1,4 14 I
~~x2 H—x-1—e ^
3 9 27 5
y = yc f yP
4 14
y = kie3x + k2e~x-x2 H—x-1—e -2x
1 3 9 27 5
EXAMPLE 6
y" + 6y' +9y = x + sin x
Step 1: Find yc:
y" + 6 y' + 9y = 0
m2 + 6m + 9 = 0
(m + 3)2 = 0
m = —3 (a repeated root)
yc = emx{k[ + k2x)
= e~3x(k] + ^2^)
Step 2: Find yp. Try yp = Ax + B + C sin v + D cos v. Differentiating yp, we have
y'p = A + C cos x — D sin x

y"p = — C sin x — D cos x
Substitute yp, y'p, and y"p in the given differential equation
y" + 6y' + 9y = x + sin x

(— C sin x — D cos x) + 6(A + C cos x — D sin x)
+ 9(Ax + B + C sin x + D cos x) = x + sin x
(6A + 9B) + 9Ax + ( —C — 6D + 9C) sin x + (-D + 6C + 9D) cos x = x + sin x
6A + 9B = 0
9A = 1
8C — 6D = 1
6C + 8D = 0
Solving for A, B, C, and D, we have
1 2 2
C D =-
A ~ 9 B ~ 27 25 50
The particular solution is then
_ _2 2 .
- 3
v„ = —x-1-sin .v-cos x
xp a
9' in
27 os
25 50
SECTION 6.3 Nonhomogeneous Equations 189

f
Step 3: The general solution is then
y = yc + yP
. 1 2 2 3
y = e (ki + fc2x) H—x-i-sin x-cos x
y v 1 2 ’ 9 27 25 50
EXAMPLE 7
y" - 3y' - Ay = e4x
Step 1: Find yc:
m2 — 3m — 4 = 0
(m — 4)(m + 1) = 0
m, = 4 and m2 = — 1
yc = ê4* + /c2e *
Step 2: Find y^: First, note that g(x) = e4x is a solution of the homogeneous equation
y" - 3y' - 4y = 0
I6e4x - 3(4e4x) - 4{e4x) = 0
Then, following note b to Table 6.1 for finding yp, we try
yp = Axe4x
y'p = 4Axe4" + Ae4x
y"p = 16Axe4x + 4Ae4x + 4Ae4* = 16Axe4r + 8Ae4x
Substituting into the differential equation, we have
3y' - 4y = e4x
(16Axe4x + 8Ae4x) - 3(4Axe4x + Ae4x) - e4x
II
16Axe4x + 8 Ae4x - 12Axe4t - 3Ae4x - 4Axe4x = e4x
5 Ae4x = e4x
5A = 1
y = yc + yP
y — kxe4x + k2e~x + -xe4jr
Exercises 6.3
1. y" + y' = sin x 2. y" + 4y = 3e~x 3. y" - y' - 2y = 4x

4. y" - 4/ + 4y = F 5. y" - 10v' + 25y = x 6. y" - 2y' — 3y = 3x2
7. y" — y = x2 8. y" + y = ex 9. y" + 4y = e* - 2
10. y" + 4y = g* - 2x 11. y" - 3y' - 4y - 6ex 12. y" — 4y' + 3y = 20 cos x
13. y" + y = 5 + sin 3x 14. y" — y' — 6y = x + cos x 15. y" - y =
16. y" + 6y' = 18x2 — 6x + 3 17. y" + 4y = cos 2x 18. y" - 4y = e

19. y" + y = 10e2t; y = 0 and y' = 0 when x = 0

20. y" + y' = sin x\ y = 0 and y' = 0 when x = 0
21. y" + y = ex\ y = 0 and y' = 3 when x = 0
22. y" — 4y = 2 — 8.r; y = 0 and y' — 5 when * = 0
6.4 APPLICATIONS OF SECOND-ORDER

Mathematical models of numerous technical applications result in second-order linear

differential equations. We focus on three basic applications: mechanical vibrations, buoy¬
ancy, and electric circuits.
The force required to stretch or compress a spring obeys Hooke’s law, that is, the
required force F = f(x) is directly proportional to the distance x that the spring is stretched
or compressed:
fix) = kx
where k is called the spring constant.

Another basic mechanical principle, Newton’s law, states that the force F acting on a
mass m at any time t is equal to the product of the mass m and the acceleration a of the
mass:
F — ma
We now relate these two mechanical principles and investigate the motion of a
vibrating spring. Consider a spring hanging downward with a natural length l. If a weight
W is attached to the spring, the force of gravity acting on the weight will stretch the spring
downward a distance 5 until it comes to rest (see Fig. 6.1).
Figure 6.1
By Hooke’s law the force used to stretch the spring a distance s to this rest posi¬
tion is
F = ks
and by Newton’s law this same force is
F = mg
SECTION 6.4 Applications of Second-Order Differential Equations 191

•h f
where m is the mass of the weight and g is the acceleration of the weight as a result of grav¬
ity (approximately 32 ft/s2). Then,
mg = ks
If the spring is now stretched beyond the rest-length / + s and then released, a
vibrating motion will result. When in motion, at any time t, the force F acting on the weight
is
F = mg — k(s + jc)
where x is the distance measured from the rest position at time t. The term mg represents the
force of gravity acting downward on the weight. The term —k(s + x) represents the spring
tension, which is a force acting to restore the system to the rest position.
Again, by Newton’s law this same force acting on the weight is given by
F = ma
d2x
F = m
dv
d2 x
since -yy is the acceleration of the weight at any time t. Then
d2x
mg — k(s + x)
= mg — ks — kx
= mg — mg — kx (since mg = ks)
= —kx
Then,
d2x
m—x + kx 0
dt2
d2x
~df~
This is a second-order linear differential equation whose solution jc = f(t) describes the
vibrating motion of the weight and spring. The motion described by this differential equa¬
tion is called simple harmonic motion. Another visual example of simple harmonic motion
is the motion of a simple pendulum like the pendulum of a clock.
The solution of this differential equation is obtained by using the methods of Section
6.2. The solution is
x = Ci sin t + C^ cos
The period (time for one complete oscillation) of this simple harmonic motion is given
by
2n
P =
2tt
since the period for y = A sin Bt and y = A cos Bt is —.
LB

EXAMPLE 1
Find the equation expressing the simple harmonic motion of a weight attached to a spring. A
32-lb weight stretches the spring 6 in. to a rest position. The motion is started by stretching the
spring an additional 3 in. and then releasing the spring.
We have
W 32 lb
m = 1 lb-s2/ft
32 ft/s2
F 32 lb 32 lb
k = - = —— = --= 64 lb/ft
s 6 in. 2 ft
Then
x = Q sin A / — t + C2 cos.. / t
V m V m
x = C{ sin V64f + C2 cos V64?
x = C, sin 8/ + C2 cos 8f
To find constants C, and C2, differentiate the preceding equation.
dx
8C| cos 8? — 8C? sin 8?
dt
dx
Substitute x = 3 in. = 0.25 ft and — = 0 when t = 0.
dt
0.25 = C, sin 0 + C2 cos 0

0 = 8C| cos 0 — 8C2 sin 0
We find C, = 0 and C7 = 0.25. The solution is
x = 0.25 cos 81 (See Fig. 12.2.)
Figure 6.2
However, in reality, the vibrations do not continue forever. Resistant forces to the
motion of vibration exist. The effect of these forces is called the damping effect. These resis¬
tant forces, such as friction, will cause the vibration to decrease. In many situations this
force of resistance is directly proportional to the velocity of the vibrating system. That is,
dx
the damping force equals p —, where p is a constant.
dt
The differential equation expressing the total forces acting on the system becomes
d2x
rn—r = — Lx
dt2
d~x p dx k
•—r H-1- x = 0
dt m dt m

** *
The auxiliary equation is
p _ k
m H-m -\-x = 0
m m
(We use m in place of m in the auxiliary equation so it will not be confused with the mass
m.) Solving for Th, we have
P , [TpY 4^
m m m
m
2m
Now, let
Case 1, d > 0: There are two real roots of the auxiliary equation:
mx = + Vcl
2m
m2 = -\fd
2m
The solution of the differential equation is
x + C2e™ 2'
This case is called overdamped (see Fig. 6.3).
Figure 6.3 Damping effect.
Case 2, d = 0: There is a repeated real root of the auxiliary equation.

The solution is
x = (C, + C2t)eml, where m = —~

2m
This case is called critically damped.
Case 3, d < 0: There are two complex roots of the auxiliary equation.
The solution is
x = e sin cot + C2 cos cot), where co = Vj~d\
This case is called underdamped (see Fig. 6.3).

EXAMPLE 2
Find the general equation for the motion of the vibrating spring of Example 1 if there is a
resistant force that exerts a force of 0.04 lb with a velocity of 2 in./s.
Since
we have
F .
‘ resistant
0.04 lb 0.04 lb-s
P 0.24 Ib-s/ft
dx 2 in./s 5ft
~dt
d = —63.99 and CO V\d\ = V63.99 - 8
Case 3 applies and the general solution is
x = e [p/(2m)]'(C, sin cot + C2 cos cot)

x = e~ai2'(C| sin 81 + C2 cos 81) (since m = 1)
EXAMPLE 3
A cylindrical buoy with radius 1 ft is floating in water with the axis of the buoy vertical as in
Fig. 6.4. If the buoy is pushed a small distance into the water and released, the period of vibration
is found to be 4 s. Find the weight of the buoy given that the density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.
Figure 6.4
Let the origin be at the intersection of the axis of the buoy and the water when the buoy
is in equilibrium. Let’s choose the downward direction to be positive.
A body partly or wholly submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight
of the fluid it displaces (Archimedes’ principle). If the downward displacement is x, the change
in submerged volume is tt(\)2x and the change in the buoyant force is 62.4 7r(l):x. If we let W
(in pounds) be the weight of the buoy, then its mass is W/g, where g = 32.2 ft/s2. The
equation F = ma thus becomes

W d2x
— 62.4-77jc
8 dt2
d2x 2009tt
—r + -X = 0
dt2 W
By the methods of Section 6.2, the solution of this differential equation is
/ 200977 200977
x — Ci sin , /-1 + Ci cos -t
1 V if W
Recall that the period is 4 s, so
277
= 4
200977
W
or
7T / 200977
2 V w
2
7T~ 200977
(Square each side.)
4 IV
IV =
2560 lb
Electric circuits provide another example of the use of second-order linear differen¬
tial equations. Kirchhoff’s law states that the sum of the voltage drops across the elements
of an electric circuit equals the voltage source V. If a circuit (as in Fig. 6.5) contains a
capacitor C (in farads), an inductance L (in henrys), and a resistance R (in ohms), then
Kirchhoff’s law results in the differential equation:
L + Ri + i dt V
dt C
L
/VYY\
0 V
Figure 6.5 Circuit with capacitance, inductance, and resistance.
If the voltage source V is constant, then by differentiating we obtain
d2i di 1 . dV
L r + R— + — i — — = 0
dt~ dt C dt
d2i R di 1
r +-+ -i = 0
dt2 L dt CL

The auxiliary equation is m2 -\-m H- 0, whose roots are
/j CL
1 R2
4 L2 CL
The form of the solution depends on the value of d =

R2 J_
4 L2 CL
Case 1, d > 0 (overdamped):
i = kxem\' + k2em2'
where
R n R
mi = — --1- Va and m, =- - Vd
2L 2 2L
Case 2, d = 0 (critically damped):
i = (kx + k2t)e~[«/(2L»'
Case 3, d < 0 (underdamped):
i = e~tR/(2C‘ (^j sin u>t + k2 cos a)t), where co = V{~d\
EXAMPLE 4
Find an expression for the current in an electric circuit containing an inductor of 0.2 H, a
capacitor of 10~5 F, and a resistor of 300 fi. The voltage source is 12 V. Assume that i = 0 and
q = 0 at t = 0.
Rr 1
d —
4L2 ~ CL
(300)2 1
d = = 62,500 > 0
4(0.2)2 0.2 X 10'
Then, by Case 1, we have
R_ 300
-750
2L 2(0.2)
m, -750 + V62.500 = -500
m2 = -750 - V62,500 = -1000
The solution is then

i = k^500' + k2e,-1000/
Differentiating, we have
di
-500Ue‘500' - lOOOA.-^"
dt
Using
di 1
L— + Ri + ~q = V
dt CH
and the conditions i = 0 and q = 0 at t = 0, we have
1
(0.2) — + 300(0) + (0) = 12
dt 10
— = 60
dt

Then, substituting / = 0 in the preceding equations for i and —, we have
0 = *, + k2
60 = -500*, - 1000*2
Then.
*! = 0.12
*2 = -0.12
The particular solution is
i = 0.\2e~sm - 0.12e“1000'
d2i R di 1 ]_dV
—r +--—b i
dt" L dt CL L dt
Similarly, if a force f(t) external to a vibrating system of simple harmonic motion is

applied (such as a periodic push or pull on the weight), then we also obtain a nonhomoge-
neous equation:
Exercises 6.4
1. A spring is stretched | ft by a weight of 4 lb. If the weight is displaced a distance of 2 in. from
the rest position and then released, find the equation of motion.
2. A spring is stretched 6 in. by a weight of 10 lb. If the weight is displaced a distance of 6 in.
from the rest position and then released, find the equation of motion.
3. A spring is stretched 6 in. by a weight of 20 lb. A damping force exerts a force of 5 lb for a
velocity of 4 in./s. If the weight is displaced from the rest position and then released, find the
general equation of motion.
velocity of 6 in./s. If the weight is displaced from the rest position and then released, find the
general equation of motion.
5. A cylindrical buoy with a radius of 1.5 ft is floating in water with the axis of the buoy vertical.
When the buoy is pushed a small distance into the water and released, the period of vibration is
6 s. Find the weight of the buoy.
6. A cylindrical buoy with a radius of 2 ft is floating in water with the axis of the buoy vertical.
1.6 s. Find the weight of the buoy.
7. A cylindrical buoy weighing 1000 lb is floating in water with the axis of the buoy vertical.
2 s. Find the radius of the buoy.
8. A cylindrical buoy weighing 1600 lb is floating in water with the axis of the buoy vertical.
1.5 s. Find the radius of the buoy.
9. An electric circuit has an inductance L = 0.1 H, a resistance R = 50 ft, a capacitance
C = 2 X 10“4 F, and a voltage source of 12 V. Find the equation for the current i.

10. An electric circuit has an inductance L = 0.2 H, a resistance R = 400 Id, a capacitance
C = 5 X 10 4 F, and a voltage source of 12 V. Find the equation for the current i.
11. An electric circuit has an inductance L = 0.4 H, a resistance R = 200 fl, and a capacitance
C = 5 X 1(L5 F. Find the equation for the current i if the voltage source is 12 V, given that
i = 0 and q = 0 at t = 0.
12. An electric circuit has an inductance L = 0.5 H, a resistance R = 1000 fl, and a capacitance
C = 5.6 X 10_h F. Find the equation for the current i if the voltage source is 12 V, given that
i = 0 and q = 0 at t = 0.
6.5 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The linear operator i£, called the Laplace transform, is very useful in solving differential equa¬
6M3 tions with given initial conditions. The Laplace transform like the differential operator D,
operates on functions. The Laplace transform operates on a function f(t) and transforms it into
another function F(s). That is, !£[f{t)] = F(s). The transform is defined by means of integra¬
tion:
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
F(s) = 2[/(<)] = <•-"/(<) dt
Note that this equation involves an integral with an infinite upper limit (oo). Such an
integral is called an improper integral, whose value is found by a special limit process. In
general, an integral of the form
'OO
g(t) dt
is evaluated by considering the limit of the integral g(t) dt as b —> oo (as b takes on
positive values without bound), that is,
g{t) dt = lim g(t) dt

b—>oo
If G(t) is an antiderivative of g(t), then
Cb
g(t) dt = lim g{t) dt

b—>oo
= b—>
limoo [G(»]
= lim [G(b) - G(0)]

b—>oo
We illustrate this method of integration by using examples of Laplace transforms.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the Laplace transform of the function f(t) = e‘",

'OO
cg(£fl') r= e~s,(ea')dt (Assume that 5 > a.)
SECTION 6.5 The Laplace Transform 199

' dt
dt
-(s-a)t d(
= lim
b—>oo
y—(s — a)t
= lim
b~* oo\ s — a
— e~{s-a)b _g0
= lim
\ s — a s — a
1 ( -1
= lim + 1
b-+oo - a \Js~a^
1
-(0 + 1) y(s — a)b
-> 0 as b —> co
s — a
2(0 = (s > a)
s — a
EXAMPLE 2
Find the Laplace transform of the function f(t) = 1.

This is a special case of Example 1. If a = 0,f(t) = e(0)' = e° = 1. Then
2(1) - 2(0
^(i) = —i—
s — 0
2(1) = - (s>0)
EXAMPLE 3
Find 2 (sin kt).
2(sin kt) = I e~st sin kt dt
= lim | e st sin kt dt
b—> oo
e Sl(—s sin kt — k cos kt)

= lim (Use Formula 78, Appendix B.)
b—>oo s + k~ OJ
1(0-*)
= 0 - (For s > 0, e~sb —> 0 as b —> °°.)
s2 + k2
2(sin kt) =
s2 + k‘

We now develop the expression for the Laplace transform of the derivative f'(t) of a
function f{t)\
e~st f'{i) dt
Integrating by parts, we let u = e " and dv = f'(t) dt. Then,
u dv v du
udv = uv — v du
e~y(t)dt=f(ty — se stf{t) dt
m
lim + ^ e~s‘f(t) dt
b—KX)
lim
m_m + sX[f{t)}
b—>oo esb e°
f{b)
%[m -m lim -±-r
,sb = 0
b—►OO £
One can show that the Laplace transform of the second derivative is given as follows:
2[/"«] =s2S[/W]-j/(0)-/'(0)
One can also show that the Laplace transform is a linear operator, that is,
£[af(t) + bg(t)] = a£[f(t)] + b£[g(t)]
where a f(t) represents a constant multiple of the function /(f) and b g(t) represents a
constant multiple of the function g(t).
Using this linearity property and the Laplace transforms for derivatives, we can
obtain a Laplace transform for any linear combination of a function y = f(t) and its first and
second derivatives. Table 6.2 lists some commonly used Laplace transforms. A more com¬
plete table can be found in standard books of mathematical tables.
EXAMPLE 4
Express the Laplace transform for y" — 3y' + 2y in terms of i£(y) and s, where y = 2 and
y' = 1 when t = 0, that is, y(0) = 2 and y'(0) = 1.
£(y" - 3/ + 2y) = <£(yn) - 3 <£(y') + 2 2(y)

= [a-2 !£(y) - sy(0) - y'(0)] - 3[s i£(y) - y(0)] + 2 i£(y)
= (Vi£(y) — s(2) — 1] — 3[s i£(y) - 2] + 2 i£(y)
= (s2 — 35 + 2) i£(y) — 25 + 5
EXAMPLE 5
Find the Laplace transform of /(f) = te 3'

Using Formula 15 in Table 6.2, we have a = —3 and
1
i£(fe-3')
(5 + 3)2

f
TABLE 6.2 Laplace Transforms
f(t) = ^[F(s)} z[m = m

1. af{t) + bg{t) b
a ^[/0)] +
2- f{t) stem] -m
3- f'\t) s2%[f(t)]- sm-fio)
i
4. 1
i
5. t
.71- i
6. - n= 1,2,3,...
(» - 1)! s
1
7. e"
s — a
k
8. sin kt
s2 + k2
k
9. ea' sin kt
(s — a)2 + k2
s
10. cos kt
S2 + k2
s — a
11. eat cos kt
(s — a)2 + k2
a — b
12. eat - eht
(s — a)(s — b)
—a
13. 1 - eat
5(5 — a)
s{a — b)
14. aeat - bebt
(s - a)(s - b)
i
1
15. tea‘
0 - a)2
1
16. n= 1,2, 3, ..
(« “ !)! (, - of
s
17. ea,(\ + at)
(s - a)2
Iks
18. t sin kt
{s2 + k2)2
s2-k2
19. t cos kt
(s2 + k2)2
2 k3
20. sin kt — kt cos kt
(s2 + k2)2
Iks2
21. sin kt + kt cos kt
is2 + k2)2
k2
22. 1 — cos kt
s(s2 + k2)
k3
23. kt — sin kt
* V + k2)

When using the method of Laplace transforms to solve differential equations, we usu¬
ally need to invert a transform at the end of the process, that is, we need to find the inverse
transform
%-'[F(s)}=m
where the symbol i£_l denotes an inverse transform.
If F{s) is a function of 5 and f(t) is a function of t such that
2[ fit)] = F(s)
then
= f{t) is the inverse transform
EXAMPLE 6
Find the inverse transform of F(s)

5(5 + 5)
Using Formula 13 in Table 6.2, we have a = — 5 and
-5
-<2- = -(l - = -1 + e -51
5(5 + 5)
EXAMPLE 7
Find the inverse transform of i£[/(t)], where
s(s2 + 9) -9 = 0
Solving for ££[/(?)], we have
z[m =
^(52 + 9)
F(s)
Applying Formula 22 in Table 6.2 with k = 3, we obtain
%~'[F(s)] = £T‘
s(s2 + 9)
= 1 - cos 3f
An inverse transform cannot always be found directly by using Table 6.2. Sometimes
the method of completing the square or partial fractions can be used to rewrite a function
F(s) in a form applicable to the table.
EXAMPLE 8
s + 1
Find the inverse transform of F(s)
?2 - 4s + 5
Completing the square, we have
s2 - 4s + 5 = {s2 - 4s + 4) + 1 = (j - 2)2 + 1
Then, we can write
5+1 (5 - 2) + 3
F(s)
' y
,
„2 _ a„ _i_ <
.
r„ _
,,
s' — 45 + 5 (5 — 2)‘ + 1
5 - 2 3
+
(5 - 2)2 + 1 (5 - 2)2 + 1

H f
and
s-2
%-l[F(s)} k£ -l
+
_ (5 — 2 )2 +1 (5 — 2) + 1 _
£ -i
+'£T1
L (s - 2f + 1J (s - 2f + 1
e2' cos t + 3(e2' sin f)
where the first term is found from Formula 11 using a — 2 and k = 1 and the second term is
found from Formula 9 using a = 2 and k = 1.
Exercises 6.5
1. Derive the Laplace transform for /(f) = f.

2. Derive the Laplace transform for /(f) = cos kt.
Using Table 6.2, find the Laplace transform of each function fit).
3. /(f) = sin 3f 4. /(f) = e5' 5. m = 1 - e4'

6. fit) = 1 — cos It 7- /(0 = t2 8. /CO = te3r
9. /(f) = sin 2f — 2f cos f 10. /(f) = e3t sin 5 f 11. /« = t-e2t
12. /(f) = f + sin 3f 13. /(f) = f sin 4f 14. /CO = 61 — sin 6f
15. /(f) = e~3' cos 5f 16. /(f) = f5 17. /CO = 8f + 4f3
18. /(f) = f sin At + t cos 4r
Express the Laplace transform of each expression with the given conditions in terms ofHfiy) and s.
19. y" - 3y';y(0) = Oandy'(O) = 0 20. y" — y' + 2y; y(0) = 0 and y'(0) = 0
21. y" + y' + y;y(0) = Oandy'(O) = 1 22. y" — 2y;y(0) = -1 andy'(O) = 2
23. y" — 3y' + y; y(0) = 1 and y'(0) = 0 24. y" + 4y;y(0) = 2 andy'(O) = —3
25. y" + 8y' + 2y;y(0) = 4 andy'(O) = 6 26. y" — 3y' + 6y; y(0) = 7 and y'(0) = —3
27. y" - 6y';y(0) = 3 andy'(O) = 7 28. y" + 2y' + 3y;y(0) = —4andy'(0) = 5
29. y" + 8y' — 3y; y(0) = —6 and y'(0) = 2 30. y" + 3y' — 2y;y(0) = —5 andy'(O) = —3
Using Table 6.2, find the inverse transform of each function F(s).
1 4 1
32. n*) = 33. F(s) =
s2 + 16 0 - 5)2
2 .S’ 1
35. F(s) = 36. F(s) =
5(5 + 2) i2 + 64 54
4 1 3 2
38. f(4 = 39. F(s) =
I
so"
r?
s2 - 2)2 + 9 s2 — 6s + 13
1
(5
1 2 9s2 + 35 + 62
41. F(s) = 42. F(s)-
52 + 45 + 13 (,2+ l)2 (52 + 9)(j + 5)
2 ID - 3 652 + 42s + 54
44. F(s) = 45. F(s) =
{s - 1)(^2 + 1) s2 — s — 6 53 + 952 + 185
4s2 - 22s + 38 s+ 11 35-4
47. F(s) = 48. F(s) =
(s + 1)(j - 3)2 52 + 10j + 29 (5 + 2)(52 + 5 + 3)
49. Show: i£[/"(f)] - s1 k£[f{t)} - sf(0) -/'(0)

6.6 SOLUTIONS BY THE METHOD OF
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
We find particular solutions yp of linear differential equations using Laplace transforms as

follows:
SOLVING LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
To solve a{)D2v + a,Dy + ayy — b subject to initial conditions ;y(0) = c and

/(0) = d:
1. Take the Laplace transform of each side of the linear differential equation
%D2v + axDy + a^y = b. Substitute the initial values c for y(0) and cl for /(0)
in this new equation.
2. Solve the resulting equation in Step 1 for ££(jy) to obtain an equation in the form
%(y) = F(s)-
3. Find the inverse transform of ££(y) = F(s) from Step 2 to obtain the particular
solution v = ifT^F^)].
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the homogeneous differential equation y" + Ay' + Ay = 0 subject to the initial condi¬
tions that y = 2 and y' = 1 when x — 0 [write this as y(0) = 2 and y'(0) = 1].
Step 1: Take the Laplace transform of each side of the equation.
<£(y" + Ay' + Ay) = £{0)

[s2 2(y) - sy(0) - y'{0)] + A[s £(y) - y(0)] + 4 2(y) = 0
(52 + 4s + 4) ^(y) + (-s - 4)y(0) - /(0) = 0
(s2 + 4s + 4) £(y) - (s + 4)(2) -1=0
(s2 + 4s + 4) ££(y) - 2s — 9 — 0
Step 2: Solve for Z£(y):

2s + 9
m =
s2 + 4s + 4
Step 3: Find the inverse transform of X(y) = F(s).

2s + 9
Although F(s) = —-—;—7 does not appear in Table 6.2, we can rewrite F(s) as
s2 + 4s + 4
follows:
2s + 9
F(s) +
s2 + 4s + 4 (s + 2)2 (s + 2)
Then,
y = i£-l[F(s)]
2s
= 5T1 +
L(s + 2)2 (s + 2)2
I
= 2 2rx + 9iT
- 0s + 2)2
L(. + 2)2
= 2[e"2'(l - 2?)] + 9{te~2’)
= 2e~2' - 4m'2' + 9te~2'
or
y — (2 + 5 t)e
SECTION 6.6 Solutions by the Method of Laplace Transforms 205

f
We used Formulas 15 and 17 with a -2. Compare this result with the solution obtained
in Example 2, Section 6.2.
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the nonhomogeneous differential equation
y" + y = sin t if y(0) = 1 and y'(0) = — 1
2{y" +y) = 2 (sin t)

2(y") + £(y) = £ (sin t)
1
s2%(y) - jy(0) -y(0) + 2(y)
52 + 1
52^)-5(l)-(-l) + ^) =
52 + 1
(s2 + 1) !£(y) - s + 1 =
52 + 1
Step 2: Solve for £(y).
(s2+l)2(y) = + 5—1
52 + 1
1 5-1
m +
(52 + l)2 52 + 1
Step 3 : Find the inverse Laplace transform of £g(y) = F(s).
y = X~l[F(s)]
1 s - 1
= 5T1 +
+
U*2 l)2
1 5 — 1
+ <r‘
=
U2 +
l)2 52 + 1
1 5 1
=
U2 +
l)2
+ 2~x
52 + 1 52 + 1
1 5
- £g_1
U2 +
l)2
+ £g-'
52 + 1 52 + 1
Since
1
5T1 = — (sin t - t cos t) (Lormula 20 with k = 1)
(S2 + 1)2J
5
ir1 cos t (Formula 10 with k = 1)
52 + 1
ig-1 = sin t (Formula 8 with k = 1)

52 + 1
we have
y = “(sin t - t cos t) + cos t — sin t
1 . / A
y = ““Sin t + l-cos t
2 V 2

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the differential equation y" + Ay' — 5y = 0 with y(0) = 1 and y'(0) = -4.
2(y" + Ay' - 5y) = 2(0)

[.2 2(y) - .v y(0) - y'(0)] + A[s i£(y) - v(0)] - 5 2(y) = 0
(s2 + As - 5) 2(y) + (-s ~ 4)y(0) - y'(0) = 0

(52 + 4^-5) 2(y) - (5 + 4)(1) - (-4) = 0
(52 + 45 - 5) 2(y) -5 = 0
Step 2: Solve for 2(y).
(52 + 45 — 5) 2(y) = 5
5
52 + 45 — 5
5
Step 3: Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2(y) = F(5). F(5) = 2 ^ ^-- does
not appear in Table 6.2. However, using partial fractions, we express F(s) as a sum of two
fractions:
52 + 45 - 5 (5 + 5)(5 - 1)
A B
— - -j-
5 + 5 5 — 1
A(s - 1) B(s + 5)
(5 + S)(s — 1) (5 + 5 )(s — 1)
A5 — A + Bs + 5 B
(5 + 5)(5 - 1)
_ (A + B)s + (—A + 55)

(5 + 5 )(s - 1)
Setting
A + B = 1
-A + 55 = 0
we solve for A and 5 and find A = f and 5 = g.

Then,
y = 2-*[F(5)]
or
(Formula 7 with a = — 5 and a = 1)
SECTION 6.6 Solutions by the Method of Laplace Transforms 207

H t
EXAMPLE 4
Use Laplace transforms to find an expression for the current in an RL circuit containing an
inductor of 0.1 H and a resistor of 8 ft if the voltage source is 12 V and i — 2 A at t — 0.
By Kirchhoff’s law,
di
L— + Ri = V
dt
di
0.1— + 8/ = 12
dt
di
— + 80/ = 120
dt
KfH = if(120) (Transform both sides.)
120
- 2 + 80££(/) (/ = 2 when t = 0)
5
120
(5 + 80 )££(/) =-+ 2
5
120 + 25
2(0
5(5 + 80)
1.5 0.5
2(0 (partial fractions)
5 5 + 8 O
i = 1.5 + 0.5<? 80' (Formula 4; Formula 7 with k = —80)
EXAMPLE 5
Use Laplace transforms to find an expression for the current in an electric circuit containing an
inductor of 0.2 H, a capacitor of 10-5 F, and a resistor of 300 ft. The voltage source is a 12-V
battery. Assume that i = 0 and q = 0 at t = 0.
By Kirchhoff’s law,
di 1
dt C 1
di 1
0.2— + 300/ + -~q = 12 (1)
dt 10“5
0.2— + 300(0) + —*— (0) = 12 (Z = 0 and <7 = 0 when t = 0)

dt v ' 10~5
di_
= 60 (when t = 0)
dt
d2i di 1 [Differentiate both sides of Equa¬
0.2 — + 300 — + 7 / = 0
dt2 dt 10-5 tion (1) with respect to r.]
d2i di
— + 1500 — + 500,000 / = 0 (Multiply both sides by 5.)
dt2 dt
f ^2 • ^•
+ 1500 — + 500,000 / J = 2(0) (Transform both sides.)
di
s2%(i) - 0s - 60 + 1500 s<£(i) - 0 + 500,000 i£(/) = 0 i = 0 and — = 60 when t = 0.
dt
(s2 + 15005 + 500,000)£g(/) = 60
60
^(0 =
(5 + 1000)(5 + 500)

-0.12 0.12
2(0 = (partial fractions)
5 + 1000 5 + 500
/' = —0.12e-1000' + 0.12<T500' (Formula 7 with a = — 1000 and
a = -500)
For comparison, see Example 4 of Section 6.4, where this same problem is solved by
classical methods.
Exercises 6.6
Solve each differential equation subject to the given conditions by using Laplace transforms.
1. y' - y = 0; y(0) = 2 2. y' + 3y = 0; y(0) - -1

3. Ay' + 3_y = 0; y(0) - 1 4. y' - 2y = 0; y(0) = 5
5. y' - ly = e’\ y(0) = 5 6. y' + 2y = 3;y(0) = 0
7. y" 4- y = 0; y(0) = 1 and y'(0) = 0 8. y" + 3y = 0;y(0) = 2 andy'(0) = 5
9. y" - 2y' = 0; y(0) = 1 andy'(0) = — I 10. y" + 3y' = 0; y(0) = 0andy'(0) = 2
11. y + 2y' + y = 0; y(0) = 1 and y'(0) = 0 12. y" — 6y' + 9y = 0;y(0) = 1 andy'(0) = 2
13. y — 4y' + 4y = te2'\ y(0) = 0 and y'(0) = 0
14. y + 10y' + 25y = e“5r;y(0) = 0andy'(0) = 0
15. y + 2y' + y = 3fe~';y(0) = 4 andy'(0) = 2
16. y — 6y' + 9y = e3t\ y(0) = 1 and v'(0) = 2
17. y" + 3y' - 4y = 0;y(0) = 1 andy'(O) = -2
18. y" - y' - 2y = 0; y(0) = 2 and y'(0) = 3
19. Find the equation for the current i in an RL circuit with inductance L = 0.2 H, resistance
R = 20 fl, and voltage V = 12 V if i = 3 at t = 0.
20. Find the equation for the current i in an RL circuit with inductance L = 0.1 H, resistance
R = 300 fl, and voltage V = 120 V if i = 0 at t = 0.
21. Find the equation for the current i in an RLC circuit with inductance L = 0.1 FI, resistance
R = 45 LI, capacitance C = 2 X 10-4 F, and voltage V = 12 V iff = 0 and q = 0 at t = 0.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
1. A linear differential equation of order n is represented by the form
dny d"~ly dy
""TF + + + a"-'di + a"y ” b
where a0, ax,a2,... ,an~ i, an, and b can be either functions of a: or constants. If b = 0,
the linear differential equation is called homogeneous. If b A 0, the equation is called
nonhomogeneous.
2. Differential operator D operates on a function y = f(x) as follows:
dy d2y , d3y
Dy = Dz\ =
dx dx ,2
Dy - 2?

n r
Operator D is an example of a linear operator. An algebraic expression in the form

ax + by where a and b are constants is called a linear combination. A linear operator
is any process which after operating on a linear combination results in another linear
combination. For the linear operator D, we have
D[af{x) + bg(x)] = aD[f(x)] + b D[g(x)]
We are able to apply algebraic operations to linear operators.

3. The equation a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0 is called the auxiliary equation (characteristic
equation) for the differential equation
a0D2y + axDy + a2y — 0
Observe that y = kemx will be a solution if m satisfies the auxiliary equation

a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0. The problem of determining a solution of the differential equa¬
tion is now a problem of finding the two roots mx and m2 of the auxiliary equation.
The method may be summarized as follows:
(a) Write the auxiliary equation for a given differential equation:
a0D2y + axDy + a2y = 0

a0m2 + axm + a2 = 0
(b) Determine the two roots m, and m2 of the auxiliary equation.

(c) Write the general solution as
y = kxem\x + k2em2x
4. When the auxiliary equation of a differential equation results in a repeated root

(mx = m2 = m), then the general solution is in the form
y = kxemx + k2xemx
Note carefully that the second term includes the factor x.

5. If the auxiliary equation of a differential equation has complex roots in the form
m = a ± bj, then the solution of the differential equation is
y = eax(kl sin bx + k2 cos bx)
where kx and k2 are arbitrary constants.
6. To find the general solution of the nonhomogeneous equation
a0D2y + axDy + a2y = b
(a) Find the complementary solution yc by solving the homogeneous equation

a0D2y + axDy + a2y = 0 using the methods summarized in items 3 through 5
above.
(b) Find a particular solution yp by using the method of undetermined coefficients.
(c) Find the general solution y by adding the complementary solution yc from Step (a)
and the particular solution yp from Step (b):
y = yc + yP
7. The Laplace transform !£, like the differential operator D, operates on functions. The
Laplace transform operates on a function /(/) and transforms it into another function
F(s), that is, i£[/(f)] = F(s). The transform is defined by means of integration:
' oo
F(S) = 2[/«] e~5tf{t) dt

A)

8. The particular solution yp of a linear differential equation a0D2y + axDy + a2y = b
subject to given initial conditions y(0) = candy'(O) = d can be found by using Laplace
transforms as follows:
(a) Take the Laplace transform of each side of the linear differential equation
ao D y + a,Dv + a2y = b. Substitute the initial values c for y(0) and d for /(0)
in this new equation.
(b) Solve the resulting equation in Step (a) for i£(y) to obtain an equation in the form
2(y) = ns)-
(c) Find the inverse transform of i£(y) = F(s) from Step (b) to obtain the particular
solution y = i£-l[F(s)].
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
State whether each differential equation is homogeneous or nonhomogeneous. Also state the order
of each equa tion.
1. 2y" + y' - ly = 0 - ly = 8
dy
3. —-3y — 5 = 0 4. y'" - y" + y = 0
dx
d2y dv d2y dy
5. + 4—- — 5y = 0 6. - 5 — + 6y = 0 7. /' - by' = 0
dx2 dx dx2 dx
Vx
CO
8. 2y"
£
O
9. y" - 6y' + 10. D2 y + 10 Dy + 25y
II
1
II
1
11. D2y - 2 Dy + y = 0 12. 9 D2y — 6 Dy + y = 0 13. y” + 16y = 0

14. 4 D2!y + 25y = 0 15. D2y ~- 2 Dy + 3y = 0 16. y" - 3y' + 8y = 0
17. D2y + Dy — 2y — x
£
18. y" ~ by' + 19. y" + 4y == cosx

II
20. y" - 2y' + 3y = be2'
d2y dy
21. —r + 2 —-8y = 0;y = 6 and y’ = 0 when x = 0
dx dx
22. D2y — 3 Dy = 0; y = 3 and y’ = 6 when x = 0
23. D2y - 4 Dy + 4v = 0; y — 0 and y’ = 3 when x = 0
24. y" + by' + 9y — 0; y — 8 and y' = 0 when x = 0
25. y" + Ay = 0; y = 1 and y' = —4 when x = 0
26. D~y — 8 Dy + 25y = 0; y = 2 and y' = 11 when x = 0
27. y" — y' = e2*; 3; = 1 and y' = 0 when x = 0
28. D2y + 4y = sin x; y = 2 and y' = 5 when x = 0
29. A spring is stretched 4 in. by a weight of 16 lb. If the weight is displaced a distance of 6 in.
from the rest position and then released, determine the equation of motion.
velocity of 4 in./s. If the weight is displaced from the rest position and then released, determine
the equation of motion.
31. An electric circuit has an inductance L — 2 H, a resistance R — 400 fl, a capacitance
C = 10~5 F, and a voltage source of 12 V. Find the equation for the current i.
32. An electric circuit has an inductance L = 1 FI, a resistance R = 2000 O, a capacitance
C = 4 X 10_6F, and a voltage source of 12 V. Find the equation for the current i.

f
Using Table 6.2, find the Laplace transform for each function fit).
33. fit) = e6' 34. fit) = e~2t cos 31 35. fit) = f3 + cos t 36. fit) = 31 - <?5'
Using Table 6.2, find the inverse transform for each function F(s).
37. F(s) = \ 38. F(s) =

s s(s — 2)
Solve each differential equation subject to the given conditions by using Laplace transforms.
41. 4/ - 5>’ = 0; v(0) = 2

42. y" + 9y = 0; v(0) = 3 and y'(0) = 0
43. y" + 5/ = 0; y(0) = 0 and y'(0) = 2
44. y" + 4/ + Ay = e“2'; y(0) = 0 and ,y'(0) = 0

CHAPTER 6
APPLICATION
Differential Equations and
the Gateway Arch
The Gateway Arch to the West in St. Louis, Missouri, rises 630 ft and spans 630 ft at ground
level. Its design is based on the fact that when a uniform flexible cable hangs freely, there
are no transverse forces pushing the cable out of shape and all internal forces are in equi¬
librium. The plane curve in which a uniform cable hangs when suspended from two points
is called a catenary. When a catenary is turned upside down the forces are reversed, but are
still in equilibrium. The stability of this shape is the reason architect Eero Saarinen chose it
for his design of the Gateway Arch to the West.
To study the tension of a uniform cable hanging from two points, we consider
the lowest point Q to be on the y-axis with the x-axis parallel to the tangent line at Q as
shown below.
Let P(x, y) be any other point on the cable. The three forces acting on the cable are
its weight and the resulting tensions on Q and P. If 7, is the magnitude of the horizontal force
at 0, then its x-component is — Tx and its y-component is zero.
If T2 is the magnitude of the force at P and 0 is the angle of inclination at P, then the
x-component of the force at P is T2 cos 6 and the y-component is T2 sin 6. The magnitude of
the gravitational pull is the unit weight of the cable w times the length of the curve 5. The
downward force has an x-component of zero and a y-component of — ws.
Since the cable is at rest, the sum of the x-components of the forces must be zero and
the sum of the y-components of the forces must be zero. That is,
-r, + r2cos e + o=o
213
and
0 + To sin 9 — ws = 0
Thus,
T2 cos 0 = 7’, and T2 sin 9 = ws

T2 sin 6 ws
T, cos 6
ws
tan 6 =
~T\
dy
Since we assume that the cable lies along a differentiable curve, the slope — of the curve
dx
has the value tan 6 at P. Now, x and y are included in our equations since
dy ws
— = tan 9 = —
dx T]
It can be shown that s, the length of a curve, is related to a: and y by the equation
ds
dx
+ if
,dx,
dy w
Differentiating — = —s with respect to x yields
dx Tx
d2y _ w ds
dx2 Tx dx
d2y w
dx1 r, vv i + (f
\dxj
The solution to this second-order differential equation (including the determination

of initial values) is
\ ! ,v VP
1 / ~ X
y = — ( erxx + e r,
which is the equation of a catenary.

Weights and
Measures
TABLE 1 U.S. Weights and Measures
Units of length Units of weight
Standard unit-inch (in. or ") Standard unit-pound (lb)

12 inches = 1 foot (ft or ') 16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound
3 feet = 1 yard (yd) 2000 pounds = 1 ton (T)
5 5 yards or 16 j feet = 1 rod (rd)
5280 feet = 1 mile (mi)
Volume measure
Liquid
16 ounces (fl oz) = 1 pint (pt)

2 pints = 1 quart (qt)
4 quarts = I gallon (gal)
Dry
2 pints (pt) = I quart (qt)

8 quarts = 1 peck (pk)
4 pecks = 1 bushel (bu)
215
TABLE 2 Conversion Tables
Length
cm m km in. ft mi
i centimetre 1 10“2 10“5 0.394 3.28 X 10“2 6.21 x 10"6
1 metre 100 1 10~3 39.4 3.28 6.21 X 10“4
1 kilometre 105 1000 1 3.94 X 104 3280 0.621
1 inch 2.54 2.54 X 10“2 2.54 X 10“5 1 8.33 X 10“2 1.58 X 10"5
1 foot 30.5 0.305 3.05 X 10~4 12 1 1.89 X 10“4
1 mile 1.61 X 105 1610 1.61 6.34 X 104 5280 1
Area
Metric U.S.
1 m2 = 10,000 cm2 1 ft2

- 144 in2
= 1,000,000 mm2 1 yd2= 9 ft2
1 cm2 = 100 mm2 1 rd2
= 30.25 yd2
= 0.0001 m2 1 acre= 160 rd2
1 km2 = 1,000,000 m2 = 4840 yd2
1 ha = 10,000 m2 = 43,560 ft2
1 mi2 = 640 acres
m2 cm2 ft2 in2
1 nr 1 104 10.8 1550

■'4"
o
1
1 cm2 1 1.08 X 10“3 0.155
1 ft2 9.29 X 10~2 929 1 144
1 in2 6.45 X 10~4 6.45 6.94 X 10"3 1
1 mi2 = 2.79 X 107 ft2 = 640 acres

1 circular mil = 5.07 X 10_6cm2 = 7.85 X 10 7 in2
1 hectare = 2.47 acres
216 APPENDIX A Weights and Measures

Volume
Metric U.S.
1 m3 = 106 cm3 1ft3 = 1728 in3

1 cm3 = 10-6 m3 1yd3 = 27 ft3
= 103 mm3
m3 cm 1 L ft3 in3
1 m3 1 106 1000 35.3 6.10 X 104
1 cm3 10-6 1 1.00 X I0~3 3.53 X 10“5 6.10 X 10“2
1 L l.oo x ur3 1000 1 3.53 X 10“2 61.0
1 ft3 2.83 X 10"2 2.83 X 104 28.3 1 1728
1 in3 1.64 X 10~5 16.4 1.64 X 10“2 5.79 X 10~4 1
1 U.S. fluid gallon = 4 U.S. fluid quarts = 8 U.S. pints = 128 U.S. fluid ounces = 231 in3 = 0.134 ft3 = 3.79 litres
1 L = 1000 cm3 = 1.06 qt
Other useful conversion factors
1 newton (N) = 0.225 lb 1 atm = 101.32 kpa

1 pound (lb) = 4.45 N = 14.7 lb/in2
1 slug = 14.6 kg 1 Btu = 0.252 kcal
1 joule (J) = 0.738 ft-lb 1 kcal = 3.97 Btu
= 2.39 X 10"4 kcal F = \C + 32°
1 calorie (cal) = 4.185 J C = §(F - 32°)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4185 J 1 kg = 2.20 lb (on the
1 foot-pound (ft-lb) = 1.36 J earth’s surface)
1 watt (W) = 1 J/s = 0.738 ft-lb/s 1 lb = 454 g
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000W = 16 oz
= 1.34 hp 1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 746 W = 2200 lb
APPENDIX A Weights and Measures 217

t
.
APPENDIX B
Table of Integrals
„n + l
1. un du = + C (n # -1)
n + 1
du 1
2. -:— = — In \a + bu\ + C
a + bu b
u 1
3. --— du = —r [(a + bu) — a In la + bu\ 1 + C
a + bu b
u~ du 1
4. — (a + bu)2 — 2a(a + bu) + a: In |a + bu\ + C
a + bu V
du 1
5. -In + C
u(a + bu) a a + bu
du 1 b a + bu
6. ■>, , , v =-+ 1- In + C
u (a + bu) au a~
u du 1 / a
7. ---r = -t-I In \a + bu\ H- + C
(a + bu)~ b~\ a + bu
u2 du 1 / cr .
8. ---r = —r a + bu-2a In \a + bu\ + C
(a + buf b2 a + bu 1 |; V
du 1 I
9. — -—— = — -- + —- In + C
u(a + bu) a(a + bu) a a + bu
du _ a + 2bu + 2b ^ a + bu
10. + C
u2(a + bu)2 a2u(a + bu) a3
Forms containing Va + bu
2(2 a — 3 bu)(a + bu)2/2

11. ttVfl + bu du = — + C
15 b2
„ __ 2(8a2 — 12 abu + 15 b2u2)(a + bu)2/2
12. u2 'Va + bu du =--b C
105 b
u du 2(2 a — bu)\/a + bu
13. + C
Va + bu 3 b2
u2 du 2(3b2u2 — 4abu + 8a2) Va + bu
14. + C
Va + bu 15V
du 1 Va + bu — Va
15. In + C (a > 0)
aVa + bu Va Va + bu + Va
219
du a + bu
16. arctan + C (a < 0)
u\/a + bu
Va + bu du cfw
17. — 2 Va + few + a + C
u mVa + bu
Rational forms containing a2 ± u2 and u2 ± a2
du1 u
18. — — arctan —I- C
a2 + u2 a a
du 1 a + u
19. 2 2 T ^
+ C (ia2 > u2)
a — u La a — u
du 1 u — a
20. *1-—2 = ^rln
+ c (<a2 < u2)
u — a La u + a
Irrational forms containing Va2 -
21. (a2 - u2)'/2 du = —\/a2 — u2 H-arcsin — + C

2 2 a
du u
22. 71-717 = arcs111 “ + c (a > 0)
(a" — u )' a
du
23. + C
{a2 - u2f/2 a2\/a2 - u2
u2 du u ~ a2 u
24. = — — v a — u + —arcsin —I- C
{a2 - u2)l/2
u2 du u u
25. -^777 = —.- arcsin - + C
(«2 ~ u2?12 Va^V2 a
du 1 a + 'S/a2 — u2
26. = - -In + C
u(a2 — u2y/2 a
du
27. 2 + C
u\a2 - u2y2 a u
(1a2 — u2)l/2 du + Va2 — u2

28. = Va2 — u2 — a In + C
(a2 u2)l/2 du Va2 — u2 u

29. -7-=-arcsin —h C
Irrational forms containing Vu2 ± a2
30. 'S/m2 ± a2 du = 7(mVm2 ± a2 ± a2 In |u + l/a2 ± a2|) + C
31. u2Vu2 ± a2 du = \u(2u2 ± a2)Vu2 ± a2 - ga4 In \u + Vm2 ± a2| + C
yu2 + a2 + Vm2 + a2
32. du = Vu2 + a2 — a In 1 C
f Vm2 - a2
33. du = Vu2 — a2 — a arccos —t- C
u
Vm2 ± a2 Vm2 ±
34. ■ du = + ln|a + Vu2 ± a2 \ + C
220 APPENDIX B Table of Integrals

du
35. = ln|w + V;/2 ± a2| + C
Vm2 ± a2
du 1 a
36. ,-r = - arccos —I- C
uvu2 — a2 a 11
du
37. In + C
wVu2 + a2 a a + V u2 + a2
1C du 1 / ^ ~ . r~z-r
38. —. — —(mV ir ± a" ± a2 In u + Vir ± a~I) + C
Vm2 ± a2 2
du :Vu2 ± a2
39. + C
2a / 2 _i_ 2 au
u vu ± a
du TU
40. - + C
0u2 ± «2)3/2 aWu2 ± a2
u2 du
41. ==
9 - ? + In \u + Vu2 ± a2! + C
(u2 ± a2)3/2 _ Vm2 ± a2
Forms containing a + bu ± cu2 (c > 0)
du 2 2cm + 6 , , .
42. arctan — : + C (62 < 4ac)
a + bu + cu2 V4ac - 62 V4ac - 62
1 2 cu + b — \/b2 — 4 ac
43. In + C (62 > 4ac)
a + bu + cu2 \/b2 — 4a c 2 cu + b + \/b2 — 4mc
du 1 \/b2 4~ 4ac + 2cm — &

44. In + C
a + bu - cu2 vV + 4^ V62 + 4oc — 2cm + b
2cm + b b1 - 4ac
45. Vo~ + 6m + CM2 du a + bu + cu2 In |2cm + 6 + 2 VcVa + 6m + cm:| + C
4c 8c3/2
2cm — b /-; 62 + 4mc /2cm — 6
46. Vm" + 6m - cu2 du v a + bu - cu 4-77;— arcsin —, + C
4c 8 c3/2 Wb2 + 4ac
du
47. In |2cm + 6 + 2\fc\/a + 6m + cm2| + C
2 V~c
Vo" + bu + CU
du 1 2 cu — 6
48. arcsin + C
Vm + bu - cu2 V62 + 4«c
M t/M Vm_T_6m_T~cm2 6
49. ln|2cM + 6 + 2 Vc\/m + 6m + cm2| + C
Vm + bu + cu2 2 c3'1
M du Va + 6m - cm2 6 . / 2cm — 6 _
50. - + —^ arcsin - I + C
Vm + bu - cu2 c 2c3/2 V \/62 + 4«c/
Exponential and logarithmic forms
51. | eu du = eu + C
52. a11 du =-1- C (a > 0, a A 1)

In a
53. ueau du — —7 (mm — 1) + C
54. uneau du u"-'eaudu

a a
APPENDIX B Table of Integrals 221

n r
55. —— du = — ,n- 1
(n - 1 )un~l n - 1 J
56. In u du = u\nu — u + C
,n+ 1
un+' In u
57. un In u du = + C
n + 1 (n + 1 ):
du
58. = In |ln u\ + C
u In u
eau(a sin nu — n cos nu)

59. eau sin nu du =-----b C
a2 + n2
eau(n sin nu + a cos nu)

60. eau cos nu du =-----1- C
a2 + n2
Trigonometric forms
61. sin u du = —cos u + C

.
62. cos u du = sin u + C

.
63. tan u du = —In |cos u\ + C = In |sec u\ + C

-
64. cot u du = In |sin u\ + C

-
65. sec u du = In |sec u + tan u\ + C

.
66. esc u du = In |csc u — cot u\ + C
67. sec2 u du = tan u + C

.
68. esc2 u du — —cot u + C

.
69. sec u tan u du = sec u + C
70. esc u cot u du = —esc u + C
71. sin2 u du = \u — isin 2w + C
72. cos2 u du = \u + l sin 2u + C
cos"+1 u
73. cos'1 u sin u du = — + C
n + 1
sin" * ^ u
74. sin" u cos u du =-b C
n + 1
sin(m + n)u sin(m — n)u

75. sin mu sin nu du =-;-r-1-b C
2(m + n) 2(m - n)
sin(«7 + n)u sin(m — n)u

76. cos mu cos nu du = —;---1---b C
2(m + n) 2(m - n)
222 APPENDIX B Table of Integrals

cos (m + n)u cos (in — n)u
77. sin mu cos nu du + C
2 (m + n) 2 (m — n)
eau(a sin nu — n cos nu)
78. eau sin nu du =-r---1- C
a2 + n2
eau(n sin nu + a cos nu)
79. ea“ cos nu du =-----1- C
a2 + n~
80. u sin u du = sin u — u cos u + C
81. u cos u du = cos u + u sin u + C
„ sin"' + l u cos" 1 u n - 1
82. sin u cos u du =-1- sinm u cos" u du
m + n m + n
n — 1
83. sin" u du —-sin" u cos u + sin" 2 u du
n n
n , 1 _i n — 1
84. cos u du = — cos u sin u H- cos"-2 u du
n n
tan" 1 u
85. tan" u du tan" 2 u du
n - 1
cot" 1 u
86. cot" u du = — cot"- 2 u du
n — 1
sec"-2 u tan u n — 2
87. sec" u du = + sec" - 2 u du
17 — 1 n +
esc" 2 u cot u 77 — 2
88. esc" u du esc" 2 u du
n — 1 77 — 1
APPENDIX B Table of Integrals 223

.
.
Using a Graphing
Calculator
This appendix is included to provide faculty with the flexibility of integrating graphing
calculators in their classes. Each section explains and illustrates important features of the
Texas Instruments TI-83 and TI-84 Plus. Though this appendix was specifically designed
to supplement the graphing calculator examples found throughout the text, the material is
organized so that an interested student could also study it as a separate chapter.
C.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE TI-83 KEYBOARD
This section provides a guided tour of the keyboard of the TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus graph¬
ing calculators (including their Silver Editions). In this and the following sections, please
have your calculator in front of you and be sure to try out the features as they are discussed.
First, notice that the keys forming the bottom six rows of the keyboard perform the
standard functions of a scientific calculator. The thin blue keys that form the very top row
allow functions to be defined and their graphs to be drawn (see Section C.3 for details). The
second, third, and fourth rows of keys provide access to menus full of advanced features and
perform special tasks such as INSert, DELete, CLEAR, and QUIT (to leave a menu, an
editor, or a graph, and return to the home screen). Also found in these rows are the 2nd and
ALPHA shift keys, which give additional, color-coded meanings to almost every key on the
calculator.
The ON key is in the lower left-hand corner. Note that pressing the (golden yellow)
2nd key followed by the ON key will turn the calculator OFF. If the calculator is left un¬
attended (or no buttons are pressed for a couple of minutes), the calculator will shut itself
off. No work is lost when the unit is turned off. Just turn the calculator back ON and the dis¬
play will be exactly as you left it. Due to different lighting conditions and battery strengths,
the screen contrast needs adjustment from time to time. Press the 2nd key, then press and
hold the up (or down) arrow key to darken (or lighten) the screen contrast.
The ENTER key in the lower right-hand corner is like the = key on many scientific
calculators; it signals the calculator to perform the calculation that you've been typing. Its
(shifted) 2nd meaning, ENTRY, gives you access to previously entered formulas, starting
with the most recent one. If you continue to press 2nd ENTRY you can access previous
entries up to an overall memory limit of 128 characters. Depending on the length of your
formulas, this means that about 10 to 15 of your most recent entries can be retrieved from
the calculator’s memory to be reused or modified.
225
rr
Texas Instruments ti-83 Plus
STATPLOT FI TBLSFT F2 FORMAT F3 CALC
( Y= ) (WINDOW^ ( ZOOM DC TRACE DC GRAPH D

QUIT INS
f \
( 2nd ) mode] DEL
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A-LOCK link list
[alpha] 'x,T,8,n) f STAT
TEST A ANGLE 8 DRAW C
[ MATH ] O [pRGm] [ VARS ] [clear]
MATRX D SIN-1 E COS-I F TAN' G
GDC GD GD
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SIN
J {
[ COS
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00C
10 * o
)CDCZ) P w_Q [
J 7j r
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CD CD CD CD Lj_Y L2_£ l_2_fl mem ii
STO-
' GD CATALOG i—l l ENTRY SOLVE
CEP CD CD CD CD
Courtesy of Texas Instruments
Just above ENTER is a column of four other blue keys that perform the standard op¬
erations of arithmetic. Note, though, that the multiplication key, indicated by an x, prints
an asterisk on the screen and the division key prints a slash on the screen. Just above these
four is the A key, which indicates that you’re raising something to the power that follows;
for example, 2A5 would mean 2\ Moving to the left across that row, you will see the keys
for the trigonometric functions: SIN, COS, and TAN (note that their standard setting is ra¬
dians, but you can specify degrees by using the degree symbol, which is option 1 in the
ANGLE menu, or the calculator can be set to always think in degrees by specifying that op¬
tion in the MODE menu). Always press the trig key before typing the angle, as in cos (tt)
or sin (30°). Notice that the left-hand parenthesis is automatically included when you press
any of the trig keys. To the left of these three is a key labeled x'1, which acts as a recipro¬
cal key for ordinary arithmetic. It will also invert a matrix, as in [ A]-1, which explains why
the key isn’t labeled 1/x, as it would be on many scientific calculators. Beneath that key is x2
226 APPENDIX C Using a Graphing Calculator

(the squaring key), whose shifted 2nd meaning is square root. Below in that column are
keys for logs, whose shifted 2nd versions give exponential functions. Like the trig keys, the
square root, LOG, LN, and exponential keys also precede their arguments. For example,
log(2) will find the common logarithm of 2.
Between LN and ON is the STO> key, which is used to store a number (possibly the
result of a calculation) into any of the 27 memory locations whose names are A, B, C,..., Z,
and 6. First indicate the number or calculation, then press STO> (which just prints an arrow
on the screen) followed by the (green) ALPHA key, then the (green) letter name you want
the stored result to have, and finally press ENTER. The computation will be performed
and the result will be stored in the desired memory location as well as being displayed on
the screen. If you have just performed a calculation and now wish that you had stored it, don’t
worry. Just press STO> on the next line followed by ALPHA and the letter name you want
to give this quantity, then press ENTER.
Here are some examples:
3*7 COS ( TI > 7Z 2-"4-12< -5>

21 -1 49
'26.8/3. 2 sin<30° > •K 64 > flns-^R
>75 .5 8
3A4 4-t loS< 1000)-»N
81 ,25 3
■
If you watched the last STO> example closely, you may have noticed that the cal¬
culator prints Ans (which stands for “the previous answer”) on the screen whenever you don’t
indicate the first operand on a given line. For example, if you begin a formula with a plus
sign, the calculator assumes that you want to add something to the previous result, so it dis¬
plays “Ans + ” instead of just “ + At times, you’ll want to refer to the previous result
somewhere other than at the beginning of your formula. In that case, press 2nd ANS (the
shifted version of the key to the left of ENTER) wherever you want the previous answer
to appear in the computation.
The shifted 2nd meaning of the STO> key is RCL (recall), as in RCL Z, which
would display the contents of memory location Z at the current cursor position in your for¬
mula. It is usually easier to write the letter Z itself (press ALPHA followed by Z) in for¬
mulas instead of the current value that’s stored there, so this recall feature isn’t the best
choice in most computations. However, the RCL feature is very useful in creating instant
copies of functions (Rcl Yi) and programs (Rcl prgmSIMPSON) so that newly modified ver¬
sions don’t have to destroy the old ones.
The key that changes the sign of a number is labeled (-) and is located just to the left
of the ENTER key. Don’t confuse this white (or gray) key with the dark blue subtraction
key! Note also that the calculator consistently views the lack of an indicated operation
between two quantities as an intended multiplication.
The parentheses keys are just above the 8 and 9 keys. These are used for all levels of
parentheses. Do not be confused by symbols such as { } and [ ], which are the shifted 2nd
versions of these and other nearby keys. Braces { } are used only to indicate lists, and brack¬
ets [ ] are used only for matrices. Once again, these special symbols cannot be used to
indicate higher levels of parentheses; just nest ordinary parentheses to show several levels
of quantification. Also note that the comma key is used only with matrices, lists, multiple-
argument functions, and certain commands in the calculator’s programming language. Never
use commas to separate digits within a number. The number three thousand should always
be typed 3000 (not 3,000). The shifted 2nd meaning of the comma key is EE (enter
exponent), which is used to enter data in scientific notation; for example, 1.3 followed by
2nd EE (-)8 would be the keystrokes needed to enter 1.3 X 10~8 in a formula. It would be
displayed on the screen as 1.3e-8.
SECTION C.l Introduction to the TI-83 Keyboard 227

The shifted 2nd versions of the numbers 1 through 9 provide keyboard access to lists
and sequences. The shifted ALPHA version of the zero key prints a blank space on the
display. The shifted 2nd version of the zero key is CATALOG, which provides alphabeti¬
cal access to every feature of the calculator. Just press the first letter of the desired feature
(without pressing ALPHA), then scroll from there using the down arrow key. Press ENTER
when the desired feature is marked by the small arrow. The shifted 2nd version of the dec¬
imal point is i, the imaginary unit (which is often called j in electronics applications). This
symbol can be used in computations involving imaginary and complex numbers even when
MODE Real has been selected.
The shifted 2nd version of the plus sign is MEM (the memory management menu),
which gives you a chance to erase programs, lists, and anything else stored in memory. Use
this menu sparingly (remember, your calculator has a fairly large memory, so you don’t
usually need to be in a hurry to dispose of things which might prove useful later). If you get
into MEM by accident, just press 2nd QUIT to get back to the home screen. 2nd QUIT
always takes you back to the home screen from any menu, editor, or graph, but it will not
terminate a running program on a TI-83 or TI-84 Plus. To interrupt a running program, just
press the ON button, then choose “Quit” in the menu you’ll see.
If you’re looking for keys that will compute cube roots, absolute values, complex
conjugates, permutations, combinations, or factorials, press the MATH key, and you’ll see four
submenus (selectable by using the right or left arrow key) which give you these options and many
more. Especially interesting is >Frac (convert to fraction), which will convert a decimal to its
simplified fractional form, provided that the denominator would be less than 10,000 (other¬
wise, it just writes the decimal form of the number). Other examples are also included below
to give you a better idea of just how many options are available in the MATH menu.
Mi: hum CPX pee: 2.7x3.SEFrac MATH liUli CPX PEB abs( -7>
BJUFrac 3x4 fflabsT^ 7
2': ►Dec 2x7-3x0EFrac Z: round( round <ji» 4)
3: s -5x56 3:iPartC 3.1416
4: *f( 2x71+3x541►Frac 4:fPart( nax ( n, 22x7)
cr ■ xr .0337143006 5:int< 3.142857143
6: fllin-; ■ 6: pi i n < ■
7 4-f Max'; 74piax>;
MATH HUM MS® FEE: con-j (5+6i) MATH HUM CPX lilflS 7+6+5+4+3+2* 1
ijlconj •; 5-6i 1:rand 5040
2: real ( real(18-70 2: nPr 7!
3: ina9( 18 3: nCr 5040
4:an9le( abs(3+40 yai 10 nCr 3
5: aba 5 5:randlntC 120
6 s ► Eect ■ 6:randNorpK R
7:►Po1an 7:randBin(
C.2 COMPUTATIONAL EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE t
Compute the following:

(a) 7 X 6 (b) 3 X 7 + 6 (3 - 5)
7*6 3*7+6(3-5)
42 Q
7(6) 3*7+6+(3-5)
42 9
(7)6 3(7)+6(3-5)
42 9
■ ■

EXAMPLE 2
Compute 8{3 + 5[2 - 7 (8 - 9)]}.
Note: The calculator uses only ordinary parentheses.
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following as a decimal and as a simplified fraction:

105 3 21 T7
(b) — H-
8 10 25
105X100 3/8+21/10-17/25
1.05 1.795
105/100►Frac 3/8+21/10-17/25►
21/20 Frac
■ 359/200
■
Note that a fraction is an indicated division operation and that the division key always
prints a diagonal fraction bar line on the screen. The convert to fraction feature is the first item
in the MATH menu and is accessed by pressing MATH then 1 (or MATH then ENTER) at
the end of a formula. Note also that simplified improper fractions are the intended result. Mixed
numbers are not supported. A decimal result would mean that the answer cannot be written as
a simplified fraction with a denominator less than 10,000.
EXAMPLE 4
Compute the following, expressing the answer as a simplified fraction:

25 5 - (-7)
(a) — (b) -
62 - 2-12
2^5/6*►Frac <5-( -?>)/< -2-12)

8/9 ► Frac
2's5/6A2>Frac -6/7
8/9 ■
1
Squares can be computed by pressing the x2 key; similarly, a third power can be indicated
by pressing MATH then 3. Most other exponents require the use of the A key (found between
CLEAR and the division key). In Part (b), notice the calculator’s need for additional parentheses
which enclose the numerator and denominator of the fraction. Also notice the difference between
the calculator’s negative sign (the key below 3) and its subtraction symbol (the key to the right
of 6).
SECTION C.2 Computational Examples 229

EXAMPLE 5
Compute the following complex numbers:

7 + 29 i
(a) (3 + 4/)( —2 - 5i) (b)
30 + 10*
(3+40 ( -2-50 (7+29i)a C30+10t)

14-231
(3+4i)*( -2-51.) .5+.Si
14-231 (7+29i (30+10i )
■ ► Frac
1/2+4/51
■
Note that the calculator key for the imaginary unit i is the shifted 2nd version of the
decimal point. This imaginary number is often called j in electronics applications.
EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate these expressions:

(a) x2 + 5x — 8 when x = 4 (b) x2 y3 + 4x — y when x
4+X 2+X:5+Y
4 5
X*+5X-8 X2Y3+4X-Y
28 503
4+X:X£+5X-8 2+X:5+Y:X£V5+4X-
28 V
1 503
■
The STO> key (just above ON) is used to print the arrow symbol on the screen. The
letter x can be typed on the screen by pressing the key next to ALPHA, labeled X,T,0,n, or by
pressing ALPHA, then X. Note that several steps can be performed on one line if the steps are
separated by a colon (the shifted ALPHA version of the decimal point key). In such cases, all
steps are performed in sequence, but only the result of the very last step is displayed on the
screen.
EXAMPLE 7
Given that f(x) — x4 — lx + 11, find /(3),/(5), and /(— 1).
Y= 2nd QUIT VARS right arrow 1 1

PlOtl Fl«)t2 Plots ffilife Y-VfiRS WARS HOKltift dijiniciis
-• Vi BX'M-7X+11 iBi.'.l i Pidoijj... jjjHFu net ion... Ib'Ti
\Y2 = 2i Zoom... 2! Pararietric... ZSY2
\V 3 = 3= GDB... 3: Polar... 3: Vs
Vh = 4: Picture... 4: On/Off... 4: Vh
\Ys = 5: Statistics... 5: V s
\Vfi = 6: Table... 6■ Vb
vV? = 7: String... 7 TV ?
Vii Vi (3) Vi (3) Vi (£3,5, -n>

71 71 £71 601 19>
1 Vi (5) ■
601
jT\.
I—*■
1
»—»■
•vD

Note that using a stored function requires entering the function in the Y= menu,
pressing 2nd QUIT to return to the home screen, then finding the name of that function in
the FUNCTION submenu under Y-VARS. Function evaluation requires the use of paren¬
theses; without parentheses around the argument, multiplication would be assumed. To type
the second and third uses of Yi, press 2nd ENTRY, then left arrow twice, modifying only
the argument from the previous formula. The last screen shows how a list of arguments can
be used to calculate a list of function values. Your list entries must be enclosed by braces
{ } and separated by commas (list entries output by the calculator are separated by spaces
instead of commas).
C.3 GRAPHING FEATURES
The thin blue buttons along the top row of the calculator do most of its graphical work. The
Y= key provides access to the calculator’s list of 10 functions (assuming that the calcula¬
tor is set in MODE Func). Pressing the Y= key will reveal functions Yi through Y7; the
other three functions, Ys, Y9, and Yo, can be seen by pressing the (blue) down arrow key nine
times (or just press and hold the down arrow key). These functions are part of the calcula¬
tor’s memory, but the information stored on this screen can be easily edited, overwritten, or
CLEARed. Functions are selected for graphing (turned “on”) by highlighting their equal
sign. This is done automatically when you type in a new function or modify an old one. In
other cases, to change the status of a function (from “off” to “on” or vice versa), you will
need to use the arrow keys to position the cursor over the equal sign (making it blink); then
press ENTER. Functions marked with an ordinary equal sign are stored in memory but will
not be graphed. To the left of each function name is a symbol indicating how it will be
graphed. The normal setting looks like a backslash, \, and simply indicates that the graph
will be drawn with a thin line. Other settings include a thicker line, shading above the graph,
shading below the graph, two animated settings (one marks the path of motion on the screen;
the other just shows the motion without marking its path), and finally an option that graphs
with a dotted line. To switch from one option to another, just press the left-arrow key until
the cursor is over the option marking (at the far left of that function’s name), then press
ENTER repeatedly until the desired option appears. One warning about the Y= menu is that
the names Plotl, Plot2, and Plot3 at the top of the function list refer only to the calculator’s
STATistical PLOTs. They have nothing to do with ordinary graphing and should not be high¬
lighted if you are just trying to graph some functions.
The WINDOW key allows you to manually specify the extents of the x- and y-values
that will be visible on the calculator’s graphing screen (see ZOOM for automatic ways of
doing this). The Xscl and Yscl options specify the meaning of a mark on the x- or y-axis.
For example Xscl=5 means that each mark shown on the .v-axis will mean an increment of
5 units (Xscl= 1 is a common setting for algebraic functions; Xscl=7r/2 is commonly used
when graphing trigonometric functions). The last option, Xres, allows you to control how
many points will actually be calculated when a graph is drawn. Xres=l means that an
accurate point will be calculated for each pixel on the jc-axis (somewhat slow, but very
accurate). Xres=2 will calculate only at every other pixel, and so on; Xres=8 only calcu¬
lates a point for every eighth pixel (this is the fastest setting, but also the least accurate). In
the examples that follow, all graphs are shown with Xres=l.
Pressing 2nd FORMAT (the shifted version of the ZOOM key), reveals additional
graphing options that allow you to change the way coordinates are displayed (polar instead
of rectangular), turn coordinates off completely (inhibiting some TRACE features), provide
a coordinate grid, hide the axes, label the axes, or inhibit printing expressions which describe
the graphs. If you find your graphs looking cluttered or notice that axes, coordinates, or
SECTION C.3 Graphing Features 231

t
algebraic expressions are missing, the “standard” settings are all in the left-hand column. Like
other menus where the options aren’t numbered (MODE is similar), use your arrow keys
to make a new option blink, then select it by pressing ENTER.
ZOOM accesses a menu full of automatic ways to set the graphical viewing window.
ZStandard (option 6) is usually a good place to start,-bqt you should consider option 7,
ZTrig, if you’re graphing trigonometric functions. ZStandard shows the origin in the
exact center of the screen with x- and y-values both ranging from —10 to 10. From here
you can Zoom In or Zoom Out (options 2 and 3), or draw a box around a portion of the
graph that you would like magnified to fit the entire screen (option 1, ZBox). There is also
an option to “square up” your graph so that units along the *-axis are equal in length to units
along the y-axis (option 5, ZSquare); the smaller unit length from the axes of the previ¬
ous graph will now be used on both axes. This option makes the graph look more like it
would on regular graph paper; for example, circles really look like circles. ZDecimal and
ZInteger (options 4 and 8) prepare the screen for TRACEs, which will utilize ^-coordi¬
nates at exact tenths or integer values, respectively. Option 9, ZoomStat, makes sure that
all of the data in a statistical plot will fit in the viewing window. Option 0, ZoomFit, cal¬
culates a viewing window using the present x-axis, but adjusts the y-axis so that the function
fits neatly within the viewing window. All of these options work by making automatic
changes to the WINDOW settings. Want to go back to the view you had before? The
MEMORY submenu (press the right arrow key after pressing ZOOM) contains options
to go back to your immediately previous view (option 1, ZPrevious) or to a window set¬
ting you saved a while ago (option 3, ZoomRcl). ZoomSto (option 2) is the way to save
the current window setting for later (note that it can only retain one window setting, so the
new information replaces whatever setting you had saved before). Option 4, SetFactors...,
gives you the chance to control how dramatically your calculator will Zoom In or Zoom
Out. These zoom factors are set by Texas Instruments for a magnification ratio of 4 on each
axis. Many people prefer smaller factors, such as 2 on each axis. It is possible to set either
factor to any number greater than or equal to 1; they don’t need to be whole numbers, and
they don’t necessarily have to be equal.
The TRACE key takes you from any screen or menu to the current graph, display¬
ing the x- and y-coordinates of specific points as you trace along a curve using the left and
right arrow keys. Note that in TRACE, the up and down arrow keys are used to jump
from one curve to another when several curves have been drawn on the same screen. The
expression (formula) for the function you are presently tracing is shown in the upper left-
hand corner of the screen (or its subscript number is shown in the upper right-hand cor¬
ner if you have selected the ExprOff option from the FORMAT menu). If you press
ENTER while in TRACE, the graph will be redrawn with the currently selected point in
the exact center of the screen, even if that point is presently outside the current viewing
window. This feature is a convenient way to pan up or down to see higher or lower por¬
tions of the graph. It is also the easiest way to locate a “lost” graph that doesn’t appear
anywhere in the current viewing window (just press TRACE, then ENTER). To pan left
or right, just press and hold the left or right arrow key until new portions of the graph come
into view. These useful features change the way the graph is centered on the screen with¬
out changing its magnification. Note also that these recentering features work only in
TRACE. To exit TRACE without disturbing your view of the graph, just press GRAPH
(or CLEAR). To return to the home screen, abandoning both TRACE and the graph, just
press 2nd QUIT (or press CLEAR twice). Note that using any ZOOM feature also
causes an exit from TRACE (to resume tracing on the new zoomed version, you must press
TRACE again).
The GRAPH key takes the calculator from any screen or menu to the current graph.
Note that the calculator is smart enough that it will redraw the curves only if changes have
been made to the function list (Y=). As previously mentioned, the GRAPH key can be used

to turn off TRACE. You can also hide an unwanted free cursor by pressing GRAPH. When
you’re finished with viewing a graph, press CLEAR or 2nd QUIT to return to the home
screen.
C.4 EXAMPLES OF GRAPHING
This appendix is designed to explain graphing calculator features rather than mathematics
itself. Accordingly, the example format in this and subsequent sections is different from
that found in the body of the text.
EXAMPLE 1
To graph y = x2 — 5x, first press Y=, then press CLEAR to erase the current formula in Yi
(or use the down arrow key to find a blank function), then press the X,T,0,n key (ALPHA then
X will also work), followed by the x2 button; now press the (blue) minus sign key, then 5, fol¬
lowed immediately by the X,T,d,n key (a multiplication sign is not needed). Your screen should
look very much like the first one shown below. There is no need to press ENTER when you
have finished typing a function’s formula. To set up a good graphing window, press ZOOM and
then 6 to choose ZStandard. This causes the graph to be immediately drawn on axes that range
from —10 to 10. Notice that you did not have to press the GRAPH key; the ZOOM menu
items and the TRACE key also activate the graphing screen. Note: If you have one or more
unwanted graphs drawn on top of this one, go back to your function list (Y=) and turn “off”
the unwanted functions by placing the cursor over their highlighted equal signs and pressing
ENTER. After you have turned off the unwanted functions, just press GRAPH and you will
finally see the last screen below.
Piotl Flotz Plots MEMORY

\YiBX2-5X Tszt ox
\Vz = 2’Zoom In
\Y3 = 3: Zoopi Out
\Vh = 4: ZDecinial
xYe = 5: ZS-=iuare
\Yfi = SEZStandard
vY 7 — 7TZTrig
EXAMPLE 2
To modify this function to bey = —x2 + 4, press Y=, then insert the negative sign by press¬
ing 2nd INS followed by the white (or gray) sign change key (-); now press the right arrow
key twice to skip over the parts of the formula that are to be preserved. Note that the arrow
keys also take you out of insert mode. Now type the plus sign and the 4 (replacing the -5),
and finally press DEL to delete the extra X at the end of the formula. Press TRACE to plot
this function. TRACE gives the added bonus of a highlighted point, with its coordinates
shown at the bottom of the screen. Press the right or left arrow keys to highlight other points
on the curve.
Floti P10C2 Plot3 Y1=-Hi+H Y1=-K2+H

\YlB-X*+4
\Y2 =
-Yj = ./
\ .1.
/'
.
\Yh = \
\Ys = / /
-Y 6 = 1'
•-Y? = K=') } Y=H \ X=l.4092617 IV=1.7010017
Perhaps x = 1.4893617, y = 1.7818017 was not a coordinate pair you had expected to
investigate. Two special ZOOM features (options 4 and 8) can be used to make the TRACE
option more predictable. Press ZOOM, then 4 to select ZDecimal; now press TRACE.
SECTION C.4 Examples of Graphing 233

ZOOM 4 TRACE right arrows
V1=-K1 + H f
// IV.\ /. IV.
rr?BcxEmRV
2:Zoon In
3:Zoon Out . ■
2J3Z Decimal
o:ZSquare
6:ZStandard
74ZTris :-:=o j1 Y=H \
Try pressing the right or left arrow key about 15 times while watching the values at the
bottom of the screen. You'll quickly notice that the x-values are now all exact tenths (ZOOM
option 8, ZInteger, produces TRACEable x-values which are all integers). Another nice thing
about ZDecimal is that the graph is “square” in the sense that units on the x- and y-axes have
the same length. The main disadvantage to ZDecimal is that the graphing window is “small,”
displaying only points with x-values between —4.7 and 4.7 and y-values between —3.1 and
3.1. This disadvantage is apparent on the current graph, which runs off the top of the screen.
To demonstrate how this problem can be overcome, TRACE the graph to the point x = 1.5,
y = 1.75, and then press ENTER. This special feature of TRACE causes the graph to be
redrawn with the highlighted point in the exact center of the screen (with no change in the mag¬
nification of the graph). This is the way to pan up or down from the current viewing window
(to pan left or right, see Example 6).
ENTER
V1= -K2+H / Y1=-K2+H
i \
: V
1
.\ . . . .
K=i.E V=i.7E \ ::=i. s Y=i.?E
EXAMPLE 3
Another way to deal with the preceding problem is to Zoom Out, but first you’ll want to set
your ZOOM FACTORS to 2 (the factory setting is 4). Press ZOOM, then the right arrow key
(MEMORY), then press 4 (SetFactors). To change the factors to 2, just type 2, press ENTER,
and then type another 2.
ZOOM right arrow 2 ENTER 2
MEMORY ZOOM ZOOM FACTORS

Zbox 1:ZPreuious XFact-2
2:Zoon In 2:ZoonSto YFact=2
3:Zoon Out 3= ZocnRcl
4: ZDecimal SflSetFactor*
3: ZSûare
6:ZStandard
74-ZTrig
Now to reproduce our problem, press ZOOM, then 4 (ZDecimal). However, this time
correct it by pressing ZOOM followed by 3 (Zoom Out). At first glance, it looks like nothing
has happened, except that X=0 Y=0 is displayed at the bottom of the screen. The calculator is
waiting for you to use your arrow keys to locate the point in the current window where you would
like the exact center of the new graph to be (then press ENTER). Of course, if you like the way
the graph is already centered, you will still have to press ENTER (you’ll just skip pressing the
arrow keys).

ZOOM 4 ZOOM 3
IT2goMEMORV
\
2:Zoom
3:Zoom Out
yaZDeciMal
D! ZS=iuare
In
. . 1/
. ,\l
6:Zbtandard
74-ZTrig K=0 ! Y=0 >.
ENTER
Y1=-K1*S
/
J
/
\ 1 f
.,1 .
„ / IV=0 l
\ K=i.£ /
:
IV=2.£fi
\
This extra keystroke has proven to be a bit confusing to beginners who think that Zoom
In, Zoom Out, and ZInteger should work like the six zoom options (4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 0) that
do their job without pressing ENTER. Perhaps more interesting is the fact that you can con¬
tinue to Zoom Out just by pressing ENTER again and again (of course, you can also press some
arrow keys to recenter between zooms if you wish). Before you experiment with that feature,
press TRACE and notice, by pressing the left or right arrow key a few times, that the ^-values
are now changing by .2 (instead of .1) and the graph is still “square.” Other popular square
window settings can be obtained by repeating this example with both zoom factors set to 2.5
or 5. These give “larger” windows where thex-values change by .25 or .5, respectively, during
a TRACE.
EXAMPLE 4
The only other zoom option that needs extra keystrokes is ZBox (option 1). This is a very
powerful option that lets you draw a box around a part of the graph which you would like
enlarged to fit the entire screen. After selecting this option, use the arrow keys to locate the
position of one corner of the box and press ENTER. Now use the arrow keys to locate the
opposite corner, and press ENTER again.
ZOOM 1 left and up arrows ENTER right and down arrows
MEMORY
ZBox
1-Zoom In
3:Zoom Out
j \.
4:ZDecinal
5:ZSûare
6:ZStandard \
74-ZTr i9 K= -1.1 i1 IY=4.2
ENTER GRAPH
\
/ \ TL
\
v
: \ . ■ \ ■
\
K=i Y = .S V \
Note that the resulting graph has a free cursor identifying the point in the exact cen¬
ter of the screen. What may not be apparent is that your calculator is ready for you to draw
another box if you wish to zoom in closer. To get rid of this free cursor, just press GRAPH
(or CLEAR).

EXAMPLE 5
Sometimes, you will know the precise interval on the v-axis (the domain) that you want for a
graph, but a corresponding interval for the y-values (the range) may not be obvious. ZoomFit
(the 10th ZOOM option) is designed for this circumstance. For example, to graph
f(x) = 2x3 — 8x + 9 on the interval [—3, 2], manually set the WINDOW so that Xmin=-3
and Xmax=2 (the other values shown in the second frame are just leftovers from ZStandard).
Now press ZOOM, then 0 to select ZoomFit. There is a noticeable pause while appropriate val¬
ues of Ymin and Ymax are calculated, then the graph is drawn. To view the values calculated
for the range, just press WINDOW. The minimum value of this function on the interval [ —3, 2]
is —21 and its maximum value is approximately 15.16.
Y= WINDOW GRAPH ZOOM 0

Plotl Pl0t2 P10t3 WINDOW f 1 _ MENORY
vYiB2X*-3X+9
\Yz =
Xrtin= _3
Xnax=2 \J 4tZDecinial
5:ZSûare
\Y3 = Xscl=l /.. 6:ZStandard
vYh = Ynin= "10 7:ZTri9
Ymax=10 3:ZInteger
\Ys =
vYfi =
vY? =
Yscl=l
Xres=l / 9:ZoonStat
IBZocfiFit
WINDOW GRAPH
WINDOW WINDOW
Xpiin= _3
Xnax=2
Xscl=l
Ypiin=-21
Xro i n= _3
Xnax=2
Xsc1=1
Yn i n= "21
/n
Ynax=15.156547... Yniax=15. 156547...
i
Yscl=l
Xres=l
Yscl=5i
Xres=l /
Note that ZoomFit changes only Ymin and Ymax. You may also wish to change Yscl.
EXAMPLE 6
Panning to the right is done by tracing a curve off the right-hand edge of the screen:
Y= ZOOM 6 TRACE
Plotl Plots Plots
vViB<2X*+3>x<X*-
X-6>
\Y2 =
\Vs =
\Yh =
\Ve =
\Vh =
Right arrowing beyond the edge of the screen to pan to the right...
Y1=(2Xi+S),-’CK2-K-6:i
V .
X=E.S19iHB9 Y=S.910H27B
Panning to the left is done similarly. To pan up or down, see the last part of Example 2.

EXAMPLE 7
Creating, storing, and retrieving viewing windows:
Y= WINDOW GRAPH ZOOM right arrow 2
■ ■ ■'
Plotl P1-H2 Plots WINDOW ZOOM iMUjMail
N Y1BX 5-9X£ +15X+6 Xpiir= “2 1
1:^.Preuious
Xpi ax=8 feflZoonSto
\Vs = Xscl=l T\...... oTZoonRc1
vYs = Ypi i n= _25
V
: 4: SetFactors...
vY H = Ypiax=25
\Ye = Yscl=5
vVfi = Xres=l l
(Let’s change it.) ZOOM 3 ENTER
K
/I W
, , J / sMffg MEMORY
2:Zoon In
ijflZocni Out
4: ZDecipial
5:ZSûare
K /
V
~——.r--.
6:ZStandard
7-iZT ri9
11
TRACE right arrows... ENTER ZOOM right arrow 3
ZOOM IBWjWai
1:iPreuious
2: Zoop'iSto
ZoonRc1
SetFactor;
(Original is back.) ZOOM right arrow 1 (previous view)
ZOOM IBWjMZ-W.
k.../. HBZPreuious
2:ZoonSto
3:ZoonRc1
/
11 V 4: Set Factors.
1
EXAMPLE 8
Graphing and tracing more than one function:
Y= ZOOM 6 (both graphed) TRACE right arrows...
Plotl Plots Plot? tfiTilB MEMORY
\V
1
0
X
vYiBX£-5
\YsB2X-3 2: Zoo pi I n
\Y3 =
vYh =
vYe =
\Yfi =
vY? =
(tracing Yi)
3:Zoon Out
4:ZDecinal
5:ZSnuare
SflZStandard
74ZTrig
down arrow (jump to Y2)

>1
right arrows...(tracing Y2)
/
V1=81-E ^ V£=£K-3
V1=K2-5 \
.A. Lk,
\V
.V.
/
X=.BS1063B3
V4 V=-H.£?ES9
w
>
X=.B£i0fi2B3
V
Y="i.29?fl?£ X=3.fii702iS V=B.0B2BH23

Note that the down arrow increases the subscript of the function being traced and the up
arrow decreases the subscript. The result has nothing to do with which graph is above or below
the other.
EXAMPLE 9
Finding a point of intersection:
Y= ZOOM 6 (the graphs) 2nd CALC 5
MEMORY SilfiN
Zoo pi In
Zoom Out
4 ZDecimal
AJ . -4
1:ya1ue
2s zero
3:minimum
4:maximum
ENTER
Square
standard
Trig
ENTER
r\ f
SBintersect
k : ,Jy/dx
7: J'f C x > dx
right arrows... ENTER
YS=-Hl+::X+2
\ t
X=o V
\}U .\.J
St-iondcurv*' ijUt!!"1
V\
t l\ H=S.EE319iE:
(a point of intersection)
(3- T (57> V4-»X

\
■.
-1.1 37458609
<1- 3T <57 YiixS+V
U "2.7 06187913
\ 1' J' \
1
Int«rs4ctioh
r \
THE TRUE X AND V
VALUES FOR THE
X=S.fi::?HFBh Y=2.95filB79 OTHER POINT.
Note that the Guess was very important in determining which point of intersection would
be calculated. Now find the other intersection point using intersect.
EXAMPLE 10
Calculating y-values and locating the resulting points on your graphs:

If you have just completed Example 9, please skip to the fourth frame.
Y= ZOOM 6 (the graphs) 2nd CALC 1

Plotl Plots Plots sftMj MEMORY
■-.Vi ax z-4 1•ZBox uaiue
\Vs B 'X£ +3X+2 2:Zoom In 2:zero
\V3 = 3:Zoom Out 3:minimum
\V H = 4:ZDecimal 4:maximum
\Vs = 5:ZSûare 5:intersect
-.7 fi = ZStandard 6:dy/dx
\V 7 = •ZT r i 9 7:Tf(x)dx
ENTER down arrow key to jump to Y2.

'i
......
Y1=Ki-S ^
\
... . \l
.
VF ~7Y
J \
1
\ }
X=3.51' K=S.E ) b

Thex-value entered must be in the current viewing WINDOW (but the resulting y-value
need not be). This x-value can be investigated for any of the functions that are presently graphed
by pressing the up or down arrow keys. Note again that the subscript of a function increases as
you jump from one curve to another by pressing the down arrow key. The up arrow key decreases
this number, and either key can be used to wrap around and start over.
EXAMPLE 11
Another way to calculate a specific value of a function is to press TRACE, then type the jr-value
and press ENTER. The main difference between the CALCULATE value feature (see
Example 10) and this special TRACE feature is that TRACE does not preserve the entered
.r-value if you jump from one curve to another (you would usually need to retype that x-value).
The following frames assume ZStandard (ZOOM 6) WINDOW settings.
Y= TRACE 3.5 ENTER
EXAMPLE 12
Using TRACE to quickly locate a “lost” graph that doesn’t appear anywhere in the current
viewing window:
{= ZOOM 6 (no visible graph) TRACE ENTER

F'lOtl FTO(2 Mot:: ■sums MEMORV
vViBX2+l1 1:ZBox
SV£ = 2sZoom In
\V 3 = 3 s Zoom Out
vV*i = 4:ZDecinal
\Vs = 5: ZS=iuare
\Vg = SSZStandard
VV ?= 7TZTrig
C.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND POLAR

COORDINATES
For calculating and graphing trigonometric functions on the TI-83 and TI-84 Plus, the stan¬
dard default setting is Radian mode. To set the calculator to Degree mode, press the MODE
key, arrow down and over to Degree, then press ENTER.
MODE down arrow twice, right arrow ENTER CLEAR (or 2nd QUIT) to exit
Eng Sci Eng

0123456739 0123456739
Degree
ar Pol Se=i 3Se°i
Dot Dot
] Sinul J Sinul
:a re'm
Horiz G-T Horiz G-T
SECTION C.5 Trigonometric Functions and Polar Coordinates 239

EXAMPLE 1
Evaluating trigonometric functions using degrees, minutes, and seconds:
Sci Ens sin(30) orna U Sci Eng sin(30°>

0123456789 .5 loa J 0123456789 . 5
BjE sin(29°60 ^reli1 Degree sinC29°60 °} Cj
to
ol Se-H IB Far Pol Se-=i
■
Dot sin(29':'59 60"} onnecte
SfliTJAgB Dot sinC29°59 60"°}
J Sircul . 5 e^Ltentia H Sinul . 5
a+bv reA9i, ■ eal a+bt re''"9i 1
Horiz G-T ull Horiz G-T
The symbols for degrees and minutes are the first two options in the menu found by
pressing 2nd ANGLE (just to the right of the MATH key). The symbol for seconds is the shifted
ALPHA version of the addition key. Note that in Radian MODE, degrees can still be used,
but an additional degree symbol must follow the angle’s measure.
EXAMPLE 2
To graph y = sinx, first press Y=, then press CLEAR to erase the current formula in Yi (or
use the arrow keys to find a blank function), then press the SIN key followed by the X,T,0,n
key (ALPHA X will also work), and finally press the right parenthesis key. Your screen should
look very much like the first one in the following figure. To set up a good graphing window,
press ZOOM and then press 7 to choose ZTrig. This causes the graph to be immediately drawn
on axes that range from roughly —2tt to 2tt (actually from —352.5° to 352.5°) in thex-direction
and from —4 to 4 in the y-direction. Each mark along the x-axis represents a multiple of 7t/2
radians (90°). Notice also that you did not need to press the GRAPH key; the ZOOM menu
items and the TRACE key also activate the graphing screen. Note: If you have one or more un¬
wanted graphs drawn on top of this one, go back to your function list (Y=) and turn “off’ the
unwanted functions by placing the cursor over their highlighted equal signs and pressing
ENTER. After you have turned off the unwanted functions, press GRAPH and you will finally
see the last frame below.
Y= ZOOM 7
PlGti Fl4t2 Plots

Vi Bsin0-0
V:< = /X .
VH=
Ys =
EXAMPLE 3
To modify this function to be y = —3 sin 2x, press Y=, then insert the -3 by pressing 2nd INS
followed by the white (or gray) sign change key (-) then the number 3. Now press the right
arrow key to skip over the part of the formula that’s OK. Note that the arrow keys take you
out of insert mode. Now type 2nd INS then the 2. Press ZOOM 7, then TRACE to plot this
function. TRACE gives the added bonus of a highlighted point with its coordinates shown
at the bottom of the screen. Press the right or left arrow keys to highlight other points on the
curve. The highlighted coordinate pair in the 4th frame that follows is x = 5rr/12, y = —1.5.
ZTrig allows TRACE to display all points whose x-values are multiples of 7r/24 (of course,
this includes such special values as 0, 7t/6, 7t/4, 7t/3, tt/2, etc.), written in their decimal
forms. In degrees, follow the same directions. The only difference is that the traced x-values
are now multiples of 7.5° (which is the equivalent of 7t/24 radians). As this example illustrates,
ZTrig has been carefully designed to produce the same graph for both radians and degrees.
Other automatic ways of establishing a viewing window, such as ZStandard and ZDecimal,

ignore the MODE setting and are not recommended for graphing trigonometric functions in
degrees.
MODE Y= ZOOM 7 TRACE right arrows... [(5^712,-1.5)]
Zil«]inu!=Tl Sc i Eng
Zr-
i\l
F' TOtl FlOtE Not]:
II
A A A l \l \\ /'
vi= -3sinczx;i
aBEU 6123456739 '-Vi 5 -3sin<!2X) A A A A
Degree \V2 =
\nr ■v/V \f\t

par Pol Se=i sV3= '
MlMHO Dot
S i MU 1 \Yb =
a+bi. re""'6i sVfi = 'J
CTll Horiz G-T O -5 - Y=0 :<=i.JO0P3fip V=-i.E
MODE Y= ZOOM 7 TRACE right arrows... [(75°, -1.5)]
Sci Eng
0123456739
JJTjS ol be=t
onnecAe E Dot
eluentia U Sinu1
eal a+bt re"'-
ull Horiz G-T
EXAMPLE 4
Several related trig functions can be drawn on the same screen, either by typing them separately
in the function list Y= or by using a list of coefficients as shown in the following figures. A
list consists of numbers separated by commas which are enclosed by braces { }. The braces are
the shifted 2nd versions of the parentheses keys. The first two frames indicate how to effi¬
ciently graph y — sin(x), y — 2 sin(x), and y = 4 sin(x) on the same screen. The last two frames
graph y = 2 sin(x) and y = 2 sin(3x).
Y= GRAPH Y=
Ploti Plots Plots
\Vi BO ? 2? 4>sin<X
)
h\, Plotl Plots
vYiB2sin<Cl > 3>X)
Plots
fv
sYs = \Ys =
\7s = vVs =
\V H = ■-.Vh =
\Ys = \Ye =
\V 6 = vYs =
EXAMPLE 5
Multiple lists are allowed, but are not highly recommended. For example, to graph the two
functions y = 2 sin 3x and y = 4 sin x, you could do what’s shown in the first frame or type
them separately as shown in the third frame.
Y= GRAPH Y= GRAPH
EXAMPLE 6
When graphing trig functions that have vertical asymptotes, remember that your calculator just
evaluates individual points and arbitrarily assumes that it should connect those points if it is set
SECTION C.5 Trigonometric Functions and Polar Coordinates 241

in Connected MODE. The effect is shown in the following graph of y — sec x. Some people
like these “vertical asymptotes” being shown on the graph (they are really just nearly vertical
lines which are trying to connect two points on the curve). The last frame shows the same graph
in Dot MODE.
Y= ZOOM MODE GRAPH
Ploti
Vs =
73 =
Vh =
Plots
sViBl/cosO'O
Plots
y
J
yj i. Sci En9
'0123456789
Degree
■ar Pol Se=i
connected HEII
j J
/ \ /—\
nVs =
\V b =
v?= h h rnytni simui
a+bi, re '-Pf
Horiz 0-T
EXAMPLE 7
To graph in polar coordinates, the calculator’s MODE must be changed from Func to Pol. You
may also wish to change your 2nd FORMAT options from RectGC to PolarGC, which will
show values of r and 6 (instead of x and y) when you TRACE your polar graphs. Note that the
calculator treats these as two completely separate issues (it is possible to graph in one coordi¬
nate system and trace in the other). Pressing Y= will reveal the calculator’s six polar functions
n, n,..., r6. The X,T,0,n key now prints 6 on the screen.
MODE 2nd FORMAT Y= ZOOM 4 WINDOW
RectGC laSldHcIi Ploti Plots Plots WINDOW

■ Coor duff '.riB2+2cos<9> 6ryiin=0
Dn \r s = 6nax=6. 2331853...
ff \r 3 = 6step=. 1308996...
=■ 1 On \r h = Xm i n = -4. 7
Ff \r e = Xpiax=4. 7
\r 6 = Xscl=l
■Whin=-3.1
GRAPH TRACE right arrows
Ki=s+scoice:i f1=S*Sco!:(^)
....( Tt
(J
....(
F;=H
(
$=■> R=3
, J
e=1.0H7197fi
Note in the preceding frames that the standard radian values of drnin, 0max. and dstep
are 0, 2tt, and 7t/24, respectively. A more accurate, smoother graph can be obtained by using
0step=7r/48 or tt/96. Also note that the right arrow key is used to TRACE in the standard,
counterclockwise direction.
EXAMPLE 8
Graphing polar equations in Degree MODE:
Y= ZOOM 4 MODE WINDOW GRAPH

Ploti Plots Plots Sci En9 WINDOW
\riB2+2cos(9) 0123456789 8roin=0
\r s = iaaian _ 8max=360
sr 3 = Func Par IJ ^ 6step=7.5
Nrn =
Nr s =
Nr e = a+bt
j Siriul
Horiz G-T
Xn i r,= -4.7
Xroax=4.7
Xscl=l
4-Vnin= -3.1
i
WINDOW (change 0step) GRAPH 2nd FORMAT TRACE right arrows
WINDOW PolarGC Kl = 2+i:c«w
£p'iin=Q CoordOff
6ma>::=360 GridOn
0siep=2i
Xnin=~4.7
flxesOff
LabelOn
... A " ■ ■ "'l
Xnax=4.7
Xscl=l
xprOff
a=tjri
( L /
)
4Ynin= '3. 1 x=i.£ V=2.F9i<:>7fi2
The standard degree values of flmin, 0max, and dstep are 0, 360, and 7.5, respectively. Smoother
(but slower) graphs can be obtained by using smaller values of Sstep. The last two frames show
a polar graph traced in RectGC FORMAT.
C.6 EQUATION-SOLVING AND TABLE EEATURES
EXAMPLE 1
Solving an equation on the home screen:

(a) Rewrite the equation on paper in the form f(x) = 0; for example, rewrite
x3 + 15x = 9x2 — 6
as
x3 — 9x2 + 15x + 6 = 0
(b) From the home screen, press 2nd CATALOG, then press the letter T (the 4 key), next
press the up arrow repeatedly until solve( comes into view; then press ENTER. You should
now see solve( on the home screen.
(c) Finish the statement so that it looks like one of the following: solve(X3 - 9X2 + 15X + 6,
X, 3) or solve (Yi, X, 3), presuming you’ve entered the function in Yi (to type the symbol
Yi in a formula, press VARS then the right arrow key, then 1, then 1 again).
Y= WINDOW GRAPH 2nd CATALOG T up arrows

WINDOW □
/
CflTfiLOG
..
ptoti not* Pi*t2
vViBX*-9X*+15X+6 Xrriin= '2 ► £o1Me<
Xnax=8 Sorifi (.
•sV2 = Xscl=l
7fvr
i SortDC
•A1 2 = Ymin=-25 stdDeM<
\Vh = VMax=25 Stop
\V 5 = Yscl=5 StoreGDB
■ -v b = Xres=l StorePic
ENTER (home screen) VARS right arrow 1 1 etc.
(d) Press ENTER and the calculator will try to find a zero of this function near 3 (answer;
2.748677137).
(e) Press 2nd ENTRY to bring back your formula, then arrow left and change the 3 to a 7.
(f) Press ENTER and it will now find the zero near 7 (answer: 6.58291867).
(g) See if you can use the solve feature to find the other zero (answer: —.3315958073).
Notice that the solve feature finds solutions of an equation one at a time, with each
new solution requiring its own estimate. Graphing the function and noticing where it crosses
the x-axis is usually the easiest way to discover good estimates. If you prefer the TABLE fea¬
ture (see Example 3), look for sign changes in the list of y-values; the corresponding x-values
should be good estimates. Random guesses, although not recommended, can be effective when
the equation has very few solutions.
SECTION C.6 Equation-Solving and Table Features 243

EXAMPLE 2
Solving an equation on the graphics screen:

(a) As in Example 1 (a), be sure to rewrite the equation as a function set equal to zero.
(b) Enter this function in your (Y=) list of functions and make sure that it is the only one
selected for graphing. - .
(c) Press 2nd CALC (the shifted TRACE key), and choose option 2, zero.
(d) The prompt “Left Bound?” is asking you to trace the curve using the arrow keys until you
are just to the left of the desired zero (then press ENTER). Again, “Left Bound" just refers
to an x-value that’s too small to be the solution; do not consider whether the curve is above
the axis or below the axis at that point. Similarly, the prompt “Right Bound?” is asking you
to trace the curve until you are just to the right of the desired zero (then press ENTER).
You’ll notice in each case that a bracketing arrow is displayed near the top of the screen to
graphically document the interval which will be searched for a solution.
(e) The prompt “Guess?” is asking you to trace the curve to a point as close as possible to
where it crosses the axis (then press ENTER). This Guess is just an approximate solution
like the solve feature uses (see Example 1).
(f) The solution (the “Zero”) is displayed at the bottom of the screen (using 7 or 8 significant
digits rather than the 10 digits you get on the home screen). An added bonus is that the
y-value is also included (it should be exactly zero or extremely close to zero like “1e-12,”
which means 10 l2). Two of the solutions are found below. Try the third one on your own.
The WINDOW from the previous example is assumed.
Y= 2nd CALC lots of left arrows... ENTER
Ploti F-totE Pl0(3 t:na

\ViBX*-9X*+15X+6 I: ua luf0
fflzero
\7 £ = •j.: h ini mum
W3 = 4: r-i axi mum
5:intersect
6:dy/dx
7: JT kx)'dx
right arrows... left arrows... ENTER
Y1=K5 -ElKi+lEK+b jl Y1=KJ -9:;i+i5::+6 I Y1=KJ-9X2+15K+fi

► ► ► H
. .... , . , r\ j
l C\.
i \ j
Flight found?
:<=-.s 170213
\J '
Y=-fi.9ififififi
J
i
'
fti-Jht found?
K=.44 fiBOBfi V=i(i.99HrB?
'JIK55:'
K=.446B':'B9i
---■
Y=i0.99H9B?
(a solution) 2nd CALC lots of right
ffiMlllitia Y1=KJ -9::i+i9K+6 l
■ ■
.1
4k\ t
1:ualue
gBzero
ciMini mum
4:Maximum
5:intersect
■ ■ 4
/I
.....
C\.
\ J
Zero 6:dy/dx LiFtf ound?
3319996 y=o ?:Tf(x)dx 9ZHZZ3 Y=.70fiSI3393
right arrows... ENTER (a solution)
Y1=HJ -9X*+15K+6 1
. . iK . j . . >
k
. .V, .
/
71 X
Flight Pound?
t!=?.£ l£7bb
J
Y=-9.94396
}
ZtfO
1
\J
4B6771 Y=iE'l£
Note that a Right Bound can also be used as the Guess (see the last three frames).

EXAMPLE 3
Basic TABLE features:
Y= 2nd TBLSET 2nd TABLE up arrow twice
Plotl Ploti: Plots TABLE SETUP X Vi V3 X Vi V3

\YiB2AX TblStart=2 FHHBi H i ranm 1 ERROR
oTbl=l 3 B 1.505 i £ 0
WsBln<XVln<2> Indpnt: 4 16 £ z H 1
i2i£ flsk
5 32 £.3219 3 0 1.5B5
dVnBXS Depend: Me flsk b 64 £.505 4 lb cl
'■Ve = 2 12B £.0024 5 32 £.3219
'Ve = 9 £56 3 b 64 £.505
.V? = X=2 X=0
right arrows, down arrows up arrows down arrows right arrow
X Vi V3 X Vi use X Vi V3 X V3 V4
1) i ERROR 0 l ERROR 4 16 £ 4 £ 16
1 £ (' i £ 0 5 32 2.3219 5 2.3219 £5
£ 4 L 4 1 6 64 £.505 b £.505 36
3 0
lb
bi 0 1.505 2 120 2.0024 I7 2.0024 49
4 cl 4 16 £ B £56 3 0 3 64
5 32 £.3219 r 32 £.3219 9 512 9 3.1699
b 64 2.5B5 6 64 £.505 10 1024 10 3.3219
V3=1.58496250072 Y3BlntX>zlnC2> V 3=3.'32192809489 V 4 = 1 00
Note that functions to be investigated using a TABLE need to be entered and turned on
in the same sense as those you want to graph. To get to the TABLE SETUP screen, press 2nd
TBLSET (the shifted version of the WINDOW key). TblStart is just a beginning x-value for
the table; you can scroll up or down using the arrow keys. ATbl is the incremental change in
x. You can use ATbl=l (as in the preceding example) to calculate the function at consecutive
integers; in calculus, you could use 0.001 to investigate what is happening to a function as it
approaches a limit; or you could use a larger number like 10 or 100 to study the function’s
numerical behavior as x goes to
EXAMPLE 4
Split-screen graphing with a table (MODE G-T):
MODE Y= 2nd TBLSET ZOOM 4
jrsraEEii Sc i En9 Plotl Flot£ Flot:3 TABLE SETUP \ / X Vi

Hre! 23456789 vViBX£ TblSt.ant=0 \ . i r.i
\V2Bcos(2X) 2iTbl = . 5 y X .5
1
.25
1
li! » PdT Pol Se =1 \V3 = Indpnt.: [SHIE flsk rr 1.5 £.£5
ip i Dot \V 4 = Depend: ISmuk flsk £ 4
i 1 s 1 nu 1 vVe = £.5
3
6.£5
3
\V 6 =
Full Hor iz Ml \V? = K=0
2nd TABLE (arrows) TRACE right arrows... down arrow
\
■i.
X
I'l
V2 V1=X1
\ , /
X Vi Y1=Xi
y
i .6
X Vi
.36
Y£=C0S(2X;i/
r
VJ
nw
V2
B&FM
v/ X
1.3 -.B53
vy XV
ffem ,i .01 .2 .49
y .5 . y
..
.
w , \J 1
1.5
iL
-.416
-.99
-.654
\
Vw>
/ • >{
.4
.04
.09
.16
.. n .0
.9
.64
.01
, 1.4
1.5
1.6
-.942
- qq
- qqa
£.5 .2B32
.9602
5-5=0
.5
.6
.25
.36
n—
km n — J.. u
1.3
19
-.962
-.093
Y2=. 54030231 v=o V=1.4H Y=*737-:937
In MODE G-T, the graph and a corresponding table share the screen, but only one of
them is “active” at any given moment. The ZOOM commands and the GRAPH key give con¬
trol to the graphical side of the screen. This just means that the arrow keys refer to the graph
rather than the table. Pressing 2nd TABLE enables the arrow keys to be used to scroll through
its values. The TRACE key links the table to the graph, with the graph in control (all previous
TABLE SETUP specifications are replaced with values related to the TRACE).
SECTION C.6 Equation-Solving and Table Features 245

Note in the last frame that jumping to a different function will display a different column of the
table (the same value of x is highlighted).
C.7 THE NUMERIC SOLVER
The TI-83 and TI-84 Plus are equipped with a numeric Solver feature (press MATH, then
0), composed of two specialized screens. One is an equation editor that shows eqn:0= on
the screen, expecting you to fill in the right-hand side. To use the formula for the total surface
area of a cylinder, A = 2rrR(R + H), you must first set one side equal to zero, entering the
formula as 0 = 2ttR{R + H) — A or 0 = A — 2itR(R + H). Pressing ENTER takes you
to the second screen, where you can enter values and solve for a variable. Enter a value for
each letter name except the variable you want to solve for. If there is more than one possi¬
ble solution for that variable, you can control which one will be found by typing an estimate
of it. Use the up and down arrow keys to place the cursor on the line which contains the vari¬
able you want to solve for, and press ALPHA SOLVE (ALPHA, then the ENTER key).
The solution is marked by a small square to its left. Also marked (at the bottom of the screen)
is a “check” of this solution, indicating the difference between the left- and right-hand sides
of the equation using all of the values shown (this should be zero or something very close
to zero, such as 1 e—12). Fourteen significant digits are calculated and displayed for the
solution variable. Press 2nd, then the right arrow key to view the last several digits or to per¬
form arithmetic on the solution; for example, you could divide a solution by tt to see what
multiple of tt it is.
The bound= option near the bottom of the screen allows you to specify an interval to
be searched for the solution. The default interval {-1 e99, 1e99} essentially considers any num¬
ber that the calculator is capable of representing. When solving trigonometric equations, a lim¬
ited bound like the interval {0,2tt} might be better, but in most cases, the default interval
works well. If you accidentally erase this line and can’t remember the syntax, just exit the
Solver by pressing 2nd QUIT and reenter it by pressing MATH 0. The default bound is
restored whenever you enter the Solver (any bound interval you specify is valid only for that
Solver session). The equation, however, stays in memory until you CLEAR it or
replace it with another. Press the up arrow until the top line is reached. The calculator will
switch immediately to the equation editor page, where you can modify or CLEAR the old
equation. The following example assumes that you are starting with a blank equation (as if
Solver has never been used before); you may CLEAR the present equation to achieve the
same effect (if an equation is stored, you will always start on the solving screen).
MATH 0 (the equation editor) ENTER (the solving screen)
gf-Vi NUN CPX PRB EQUATION SOLVER EQUATION SOLVER 2jiR f R+H ) — A—0
THTf
c; . x r
e-HI-'i: 0=1 e«in: 0=2tiR<R+H>-A R=i
■ H=0
6:fMin< A=0
7:fMaxC bound=C "1 e99 j 1...
S:nDerivC
9:fnlrit<
SHSoluer...
3 ENTER 2 ENTER ALPHA SOLVE 100 two up arrows ALPHA SOLVE
2jiR<R+H)-fl=0 2nR<R+H)-A=0 2JtRf R+H>—A=0 2jiR(R+H)-A=0

R=3 R=3 R=i ■ R=3. 1128450383...
H=2 H=2 H=2 H=2
A=l ■fl=94.247779607... A=100 A=100
bound=C "1 e99? 1... bound=C-lE99, 1... bound=< "1 e99> 1... bound=t "1 e98 , 1...
■ left-rt=0 lefi-ri=0 ■lefi-rt=0

The first two frames in the bottom row of the previous example found the total sur¬
face area of a cylinder whose radius is 3 and whose height is 2. The last two frames found
the radius of a cylinder whose height is 2 and whose total surface area is 100 square units.
Use the Solver to find the height of a cylinder whose radius is 5 and whose total surface area
is 440 square units (the answer is about 9).
The Solver can also be used on equations which contain only one variable, but think
about the previous example (which had several variables) to understand why the Solver
works as it does. In particular, it would seem natural to press ENTER after typing an esti¬
mate for the solution variable; instead, you must press ALPHA SOLVE (press ALPHA,
then the ENTER key). If you accidentally press ENTER first, you will have to press the
up arrow key to get back to the solution variable’s line (if the cursor is on bound= rather
than a variable’s line, pressing ALPHA SOLVE does nothing). For direct comparison, the
next example solves the same equation that was solved on both the home screen and the
graphics screen in Section C.6. All three methods need one side to be zero and require each
solution to be estimated. To solve
jc3 + \5x = 9x2 — 6
rewrite it as
jc3 — 9x2 + 15jc + 6 = 0
Y= WINDOW GRAPH MATH 0
pirn piot£ Pi*t3 WINDOW I^NUM CPX PRB

WiBX3-9X*+15X+6 Xroin= -2
■ Xnax=8 !
c. xr ‘
'Vz = Xsc1=1 ih 6: fllinC
\V 3 — Vhin= -20 1
7:fMax<
\Vh = Vr'iax=20 3:nDeriyC
Ws = Vscl=5 / 9:fnlntX
\V 6 = Xres=l } SHSolver...
(leftovers) up arrow (new equation typed over the old) ENTER
EQIJRTI ON SOLVER EQUATION SOLVER X3-9X*+15X+6=0

e^n:0=IJiRCR+H>-R ein:0=X*-9X2+15X X=l
+61 bound=C “1 e99? 1...
(a solution) 3 ALPHA SOLVE (a solution)
X*-9X*+15X+6=0 X -9X 2 +15X+6=0 Xs-9X£ +15X+6=0

X=-li • X=-. 3315958073... X=3I
bound=0 -1 e99, 1... bound=£ _i e99> 1... bound= C "I e99 j 1...
■left-rt=0 left..-rt=0
7 ALPHA SOLVE (a solution)
X3-9X 2 +15X+6=0 X3-9X*+15X+6=0

X=7I ■X=6.5829136699...
bound=C "1 e99 »1... bound= C "1 e99? 1...
lefi-rt.=0 ■ 1eft-rt= "5 e -12
SECTION C.7 The Numeric Solver 247

C.8 MATRIX FEATURES
Start by pressing the MATRX key on the TI-83 or 2nd MATRX on the TI-83 Plus. This is
the main keyboard difference between these two models. In the remainder of this section,
directions will just refer to MATRX, which should be interpreted as 2nd MATRX if you
are using a TI-83 Plus (2nd MATRIX on Silver Edition). MATRX gives you access to
three submenus: NAMES, MATH, and EDIT (which can be selected by pressing the right
or left arrow keys). The MATH submenu has 16 options, but only 7 of them will fit on the
screen at any one time (the arrows next to the 7 in the second frame and the 8 and D in the
third frame indicate that there are additional options in those directions).
MATRX right arrow down arrows...
LU
O
i—i
h-
n©
ir-e
UJ 3
jffilBlafe MATH EDIT NAMES Ififili: EDIT NAMES ISrsUS EDIT
ajffiT HHdetC STMatr►list <
2: IB] 2« t 9: List►ruat A:ref(
3: IC1 3: d i pi ( 0:cupSup< B:rref(
4: ID] 4:FilK R:ref < CsrowSwap(
5: 1E1 5: identity:. B: rr-ef < D:row+<
6: IF! 6:randMC C:rowSwapC E:*row(
71IG] 7Tau9pent( ■E!row+( Jfl+row-K
NAMES gives you the ability to insert the name of any one of the 10 user-address¬
able matrices into a formula on the home screen (or into a program statement in the PRGM
Editor). Choosing an item from this submenu is the only way to type the name of a matrix
on a TI-83 or TI-83 Plus. In particular, typing a left bracket, followed by the letter A, fol¬
lowed by a right bracket, looks like the name of the matrix [A], but it will not be inter¬
preted as a matrix by the calculator. Either dimension of a matrix can be as large as 99
(note, however, that there is not enough memory to handle a full 99 by 99 matrix). The
EDIT submenu allows you to specify the dimensions and entries of the selected matrix.
This example shows how to define matrix [CJ:
MATRX left arrow 3 2 ENTER 3 ENTER 1 ENTER -4 ENTER, etc
NAME^
S MATH ami MATRIX[Cl 1 xl
[R] c i) 3
IB]
IC]
ID]
IE]
6: IF]
7TIG1
2nd Quit (home screen) MATRX (home screen) ENTER
ten
Note that the calculator left-justifies each column, which can make some matrices
look a little bit ragged (as in the last frame). Note also that once a matrix has been defined,
its dimensions appear in the NAMES and EDIT submenus (see the sixth frame).
The EDIT submenu can also be used to make changes to an existing matrix.

MATRX left arrow 3 arrow to the incorrect entry, type the new value...ENTER
NAMES MATH MUil MATRIX[C] ?<3 MATRIX[C3 2 x3 MATRIX [C3 2 x3

l: [A3 C i c 1 t i 9 FXBH]
2: IB3 t "2 ? t •£ -s C -2 7 -6 t
Sjfl [C3 2x3
4: [D3
5: (E
6: IF)
7T [ G 3 1 J 2 = ‘4 1 , 2=91 1 .- 2=3
Press 2nd QUIT to return to the home screen after you finish editing a matrix.
You can also create a new matrix or overwrite an existing one on the home screen (for
most purposes, the matrix editor is much more convenient; see the previous example). Type
each row within brackets, with the entries separated by commas, and enclose the
entire matrix within an outer set of brackets. Typically, you’ll want to store it in one of the
10 matrix variables [AJ,..., [J], but as the third and fourth frames show, there is also Ans,
which stores the most recent computational result, even if it’s a matrix result:
type entries . STO> MATRX 2 ENTER type entries ENTER 2nd ANS ENTER
[ [2, -33 14? 53 3

[[2 -33
14 5 3 3
Ans
112 -33
[4 5 3 3
To multiply matrices, just type their names in the proper order (with or without a mul¬
tiplication sign in between). You can square a matrix using the x2 button. Multiplication by
a scalar is shown in the final frame below:
MATRX 3 MATRX 2 ENTER MATRX 2 x2 ENTER 1000 MATRX 2 ENTER
tC3 CB3 1000[B3

t153 71 34 3 [[1000 2000 300...
[-16 -17 -133 3 [4000 5000 600...
[B3 2 [7000 8000 900
[[30 36 42 3 ■
[66 81 96 3
(102 126 1503 3
Notice that the three dots at the right of each row of the last frame indicate that there
is more of the matrix in that direction; just use the right arrow key to reveal the hidden
columns. To find the inverse of a (square) matrix, use the x'1 key following the name of the
matrix. Fractional forms can be obtained by pressing MATH I, then ENTER.
(edit [A]) 2nd Quit MATRX 1 ENTER MATRX 1 x 1 ENTER MATH 1 ENTER
The determinant of a (square) matrix is available as a feature in the MATH submenu.
SECTION C.8 Matrix Features 249

MATRX right arrow 1 (home screen) MATRX 1 ) ENTER
NAMES isroi; EDIT det-Ci afijlBlafc MATH EDIT det< IA]>

□BdetC ObThT 2X2 5
“T “ IB3 3x3 ■
3: d i pi 3:[Cl 2x3
4: F i 11 < 4: ID]
5: identity:! 5: IE]
8:randM< 6: IF]
74au9rtent ( 74- IGl
To row-reduce a matrix which might represent a system of equations, the option rref(
is available in the MATH submenu.
ID] NAMES IBKHi EDIT [ [1 5 -8 :

[ [1 5 -3 -8 1 b Tran dm (2 4 -6 -22]
[2 4 -6 -221 7:au9Pient( [ -3 -1 7 28 ] ]
[ -3 -1 7 28 ] ] 8: Matr ► 1 ist < rref(An* )
9: List►matr( I [1 0 0 2]
0: euro Sun ( [0 1 0 M
A:ref( [0 0 1 5] ]
illrrefC ■
If a matrix has more rows than will fit on the viewing screen, an arrow appears to in¬
dicate that there are hidden rows in that direction. Just use the down (or up) arrow key to
scroll to these hidden rows.
MATRX 5 (home screen) ENTER down arrow
!(il l| -ft MATH EDIT [ [1 2 ■j' 4 !=i [7 8 Q 10 IT

I: Th ] 2x2 [7 8 C| 10 1... [13 14 15 1b 1...
O ■ (Ed 3x3
■
113 14 i5 16 1... [19 20 21 bb 2...
3; [C] 2x3 [19 20 21 22 2... [25 28 —r1 28 2...
4: [D] 3x4 [25 28 27 28 •"1
z... [31 32 OJ 34 3...
m tE] 9x8
6 ■ [F]
[31
[37
32
38
33
39
34
40
3...
44-
[37
[43
38
44
39
45
40
46
4...
44-
74- IG]
C.9 LIST FEATURES AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
The TI-83 has six built-in lists, named Li, L2,..., L6, which can be accessed from the key¬
board by pressing 2nd followed by the subscript number of the list. You can create and
name other lists (starting with a letter and using no more than five characters) and access
them by pressing 2nd LIST (2nd, then the STAT key). The TI-83 Plus and its Silver Edition
will show Li, L2,..., L6 in the LIST NAMES submenu, but an ordinary TI-83 will not.
New list names can be created most easily in the STAT Editor (press STAT then 1). In this
editor, go to the very top of any column and press 2nd INS to create a new list. The exam¬
ple below creates a list named “RBI” and computes its descriptive statistics.
2nd LIST STAT 1 up arrow
*0*1 CALC TESTS

fllEdit...
2?Sortfi<
3:SortDC
4:ClrList
5! SetUF-Edi tor-

2nd INS R B I ENTER down arrow 53 ENTER
LI L2 RBI LI L2 1
Nane=n =531
85 ENTER, etc. STAT right arrow 1 (home screen)
RBI LI L£ 1 EDIT M=Mi TESTS

S3 IB 1 -Oar Stats
BE
10E
z • z~■Vat' Stats
3:Med-Med
4:LinRe9<ax+b>
5:QuadReg
6: Cub i cRe9
RBI<6) = 74-QuartReg
2nd LIST (home screen) ENTER down arrows
OPS MATH 1-Oar Stats 1-Oar Stats

x=72 Tn=5
2: L-2 Zx=360 minX=50
3:Lj lx*=28048 Q1=51.5
4: Lh Sx=23.06512519 Med=67
5: Le crx=20.63007513 Q:<=95
b: Ls 4n=5 riaxX=105
QHRBI
Note that when a list name is shown on the home screen, it is preceded by a small
This character is available in the LIST OPS menu (press 2nd LIST, right arrow, up
l.
arrow, ENTER), and is also in the CATALOG (press 2nd CATALOG L ENTER). You
can create a list from the home screen by enclosing your data in braces { }, separating
the items with commas, and STOring them in a new list name (preceded by the small l).
However, a list created in this manner will not appear in the STAT Editor until you
include its name in a SetUpEditor command or INSert its name along the top row of the
STAT Editor. To restore the standard setup, which shows just Li, L2,..., L6, execute
SetUpEditor without specifying any list names. Deleting a list from the editor in this way
(or by arrowing up to a list name at the top of the editor and pressing DEL) does not erase
any data or delete the list from the LIST NAMES submenu. The list simply doesn’t
appear in the editor for the time being. To erase all data from a list (leaving it empty),
arrow up to its name in the top row of the editor and press CLEAR, then ENTER (or
CLEAR, then down arrow). To completely dispose of a list (name and all) on a TI-83
Plus, press 2nd MEM 2 4 and down arrow until the marker points at the name of the list
you wish to get rid of, then press DEL (not ENTER). On an ordinary TI-83, press
ENTER instead of DEL.
2nd LIST 2nd QUIT (typing...) ENTER STAT 1 2nd LIST
OPS MATH RBI LI L2 1

S3
BE
idE
3: l_3 6?
4: Li
5:l_s
6: Lfi
RBI(fi) =
7: RBI
SECTION C.9 List Features and Descriptive Statistics 251

STAT (typing...) ENTER STAT 1 right arrow up arrow ENTER
CflLC TESTS GU LI F;E: I 1 GU *1 RE=I £

it... 53 S3
2:Sortft( ? as 7 BE
i It'S 1 10 S
3:SortD < H 67 H 67
4:ClrList S SC' - S SO
SflSetUpEditor
GU(1)=6 LI = 1 000# lGI <11
1000*lGW ENTER STAT 5 ENTER STAT 1 (standard setup)
te,7. 1 ? 4 j 5>-> lGW

lb 7 1 4
LI L£ L3 1
nxm
SetupEditor lGW, ?'ooo
1000
Li , lRBI
HO 00
Done SO 00
SetIJF Editor
Done
1 L1C1J =6000
right arrow up arrow 2nd INS GW ENTER CLEAR ENTER
LI V L3 £ LI mm L£ £ LI GU L£ £
SOOO SOOO 6000
7000 7000 7000
1000 1000 1000
H000 HO O'' H000
SOOO SOOO sooo
L£ = Naroe=GUH GUCU =
The first three frames in the bottom row show how to insert a preexisting list into the
STAT Editor. The last frame illustrates how to CLEAR a list, leaving it empty, but still
named. If you highlight a list’s name (in the very top row of the editor), you will be able to
wrap around using the right or left arrow keys. If you wrap around using the right arrow,
you will also notice a new blank list in the editor, ready to be named and filled with data.
Just press ENTER or down arrow when it is highlighted, and you will be given a chance
to name it. The STAT Editor can hold up to 20 lists at once. Each list stored in a TI-83 or
TI-83 Plus can have as many as 999 elements.
C.10 THE LINE OF BEST FIT (LINEAR REGRESSION)
EXAMPLE
Find and graph the equation of the line of best fit for the following data:
X 5 7 9 12 14
y 40 58 62 74 80
STAT 5 ENTER 7 ENTER. etc. right arrow 40 ENTER, etc.
LI L£ L3 1 LI L£ L3 1 LI L£ L3 £
S S HO
7 7 SB
3 q b£
i£ 1£ 7H
1H
limm
L1CU =51 L1Cfii= L£(S) =

STAT right arrow 4 VARS right arrow 1 ENTER Y=
EDIT M:M» TESTS Plotl Plot! P1-X3

l:1-UarStats \Vl =
2:2-War Stats \VzB4.1428571428
3:Med-Med 571X+23.85714235
£JBLinRegCax+b) 7143
d!QuadReg \Vj =
6:CubicRe9 Wh =
74-QuartReg Ws=
2nd STAT PLOT 1
_ MEMORV
msmf 4tZDecinal
LI L2 5:Zbnuare
2: Plot2...Off 6:ZStandard
I--' LI L£ ?:ZTrig
3: Plot3...Off 8:ZInteger
L_ LI L£ SHZooroStat
44-PlotsOff 0! ZoornFi t
TRACE right arrow CATALOG D down arrows ENTER ENTER, etc.

Pl:L1A2 X CRTRLOG □ DiagnosticOn LinReg
DependRuto Done y=ax+b
1 -r
X det- (. LinReg(ax+b) Li, a=4.142857143
DiagnosticOff L2 ? Y2B b=23.85714286
7--- ► D i agnost- i cOn r* = .9463989576
d i N (. r=.9728303848
K" D i sf
K=? .... Y = 5B . . . DispGraph ■
Turn STAT PLOT 1 Off now (before trying to graph anything else).
In the last three frames, this linear regression is shown in more detail. DiagnosticOn en¬
ables the calculator to compute and print correlation coefficients. DiagnosticOff is the default
setting. These options appear only in the CATALOG. The last linear regression command
shows the full syntax of the LinReg(ax-f-b) statement. All three parameters are optional. The
name of the first list provides the x-values, the second list provides the y- values, and the third
parameter is the name of the function where the regression equation will be stored. If you omit
the two list names, the calculator will use list Li for the x-values and list Li for the v-values (see
the sixth frame of the example). If you don’t plan to use or graph the regression equation, you
may omit the function name. To turn PLOT 1 Off, press Y=, up arrow, then ENTER.
C.11 CALCULUS FEATURES
EXAMPLE 1
Finding local minimum and maximum values on the graphics screen:
Y= WINDOW 2nd CALC 3 (the graph)
Plcti Plot£ P1-.A3 WINDOW aaiMMiaig

\ViBX3-9X*+15X+6 Xriin= ~2 1:value
Xrnax=8 2:zero
'■dr11 — Xsc1=1 Eflnininun
\V; = Vroin= "25 4:maximum
•■■Vh = Ynax=25 5:intersect
-.V z = Ysc1=5 6:dy-dx
sVfi = Xres=1 7: .J"f ( x> dx
SECTION C.11 Calculus Features 253

right arrows... ENTER ENTER
Y1=K3 -9K2+15K+6 V1=XJ -9N1+15K+6 1
1
. . / .' k.
71 V
VI* •_
II C
LCftE: ourij
X=H.H 395617 Y=-17.56a6H 551915 V= -16.99159
left arrows... ENTER The minimum point is actually (5, —19); tiny errors happen.
vi=:;j -9K2+15X+6 1
. . i '.\... 1 ■ ■ / r\..../.
J1
ijU455
\ i
H=5.(i 211*766 Y=“i¥.99?£7
/
MiniPi UP'l
X=H.9 999991
\
y'
Y=-19
j
Now use maximum to find the local maximum point [answer: (1, 13)].
EXAMPLE 2
Finding local minimum and maximum values on the home screen (review Example 1 in Section
C.6 if you don’t remember how to type the symbol for Yi into a formula):
Y= 2nd QUIT MATH 6 VARS right arrow 1 1 etc.
fMinCVi,X,3,7> fMaxCVi-1,3)
4.99999928 1.000001075
Vi(fins) Vi(fins}
-19 13
■ ■
The only intended use of these maximum and minimum routines is to find local extreme
values using a fairly short bracketing interval. These routines can give unpredictable results if
you try to use them to compare local extrema with endpoint extrema on a given interval.
Example 5 in Section C.4 shows how ZoomFit can be used to estimate the maximum and min¬
imum of a function on a closed interval.
EXAMPLE 3
Finding values of the derivative using the graphics screen:
{= 2nd CALC 6 ENTER
ftlWlMslIa
—_
Floti F loirs Plot? Y1=KJ -9H2+15K+6 1

vV i BX -9X £ +15X+6 1:value
2:zero
\.... ..
y
\Vz = 3: mini piupi r . . i

'■■V 5 = 4:
V/
nax i piupi
nVh = 5:interse
\V 5 = aady/dx r\j
vVfi = 7!Tf(x)dx i /
do.-'dy =3:6.000001

EXAMPLE 4
Finding values of the derivative using the home screen:
Y= 2nd QUIT MATH 8
nDeriy<Vi? X? 7) riDeriy(eA<X> ? X?1

36.000001
nDeriy(Vi? X? 7,.0
,.00001)
2.713281825
000 1> riDeriy(e'-"<X) ? X? 1
36 ,.0000000001)
2.7185
■
Note that nDeriv (numerical derivative) requires three arguments and has an optional
fourth. The required arguments are the name of the function you wish to differentiate, the
name of the variable to differentiate with respect to, and the value of that variable at the point
where the derivative is to be calculated. This routine actually calculates the slope of the line
connecting the two points (x — h,f(x — h)) and (x + h,f(x + h)), which are just a small in¬
crement on either side of the point (jc,/(*)). The optional last argument gives you a chance to
say just how small this increment h should be. The default value is .001. An h-value of .00001
often gives better accuracy for commonly studied functions. But don’t go overboard on this
or any other optional accuracy parameters. You risk severe loss-of-significance errors if you
use tiny /2-values such as .00000000000001. Note the last frame above. With h = .00001,
there are nine significant digits in our answer (all but the last digit is correct); but with
h = .0000000001, we get only four significant digits. In fact, nDeriv(eA(X), X, 1, 1e-14) cal¬
culates 0, a total loss of significant digits! This phenomenon is typical of computations that
involve subtracting numbers that are very close together on a machine which can only store
a limited number of digits.
EXAMPLE 5
Evaluating a function and its first and second derivatives (at x — A)\
Y= 2nd QUIT
Plotl Plots Plots Vi (4)
\ViBX 5-9X 2 +15X+6 -14
riDer ioCVi ? X > 4 >
\V i = -8.999999
-Ys = nDer i y (. nDer i y < V i
\Ym = ^X^X^)
\Ve = 6
\Yfi = ■
EXAMPLE 6
Graphing a function and its first and second derivatives:
Y= ZOOM
Plotl Plots P10t3 pioti Plots plots i MEMORV

NViBsinC 2X) \ViBsinC2X) ox
vVs = \ V1 = 2:Zoom In
'-Vs = \Vs = 3: Zoom Out-
\V hBnDer iy(Vi A!; ■ArSBriDeriuCvT 45 ZDecimal
V 5:ZSûare
X)
•YeBnDer i y < nDer i xVsBnDeriv(Vh jK? 6:ZStandard
y(Yi?X? X ),X,X) X) OfiiZT r i 9
SECTIONC.il Calculus Features 255

Y= WINDOW
Plotl F10t£ Plots Plotl Plots Plots Id INDO I.!

'■■Vi = ■-.7 1 = Xpiin= *5
>YzB2X3-3X+9 V/ZB2X3-8X+9 Xnax=5
'■ V 3 - \Vs = Xscl=l
vYhBnDer i'XYz , X, •■■ V H BnDer ioCv'sG'G Vpiin="25
y) V pi ax=25
'■•V s BnDer i v < nDer i ’•■VsBnDer ioCVs , X? Vscl=5
u(Ys,X,X:>,X,X) X> Xres=l
Note that the second derivative Ys is shown coded in two different, but equivalent, ways
(choose whichever one you like). The first coding style is similar to the home-screen version
of the second derivative (see Example 5). The other style exploits the formula for the first de¬
rivative, stored in Y4. It requires less typing, both in the initial example and also when all ref¬
erences to Yi are changed to Y2. Many calculus students keep these derivative-graphing for¬
mulas permanently stored in Y4 and Y5, just turning them on or off at appropriate times. Third and
higher derivatives are not supported in either manner of coding.
EXAMPLE 7
Numerical integration on the home screen:
MATH 9
HUM CPX PEE! fnInt <4/<1+X E), X f n I n t < 4T < 1 -X1 ^9)
, 0, 1 ) ,X, -3,3)'
4: *f< 3.141592654 18.84955624
5: "T fnlnt(4T(l-X-x9)
6:fMinC THIS INTEGRATED ?X, -3,3, Ie-S)
7:fMax< 4l+X1 > WITH 18.84955592
8•nDeriu( RESPECT TO X, 1
BHfnlntC FROM O TO 1.
Note that fnlnt (function integral) needs the name of the function, the name of the vari¬
able you’re integrating with respect to, the lower limit of integration, and the upper limit of
integration (in that order). The optional fifth argument gives you a chance to specify how lit¬
tle error you are willing to tolerate in the numerical result. The standard (default) value is
.00001, which usually yields considerably less error than that. In the second frame in the pre¬
ceding figure, the exact answer is tt, which was computed to 14 significant digits (storing your
answer in a LIST allows you to view all 14 digits that are stored in the calculator). In the last
frame, the top calculation took 23 seconds and produced 8 significant digits; the second ver¬
sion produced 11 significant digits, but took 44 seconds to calculate. This is an example of a
difficult numerical integration (finding the area enclosed by the ellipse x2/9 + y 2/4 = 1); the
exact answer is 67r. Most problems are like the middle frame, where you will get impressive
accuracy, very quickly, without needing to specify the optional fifth argument. The fnlnt fea¬
ture is based on a powerful Gaussian method that will consistently outperform Simpson's rule
and other elementary numerical procedures.
EXAMPLE 8
Numerical integration on the graphics screen:
Y= WINDOW 2nd CALC 7
Plotl Plots Plots WINDOW

,vViB4xa+XO
11._ 2 —
Xpi i n= -4.7
X Pi ax=4. 7
1:oalue
2:zero
\Vs = Xscl=l 3: n i n i mupi
\Vh = Vpiin= -1.6 4: pi ax i piupi
\Vs = Vpiax=4. 6 5:intersect
vVe = Vsc1=1 6:dy/dx
\V? = Xres=l 00 ff(x)dx

ENTER 1 ENTER (Area is shaded.)
Y1=V<i+K2) Y1=VCl+K2) ,
/\
U'Wtr Limit?
X=0i
-T
/
UPP-4K L in-lit?
H=0
L.
Y=H
\
r
Ztt?
You can enter the lower and upper limits from the keyboard, as shown above or by
aiTowing over to the proper values using the left or right arrow keys (then pressing ENTER).
The latter method has the disadvantage that the limits of integration you intended to use often
aren’t traceable x-values in the present viewing window (you can get close, but cannot get the
exact limits desired). The result of the numerical integration is shown at the bottom of the
screen and can be interpreted as the area of the shaded region. The accuracy of the calculation
is the same as the default accuracy for fnlnt (five decimal places are guaranteed).
C.12 SEQUENCES AND SERIES
On the TI-83 or TI-83 Plus, a sequence (seq) can be created and stored as a list. Series can be
treated as the sum of such a list. Both features are found in the submenus under 2nd LIST
(the shifted version of the STAT key).
EXAMPLE 1
Enumerate the sequence of the first six squares (an = n2 lor n = 1 to 6), then evaluate its sum:
2nd LIST right arrow 5 etc.
jam OPS MATH NAMES MS3 MATH senCNON, 1,6)

OBfCi 1:SortHE Cl 49 16 25 36>
2?L? 2:SortD< ■
3: L? 3:dinC
4: Lh 4:Fi 1 K
5:Le JQse=i<
6= Le b:cunSunC
74-AListX
2nd LIST left arrow 5 2nd ANS ) ENTER

BfilBiaa UPS MRTH NAMES OPS \u\UV. se-H(NMbL6)
QBLi 1: n i n Cl 4 9 16 25 36}
2:nax< sunfins>
3: L? 3:nean< 91
4: Lm 4: nedian < ■
5: Le sflsun <
6: Lb b: F-rodc
74-stdDeuC
EXAMPLE 2
Evaluate the sum: 7 + 9+ 11 + 13 + 15 + • • • + 121.
sun < se=i < 2K+1 ? K > 3

? 600
3712
sun < s e =i (2N+5 ? N ? 1
? 580
3712
Note that there are many different coding possibilities.
SECTION C.12 Sequences and Series 257

H f
EXAMPLE 3
oo
Estimate the infinite geometric series ^ (2/3)".
n =o
The top calculation shows the sum of the first 51 terms. The bottom calculation shows
that the formula a0/( 1 - r) gives an exact answer of 3.
EXAMPLE 4
OO
Estimate the value of the infinite series ^ \/nl.
n= 0
Remember that the factorial symbol can be found by pressing MATH, left arrow, 4, as
shown in the first frame below.
MATH NUN CPX iaa* sun ( se-=i < 1/N! > N > 0
1:rand , 10)) 2.713281328
2: nPr 2.713231801 I
3: nCr sun'iseî1' 1/N! > N> 0
to ! ? 50} )
S: rand Int.C 2.713281328
6:randNorne ■
7:randBinC
The exact answer is the number e, the shifted 2nd version of the division key.
EXAMPLE 5
Use the 7th-degree and 21st-degree Taylor polynomials of sin(x) to estimate sin (77/6).
7th-degree estimate 21st-degree estimate
n/6+X
.5235987756 .5235987756 .5235987756
X-X5/3!+>7'5/5!-X surifse^f (-1 )''N+X sunfsen( C -1 )^N*X
'■7/7! '' < 2N+1) / ( 2N+1 ) ! , ••'•C2N+1>/C2N+1) !,
.4999999919 N,0,3>) N,0,10))
1 .4999999919 .5
1 1
Note that the degree of the estimate was increased simply by changing the last seq index
from 3 to 10.

EXAMPLE 6
Graph the 2nd-, 4th-, 6th-, and 8th-degree Taylor polynomials of cos(x) along with the graph
of y = cos x. On a separate screen, graph the 20th-degree Taylor polynomial of cos (x). Be sure
that your calculator is in Radian MODE.
MODE Y= ZOOM
orp'ia U Sci Eng Fioti pic-nz plots sttMj MEMORY

1 oat 0123456739 vViBl-XZ/2! ITZBox
adia rj Degree W£B1-X2/2!+Xa4/ 2:Zoori In
Far Pol Se=i 4! 3:Zoom Out
Dot •V s B1-X 2/2!+XA4^ 4:ZDecinal
] Siroul 4!-XA6/6! 5:ZSûare
reA9i ■•.VhBVs+Xa6v3! 6:ZStandard
Horiz G-T WeBcosCX) UBZTrig
Y= ZOOM 7 (Be patient; this graph is slow.)
FlOtl PlOtS PlOtS MEMORY

-1) n ox
AN*XA<2NV<2N> 2: Z oon In
Nj 0?10) 3:Zoom Out -N . /
•vY2 = 4:ZDecinal
sYs = 5: ZS=iuare
vYh = 6:ZStandard
\Y 5 = SfilZTrig
Try a similar exercise for sin(x), graphing its 1st-, 3rd-, 5th-, 7th-, and 9th-
degree Taylor polynomials. See Example 5 for sample formulas.
SECTION C.12 Sequences and Series 259

Answers to
Odd-Numbered Exercises
and Chapter Reviews
CHAPTER 1
Exercises 1.1, Page 4
1. §(3x 4 2)3/z + C 3. 2V4~T^c 4 C 5. f(x2 + 4x)7/4 + C 7. cos4x 4 C 9. ^ tan4 4* + C

11. — § (cos 4x + l)2 + C 13. f(9 + sec x)3/2 4 C 15. ^(1 + e2x)3/2 4 C 17. Vl + e*2 + C
19. g ln:|3x — 5| + C 21. — 4 C 23. g arcsin2 3x 4 C 25. g sin4x + C 27. | arctan3 x 4 C

/_ lnM
29. f 31. f(V 1 + e3 - V2) 33. \ In2 3 35. |
1. £ln|3x + 2| 4 C 3. — j In] 1 — 4jc| + C 5. -2 In 11 - x2| 4 C 7. i In |x4 - 11 4 C

9. —In |cot jc| + C or In |tan x| 4 C 11. 5 In 11 + tan 3x| 4 C 13. —litJ1 + esc x\ + C 15. In 11 + sin x\ 4 C
17. In |In|.v11 + C 19. ê2* 4 C 21. ~ 4 C 23. \e*2 4 C 25. 4e~x2~9 + C 27. -<?C0SJ: + C
29. —(e4 — 1) 31. —+C 33. 21n|e* + 4j + C 35. \ In 2 or 0.347 37. 2 In 9 or In 81 or 4.39
2V ' In 4 11 2
39. 2(e - 1) or 3.44 41. \(e - 1) or 0.573 43. In 2 or 0.693 45. \ In 3 or 0.549 47. |(e8 - 1) or 1490
Exercises 1.3, Pages 13-14
1. -5 cos 5x 4 C 3. } sin(3x -1)4 C 5. -5 cos(x2 4 5) 4 C 7. sin(x3 - x2) 4 C 9. -5 cot 5x4 C

11. 5 sec 3x 4 C 13. j tan(4x 4 3) 4 C 15. csc(2x — 3) 4 C 17. \ tan(x2 4 3) 4 C
19. —5 csc(x3 — 1) 4 C 21. —| In |cos 4x| 4 C 23. 5 In |sec 5x 4 tan 5x| 4 C 25. In |sin ex\ 4 C
27. x 4 2 1n|secx 4 tanx| 4 tanx 4 C 29. 5 1n|secx 4 tanx| - ln|cosx| 4 C 31. 5 33. 3 35. I
■v/2 — ]
37. —- 39. 2 41. 1 43. [ In 2 45. 77
2
1. 4 cos3 x — cos x 4 C 3. sin x — i sin3 x 4 g sin5 x 4 C 5. 5 sin3 x 4 C 7. - f C

2 cos x
9. — I cos3 x 4 ; cos5 x 4 C 11. — —7 sin 2x 4 C 13. — 4 — sin 6x 4 — sin 12x 4 C

2 4 8 12 96
15. --— sin 4x4 C 17. —-— sin 4x 4 — sin3 2x 4 C 19. 5 tan2 x 4 In |cos x| 4 C
8 32 16 64 48
21. x — 1 cot3 2x 4 5 cot 2x 4 C 23. tan x 4 | tan3 x 4 g tan5 x 4 C
25. g tan3 2x — 5 tan 2x 4 x 4 C 27. —
261
1 1 3x 1 5jc
1. — arcsin 3x + C 3. arcsin — + C 5. — arctan —I- C 7. — arctan — + C 9. — arcsin — + C
6 2 5 6
1 x + 3
11. arcsin 2x + C 13. — arctan + C 15. — arctan + C 17. arcsin ex + C
2V3 4
19. —arctan (cos x) + C 21. — 23. 0.215 25. 10.9 N

4
5 3 7
1. 5. - 7.
x + 2 x — 1 2x + 3 x — 4 x 3x - 4 2x + x + 1 (x + 3)2
3 1 7 4 X — I X
9. 11. * + 13.
4.x - 1 (4x — l)2 (4.x - l)3 X X - 1 (x — l)2 x2 + 1 x2 — 3
4x + 1 1 5x - 2 2 5 3x -
15. 17. —-+ 19. - +
x2 + x + 1 x2 — 5 x2 + 5x + 3 x + 3 x - 3 x x2 + 1 (x2 + l)2
4x 6x 11
7 ? 3 1
23. ——r + 4 25. x + + 27. x - 1 +-- +
2L x x2
(x2 + 2)2 x+3 x - 3 x2 + 9 x + x — 2 x + 2
5 8x
29. 3x — 2 +---
X X
1 x + 1 I X - 2 (x - 2)2
+ C 3. - ln + C 5. 2 ln |x — 2| — ln |x — 11 + C or ln + C
2 ln x - 1 6 x + 4 X — 1
7. f In |x + 5| + 5 In |x - 1| + Cor|ln|(x + 5)2(x - 1)| + C 9. In + C

x + 1 x + 1
X2 (x + 2)8
11. 21n|x + 3|-+ C 13. y - 3x + ln + C 15. | In |x2 + 11 — 2 In |x( + C
x + 1
X 1 1
17. | In lx2 + 91 + arctan—I-\- C 19. + | In |x2 + 11 + C 21. | In | 23. ^ In 3 - § In 7
3 x 2(x2 + 1)
25. In 3 + 3 In 5
1. xln|x| — x + C 3. xex — ex + C 5. |x3/2ln|x| — |x3^ + C 7. xlnx2 — 2x + C

9. xarccosx — Vl — x2 + C 11. ^(sinx + cosx) + C 13. x2sinx + 2xcosx — 2sinx + C
15. xtanx + ln|cosx| + C 17. x(ln|x|)2 — 2x In |x| + 2x + C 19. xsecx — ln|secx + tanx| + C
21. 5 (2c3 + 1) 23. |f 25. 3 In 3 - 2 In 2 - 1 or Inf - 1 27. In 2 - \ 29. 277-
1. | In |2x + V9 + 4x2| + C V4 — 9x2 + — arcsin — + C 5. arcsin | 7.

18 27 4V3
/—^ -
Vx2 + 4 - 2 ■Vl6 - x2
9. — In + C 11. In|x + Vx2 - 9|---- + C 13. + C
2 16x
3 + V9 + x2
15. V9 + x2 - 3 In + C 17. + C 19. In|x + Vx2 + 9| + C
25V25 - x2
9x2 - 8 x + 4
21. V9x2 + 4 + C 23. In |x - 3 + Vx2 - 6x + 8| + C 25. - C 27. In (1 + V2)
243 Vx2 + 8x + 15
1 Vx^r~5 - Vs /—- (3 - x)V2x + 3

+ C; 15 3. In|x + Vx2 - 4| + C; 35 5.--^---; 13
Vs ln VVT5 + V5
1 (sin 4x sin 1 Ox
7. - + C; 75 9. —V9 — x2 3—arcsin—I- C; 24 11. + ln + C; 9
4\ 2 5 2 2 3 + 9x 1 + 9x
x — 5 1 ( 3
13. — In + C; 20 15. -Vx2 + 4 + 2 In |x + Vx2 + 4| + C; 30 17. — + ln |3 + 4x| ) + C; 7
10 x + 5 16 V 3 + 4x
262 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Reviews

1 4 e3x 1 (2x — 3)
19. - arccos — + C; 36 21. —(3 sin 4x - 4 cos 4x) + C; 59 23. - sin(2x - 3) - —- cos(2x - 3) + C; 80
1 3x
25. -jsin3 x cos x + — - - sin x cos x + C; 83 27. V9x2 - 16 - 4 arccos — 4- C; 33
^ ° ° 3x
1. 1-117 3. 0.783 5. 1.913 7. 7.395 9. 0.925 11. 219 ft-lb 13. 270 15. 1.443 17. 0.105
19. 1.464 21. 0.186 23. 1.910 25. (a) 6.889 (b) 6.998 27. (a) 1.023 (b) 1.000
29. (a) 1.006 (b) 1.006 31. (a) 373.650 ft2 (b) 378,200 ft2
4-7T 97T 377 4177 3 V3

1- — 3. — 5. 9 7. — 9. 8tt 11. 877 13. 15. l(e27r - 1) 17. 77 -
3 4 2
19. 277 21 . j - ~ 23. — + V3 25. — + V3 27. 9V2 + — + -

4 16 3 12 8 4
1-1 3. 5 5. oo (diverges) 7. ; 9. 3 11. oo (diverges) 13. | 15. 2 17. 19. 77
Chapter 1 Review, Pages 63-65
, - (5 + tan 2x)4
1. f V2 + sin 3x + C 2.-4- C 3. \ sin 3x + C 4. |x2 - 5| + C 5. ie1'2 + C
6 . — arctan — + C 7. arcsin — + C 8. f tan(7x + 2) + C 9. 5 In |3 + 5 tan x| + C
1 V2
10 . — }cos(x3 + 4) + C 11. ^ arctan | 12. — 13. —In-or In V2 14. | arcsin :
15. — arccos y + C 16. — jj cos4 3x + C 17. g arctan2 3x + C 18. g In |sec 5x 4- tan 5x| + C
cos3 2x 1 ,„ cos7 2x x 1 1 ,
19. — ^ In |cos x2| 4- C 20.-1— cos5 2x-b C 21.-sin 12x 4-sin3 6x + C
65 14 16 192 144
1 x - 1 "3x tan3x
22. - In - + C 23. — (3 cos 4x + 4 sin 4x) 24. cosx(l — ln|cosx|) + C 25. —--tan x + x + C
4 x 4- 3
cos3 (c_t)
26. t + Sin.,1Q'X + C 27. f In |3x + 11 - 5 In |2x - 11 + C 28. fx3/2(ln |x| - |) + C 29. ---+ C
2 20
x — 2
30. In + C 31. —x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C 32. -^(arcsin 5x)2 + C 33. arcsec 3 — arcsec 2
x + 2
3e4 4- 1 4 - Vl6 - 9x2
34. 35. In 2 36. 2 In 3 or In 9 37. 4- 3 In |x| 4- C 38. - In 4- C
16 ~ ' ‘ ....(x - 2) 4 3x
39. In 3 40. e5 - e3ore3(e2 - 1) 41. {{e1 - 1) 42. 43. 44. \ 4- In 2 45. 46. —
4 8
7T 41 4
47. { In 2 48. 77(2 In2 2 - 4 In 2 4- 2) 49. ~(e2 - 1) 50. - — cos 3r 4- - sin 3r + C
51. 3 In |f 4- 2| 4- 2 In |/ — 1| 4- C 52. -(e3 - 1) 53. 5 In 4- C; 5

5 + 3x
Vl6”
54. arcsin — 4- C; 29 55. In |2x 4- 6 4- 2V/3_4-_6x4^x2| 4- C; 47 56. (sin 2x — 2 cos 2x) 4- C; 78
_ 2jc V9 4- 4x - 3
57. V4X2 - 9-3 arcsec y 4- C; 33 58. cos5 3x 4- C; 73 59. 2V9 4- 4x 4- 3 In + C; 17. 15
V9 4- 4x 4- 3
60. jtan5x — jtan3x 4- tanx — x 4- C; 85 61. 1.011 62. 0.155 63. 12.359 64. 6.489 65. 22.2
66. 0.96 67. 18.365 68 . 5.608 69. 0.605 70. 71.632 71. 4 72. 73. 1177 74.
16
77' V3
75. 76. 4- - 77. 477 - 6V3 78. 2 - n/4 79. 4V3 - ~ 80. 1 - V2/2
~8~
81. 3 82. co (diverges) 83. 2 84.-1 85. 2 86 . co (diverges)
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Reviews 263

CHAPTER 2

1. 5.
z z z
7. Plane 9. Plane 11. Plane

z
17. Sphere
z
x2 + y2 + z2 = 25
x2 + y2 + z2 - 8x + 6y - 4z + 4 = 0

19. Cylindrical surface 21. Cylindrical surface 23. Ellipsoid
z z
9x2 + 4 y2 = 36
25. Elliptic paraboloid 27. Hyperboloid of two sheets 29. Cylindrical surface
z z z
31. Hyperbolic paraboloid 33. Elliptic cone 35. Hyperboloid of one sheet
z z z
81 y2 + 36z2- 4x 2 =324
y2 - z2 = 8x
37. (x - 3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z - 4)2 = 36 39. (x - 3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z - 4)2 = 16 43. 6
1. (a) 12x2y2 (b) 8x3y 3. (a) 12xy4 + 2v2 (b) 24x2y3 + 4xy 5. (a) — (b) —
Vx2 + y2 Vx! + y2
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Reviews

n r
x2 + y2 -x2-y2
7. (a) (b) 9. (a) ay (b) ax 11. (a) \/x (b) —\/y 13. (a) sec2 (x - y) (b) -sec2(x — y)
2xzy 2xy 2
exy(xy — 1) e^xsiny — cosy)
15. (a) e3x(ycosxy + 3sinxy) (b) xe3jrcosxy 17. (a) ——- <b) -—;-~
x siny xsin'y
,2
19. (a) —2 sin x siny (b) 2 cos x cosy 21. (a) xy2 sec22_,, f„„
xy + y tan xy /v.'v „2„ r„„2
(b) x y sec2 xy X x tan xy
-E _J?
23. 21R 25. 27. -■■ ■ 29. 2tt Ef cos 2 it ft 31. R2 + R3 33. -~e~,l(RC)
(R + r)2 VR2 + Xr ' R'C
-X,
35. Ee-^ - + 1 37. 39. (a) 18 (b) -16 41. (a) f (b) -f 45. 96tt cm3
\RC R + Xf
1. (6x + 4y) dx + (4x + 3y2) dy 3. 2x cos y dx — x 2 sin y dy 5. -dx--dy

x y
7. ---- dx + -dy 9. 195 cm3 11. 17 SI 13. —64.1 cm 15. Maximum, (1, —2, 20)
2(1 + xy) 2(1 + xy)
17. Minimum, (1, 1, 3) 19. Saddle point, (1,—2,—1) 21. Saddle point, (3, 2, —5)
23. Minimum, (3, 1, — 109); saddle point, (—1, 1, 19) 25. 10 cm X 10 cm X 5 cm 27. 10, 10, 10

1. 20 3. 'i 5. y 7. i 9. - c + | 11. ^ 13. 1 - 77-/4 15. 16 17. 2 19. 16
Chapter 2 Review, Page 94
1. Plane 2. Elliptic paraboloid 3. Hyperboloid of one sheet
z z z
3x+ 6 y+ 4z= 36

7. Hyperboloid of two sheets 8. Elliptic cone
2 z
9. (x + 3)2 + (y - 2)2 + {z - l)2 = 9 10. 5V2 11. (a) 3x2 + 6xy (b) 3x2 + 4y
12. (a) 6xely (b) 6x2e2y 13. (a) 2/x (b) 1 /y 14. (a) 3 cos 3x sin 3y (b) 3 sin 3x cos 3y
yexl(2x2 — 1) c^(lny-l) ex sin y(sin x — cos x) ex(y cos y — sin y)
15. (a) :-^-- (b) 16. (a)-;-—- (b) —1-——
x2lny x In2 y y sin2 x y~ sin x
-p'* rE 2x + y
17. 18. LI 19. 20. 21. (a) 8 (b) 2 22. dx + dy
2 ^ VR2 + X2r (R + r) 2(x2 + xy) 2(x2 + xy)
2x
23 dx — - dy 24. 452 L 25. 0.000666 A or 0.666 mA 26. Saddle point, (5,2,-33)
(-* + y) (* + y)1
27. Saddle point. (1, 2, —7) 28. Maximum, (0. —4,25) 29. 2 m X 2 m X 2 m 30. ^ 31. 516
32. l4 33. In V2 or 7 In 2 34. abc/6 35. 36.
CHAPTER 3
1.17 3.24 5.-95 7.57 9.202.5 11.-546 13. 2,-1, -4, -7, -10 15. 5, 5§, 6j, 7, 7§
17. 4 19. 1,000,000 21. $48,600
65,600
11.
341 n 3 4 3 3 3. 1C 5 _5 A.-5 _5_
i
*•
_=<L
2187 3. 8 ' 64 7. - 9. 7 V2 + 14 64 1J, 2, 4, 8? 16 1*)* 4’ 16’ 64’ 256
2187
17. -4, -12, -36, -108, -324 19. \ 21. $13,776 23. | ft 25. 15.1°C 27. y 29. f
31. No sum 33. 6.25 35. j 37. 39. {)=
Exercises 3.3, Page 105-106
1. 27x3 + 21x2y + 9xy2 + y3 3. a5 - 10a4 + 40a3 - 80a2 + 80a - 32 5. 16x4 - 32x3 + 24x2 - 8x + 1
7. 64a6 + 576a’b + 2160aV + 4320aV + 4860aV + 2916a// + 729//’
9. - ^x4 + Wx3 - 3-fx2 + x - 32 11. a2 + I2a3/V + 54ab4 + 108a'/2b6 + 81 Z>8
13 is. — 126x4y5 17. 41,184a5// 19. 280x3y8 21. 4320x3y3

y4 y3z yh2 yz3 z4
23. — 8064x5
Chapter 3 Review, Page 107
-80 V3
1. 47 2. £ 3. -81 4. -62 5. & 6. 95 7. 300 8. f 9. 10. -348
1 + V3
11. ™ 12. 500 13. 1,001,000 14. $2988 (approx.) 15. No sum 16. f
35 17. I 18. No sum
19. Y\ 20. j§ 21. a6 - 6a5b + 15a V - 20a3b3 + \5a2b4 - 6a// + b6
22. 32x10 - 80x8 + 80x6 - 40x4 + 10x2 - 1 23. 16x4 + 96x3y + 216x2y2 + 216xy3 + 81y4
24. 1 + 8x + 28x2 + 56x3 + 70x4 + 56x5 + 28x6 + 8x7 + x8 25. 90x2 26. 1280a3/;3 27. 8064xV°
28. 3,247,695x16

H t
CHAPTER 4
1. 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 + 25 3. 10 + 17 + 26 -I- 37 + 50 + 65
12 50
1 4 9 16 1111
5. —I-1— + ■■• +
7 _j_|_ — — — — — — _)_ .
9. X"' 11. 2 (2«)
2 3 4 5 n + 1 4 9 16 25 n= 1 n= 1
n n
13. 2 (2£ — 1) 15. 2 (A2 + 1) 17. Diverges 19. Diverges 21. Diverges 23. Converges
*=1 *t=3
25. Converges 27. Converges 29. Diverges 31. Converges 33. Diverges 35. Converges
37. Converges 39. Diverges 41. Converges 43. Diverges
1. Converges 3. Converges 5. Converges 7. Diverges 9. Converges 11. Diverges 13. Diverges

15. Diverges 17. Diverges 19. Converges
1. Converges conditionally 3. Converges absolutely 5. Diverges 7. Converges conditionally

9. Converges absolutely 11. Diverges 13. Diverges 15. Converges conditionally 17. Diverges
19. Converges absolutely
1. -2 < x < 2 3. x = 0 5. —oo < x < co 7. — 1 < x < 1 9. — 1 < jc < 1 11. —§ < jc < §
13. -2<x<2 15. 1 < jc < 3 17. — 1 < jt < 1 19. -oo<x<co 21. -§<x<|
23. 2 < x < 3
4x2 16x4
1. 3. 1 — x + 7. - “f- -
2! 2! 4!
, x3 x4 x x2 3x3 x2 x4
9. x + x2 H-1-h • • • 11. 2 13. -1 +-+
2! 3! ~~ 4 ~ (32X2!) ~ 256(3!) 2! 4!
15. 1 +2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + --- 17. 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + 5x4 + x5 (Sum is finite.)
19. x — x2 + I*3 — ^;x5 +
V2 x3 x4 x4 X6 x2 x3 x4
1. 1 - X + — -— — H" - 3. 1 + x2 + — + — + ■■■ 5. - X-
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 2 3 4
25x4 625x8 x9 x15 x3 X4 x5
7. 1 1 — • 9. x3 - - -|--...
11. x + x2 + - "I" - + - -|_ . .
2!3! 3! 5! 2! 3! 4!
x x3 x5 x3 x5
13. -_j_ - — - + * 15. 0.743 17. In 2 + 1 19. 0.602 21. x H~ — + — +
2! 4! 6! 3! 5!
23. 0.041481 C
77 77
X~~
* ~ 2 (x — 2)2 (x — 2)3
3. e2 1 + (x — 2) H--h ——-h
1. -U-T
1T~ 5! 2! 3!
(x - 9) (x - 9)2 (x - 9)3 1 (x - 2) (x - 2)2 3(x - 2)3
5. 3 + --— - + ~~~rTT~7~ +
6 108(2!) ' 648(3!) ' 2 4 + 4(2!) 8(3!) +
(x 1 )2 2(x — l)3 6(x — l)4
9. (x - 1) - + 11. 1 - |(x - 1) + |(x - l)2 - Ux ~ l)3 +
2! 3! 4!
(x - 77)2 (x - 77)4
13. 1 - 2(x - 1) + 3(x - l)2 - 4(x - l)3 + 15. -1 + - 2-- +
2! 4!
1.1.10517 3.0.99985 5.-0.68229 7.1.0488 9.3.66832 11.0.48481 13.0.029996

1. — 7T + 2 sin x + sin 2x + § sin 3x + 3. — — — sin x — — sin 2x — — sin 3x — • • •
y y
r 1 2 . 2 2 4 4 4
5. —-sin x — -— sin 3x-sin 5x — • • • 7. — sin x H-sin 3j: H-sin 5x + • • •
2 TT 37T 577 77 377 577
y y
0 < x< n
n< x< 2k
1 it-o •-o •-o
k 2n 3n 4k 5k
-1 •-o •-o
12 77X 4 377X 12 77 4 4 4
9. 3 H-sin-1-sin-1-sin 77X + 11.-cos x-cos 3x-cos 5x
77 5 77 5 577 2 77 977 2577

z2n
/ /
e2” ~ \ l el7r - \ 1 e1” - 1 11 2 2

13. —--1-•-cos jc + — •-cos 2x 15.-h — sin x — -— cos 2x--— cos 4x —
277 77 2 77 5 77 2 377 1577
1 e2n - 1 1 1 - e2n
H-•--— cos 3x + ■ ■ ■ H---sin x
■n 10 77 2
1 2 — e1”
H-•-sin 2x + ■ • ■
77 5
345 n + 1 ’ 1 2° n
1.-2-5-8-11-14-17 2. 2+- + - + -+■•• +-3. ^ ^7 4- E ~T 5. Converges
2 3 4 n "i 3 " n + 3
6. Diverges 7. Converges 8. Converges 9. Diverges 10. Converges 11. Converges 12. Diverges
13. Diverges 14. Converges 15. Converges absolutely 16. Converges absolutely 17. Diverges
18. Converges conditionally 19. 1 < x < 3 20. 2 < jc < 4 21. — °° <x<c° 22. y < * < y
2 3 4
24. + — — — + — — 25. 1 + x-1-- 26. r + r‘ + lx3 +
2 8 16 2! 3! 4!
x x „„ 0 9a:3 81x5
27.-1- 28. 1-+ — 29. 3x-+-
2! 3! 2! 4! 6! 2 40
30. 1 + sinx + 31. 0.09772 32. 0.09994

2! 3!
33. ~ V3 -2 x- 4V3 x -
6 -f.' +
x - 4 {x ~ 4)2 (x - 4)3 6(x — l)2 20(x — l)3
34. In 4 + —:-— + 35. e 1 + 2(x - 1) + .. + V +
4 32 192 2! 3!
377^2 377V
36. -1 + + 37. 0.5150 38. 3.3199 39. 0.18227 40. 2.024846

2! 41
, 12 2 2 772 1 2
41. — — H-sm x H-sin 3x H-sin 5x + 42. —— 2 cos x H— cos 2x-cos 3x +
2 77 377 577 6 2 9
772 — 4 77 9772 — 4
H-sin x-sin 2x H-sin 3x —
77 2 2777

CHAPTER 5
1. Order 1; degree 1 3. Order 2; degree 1 5. Order 3; degree 1 7. Order 2; degree 3
1. — = In x — C or y In x + 1 = Cy 3. y = — orxy = C 5. -2y~l/2 = x + C 7. arctany =-hC

y x '3
9. -In (3 — y) = In x + C orx(3 — y) = C 11. 3y = 2x3 + C 13. 1 = 2y2(sinx + C) 15. 2y + e_2x = C
X"1 y
17. y = arctan x + C 19. arctan y = x + — + C 21. ey = ex + C 23. arctan — = 21n(x+l) + C
25. {x2 + l)2 = C(y + 3)5 27. 1 = (2 — x3)y3 29. y2 = 21n(x2 + I) + 16 31. y2 = 2ex + 34
33. x3/2 + y3/2 = 9 35. y 2 = In2 x
1. 3xy = y3 + C 3. y = 5xy + Cx 5. x + xy + Cy + 3 = 0 1. x2 = 4Vx2 + y2 + C
9. In Vx2 + y2 = xy + C 11. xy = x2 + y2 — 1 13. arctan - = xy + —-

x ' 4
1. 2y + = Ce5x 3. 14x3y = 2x7 - 7x4 + C 5. y = e3j: + Ce^2 7. 3y = xV* + Ce4j:

9. y = x6 - x + Cx5 11. (1 + x2)y = x3 + C 13. 5x2y = x5 - 35x + C 15. y = e~x + Ce_2x
17. y = 3x2 + Cx 19. (y - l)esinj: = C 21. y = e1,r(3e" - 1) 23. y sin x = x + w 25. y = y +
27. y = 3 - - 29. xy = x4 - 10
JC
1. V = 5f + 10; V = 25m/s 3. 3xy = x3 + 2 5. i = £(3 + e~sm) 7. j = 2 sin 2r - cos 2r +

9. Q = ^,-154X10 *°r 1L ^ = 5e-o.0O293t;237yr 13_ 72.9 lb 15. 24.3°C 17. 3.2 X 107 19. P = CVk
1. Order 2; degree 1 2. Order 1; degree 2 3. Order 2; degree 3 4. Order 1; degree 2

9. 2x2\ny = — 1 + Cx2 10. 2 In y + 3e-2t = C 11. 2y3 + 3 ln(9 + x2) = C 12. tanx + e~y — C
13. y = x4 + Cx 14. (y - 2)elx3 = C 15. (y + 5)el/x = C 16. In (x2 + y2) = y2 + C
17. 3 arctan - = x3 + C 18. 3xy = 7x6 + C 19. ye2x = ex + C 20. 4y = -4x4 - 7x + Cx5
JC
21. y = 4x3 lnx - x2 + Cx3 22. 2y sinx = sin2x + C 23. 3x2y - lOy + 2 = 0 24. y2 = 3e~2x + 1
x2
25. 4y = x5 + 3x 26. xy = — (2 In x - 1) + 1 27. 4y = e5jr - 13eJ 28. 2y = x4 - 10x2 In x + 5x2
29. i = 2- e^00' 30. Q = <r7-88xu>~10' 31. 4.524 kg 32. 20.6°C 33. y3 = 34. v = r4; 81 m/s2
CHAPTER 6
1. Homogeneous, 4 3. Nonhomogeneous, 3 5. Homogeneous, 2 7. Nonhomogeneous, 3

9. y = kxelx + kê-2* 11. y = V4t + k^2* 13. y = k{ex + k2e~x 15. y = fc, + k2e3x
17. y = kte3x/2 + k2eSx 19. y = k^ + k2ex/3 .
21 y = 2 + e4* 23. y = e2x + e~x 25. y = 9e3x - 5e5x
1. y = e2x(k] + k2x) 3. y = c21^, sin x + k2 cos x) 5. y = ex/\k\ + k2x) 7. y = sin 3x + /:2 cos 3x)
9. y = e5jr(&i + k2x^ 11. y = sin 3x + k2 cos 3x 13. y = k{ + k2x 15. y = 2e3x(l — x)
17. y = 2 cos 5x 19. y = ebx{\ — 6x)
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Reviews 271

1. y = fc] + k2e~x — | sin x — \ cos x 3. y = kê2* + k2e x - 2x + \ 5. y = e5x(k] + k2x) + — +
7. y = kxex + k2e~x - 2 - xL 9. y = k] sin 2x + k2 cos 2x + —— — 11. y = kxeAx + k2e~x - ex
13. y = kx sin x + k2 cos x + 5 — | sin 3x 15. y = kxex + k2e~~x + 5 xe 17. y = k\ sin 2x + k2 cos 2x + 3 x sin 2x
19. y = 2(e2x — cosx — 2sinx) 21. y = j(5 sinx — cosx + ex)

= b »-i38r
1. x = 0.167 cos 8V2? 3. x = cxe~iMt + c2e~2Ml 5. 13,0001b 7. 1.25 ft 9. i = kte + be
11. i = 0.136e'l40r - 0.136e“360'
3 . -4 16 — s~ + 5 — 2 85
5. 7. 9. 11. 13. 15.
St 9 s{s - 4) 5- (52 + 4)2 (5 - ) '
2 5 (52 + 16)2 + 65 + 34
852 + 24
17. 19. (52 - 3s)£{y) 21. (s2 + 5 + l)£6(y) - 1 23. (52 - 35 + l)££(y) -5 + 3
25. (52 + 85 + 2)£(y) - 45 - 38 27. (52 — 6s)0£(y) — 35 + 11 29. (52 + 85 - 3)££(y) + 65 + 46

31. 1 33. tesi 35. cos 8r 37. ebt — e2t 39. e3' sin 21 41. sin t — t cos t 43. e‘ — sin t — cos t
45. 2e-3' + c"*6' + 3 47. e~5'(3 sin 21 + cos 2f)
1. y 5= 2cr 3. y = e“3r/4 5. 6v = 31e7' — el 1. y = cos t

11. y = e~'(\ + t) 13. 6v = t3e2> 15. y = (4 + 6t + \t3)e~l 17. 5y = 3e‘4' + 2e‘
19. i = 0.6 + 2.4<?-100' 21. / = 2.4e~200' - 2.4 e'250'
1. Homogeneous; order 2 2. Nonhomogeneous; order 2 3. Nonhomogeneous; order 1 4. Homogeneous; order 3

5. y = kxe~5x + k2ex 6. y = £,e3j: + M2* 7. y = fc, + fc2e6t 8. y = kxe{3/2)x + k2e~x 9. y = kxe3x + k2xe3x
10. y = kxe~5x + k2xe~5x 11. y = kxex + k2xex 12. y = be(xfi)x + k2xeil/3)x 13. y = k} sin 4x + k2 cos 4x
/ V23 V23
14. y = k{ sin fx + k2 cos fx 15. y = ex(kx sin V2x + k2 cos V2x) 16. y = e3x/2[k] sin —-—x + k2 cos —-—x
17. y = kxex + £:2e_2t — | — fx 18. y = kxe3x + k2xe3x + \ex 19. y = kx sin 2x + k2 cos 2x + 5 cosx
20. y = e\kx sin V2x + fc2cos V2x) + 2e7x 21. y = 4e2,r + 2e~Ax 22. y = 1 + 2<?3a 23. y = 3xelv
24. y = 8e_3:t(l + 3x) 25. y = —2 sin 2x + cos 2x 26. y = e4j(sin 3x + 2 cos 3x) 27. 2y = e2* — 2ex + 3
28. y = sin 2x + 2 cos 2x + 3 sin x 29. x = f cos 4 VfTr 30. x = &ie(_32+8v/l3)f + be(-~32~ix/'3^
31. i = e 100'(^1 sin 200r + k2 cos 200r) 32 i = k g(_1°oo+5oov5)r + ^ e(-iooo-soov5)t

33.
5 — 6
5 + 2 ,41
34. 35. 36. -- 37. t 38. f(e2' - 1) 39. 2(e c31)
(5 + 2)2 + 9 52 + 1 s s - 5
-21
t~e
40. sin 31 41. y = 2em)t 42. y = 3 cos 31 43. y = |(1 - 44. y -

Subject Index
Absolute convergence, 120 integrating factors, 160, 162 by parts, 30
Alternating series, 119 Laplace transform, 199, 205 of powers of trigonometric functions,
Area: linear, 162, 163 14-16
conversions, 216 {table) nonhomogeneous, 177, 186, 188 Simpson’s rule, 44
polar, 49, 50 order, 151 of sine, 9
Arithmetic progression: ordinary, 153 trapezoidal rule, 40, 41
common difference, 96 particular solution, 153, 186 of trigonometric functions, 9, 10,12
definition, 96 repeated roots, 182 by trigonometric substitution, 35
last term (nth term), 96 second-order, 177 using tables, 39
sum. 97 separation of variables, 154, 155 Interval of convergence, 122
Auxiliary equation: solution, 152
complex roots, 184 undetermined coefficients, 186 Laplace transform, 199, 202
definition, 180 Differential operator, 178 inverse, 203
repeated roots, 182 Discriminant of a second partial Length conversions, 215, 216
derivative, 82 Limit comparison test, 113
Binomial theorem, 102, 103 Divergence, 100, 110 Limits of integration:
Double integral, 87 infinite, 56, 199
Calculator—TI-83. Appendix C:
Linear combination. 178
Examples in text: Ellipsoid, 72 Linear differential equation, 162, 163
binomial coefficient, 105 Elliptic cone, 73 Linear operator, 178
definite integral, arccos, 4 Elliptic paraboloid. 73 Maclaurin series, 125, 126
definite integral with polar Exponential form: Methods of Integration, 1
coordinates, 52 of complex number, 184
definite integral with trig
Nonhomogeneous equations, 177, 186,
substitutions, 38
Finite sequence, 95 188
Fourier series graph, 140
First-order differential equation, 162
Pascal’s triangle, 104 Order of a differential equation, 151
Fourier series, 138
Simpson s Rule, 48 Order of magnitude of a series, 113
Function
Trapezoidal Rule, 47 Ordinary differential equation, 153
in three-space, 67
Catenary, 213
Comparison test, 112
Geometric progression: Partial derivative, 76
Complementary solution, 186
common ratio, 98 Partial fractions, 20
Complex roots, 184 calculator examples, 23
Conditional convergence, 120 definition, 98
nth term, 98 Particular solution, 153, 186
Convergence, 100, 110 Plane, 69
Conversion tables, 215-217 sum, 99, 100
Polar area, 49, 50
Cube of binomial, 102 Power series, 121
Cylindrical surface, 69 Half-life, 166
Progressions:
Hooke’s law, 191
arithmetic, 95
Hyperbolic paraboloid, 73
Damping effect, 193 geometric, 98
Degree of a differential equation, 152 Hyperboloid:
p-series. 111
of one sheet, 72
Derivative
of two sheets, 72
partial, 76 Quadric surface, 71 -73
second partial derivative, 80, 81
second partials test, 82 Improper integral, 56, 199
Infinite geometric series, 100 Radius of convergence, 122
Differential
Infinite sequence, 101 Ratio test, 115
total, 79
Initial condition, 158 Repeated roots, 182
Differential equations:
Integral: Right-handed system, 67
applications, 165, 191
auxiliary equation, 180 double, 87
characteristic equation, 180 improper, 56, 199 Saddle point, 73, 82
complementary solution, 186 Integral test, 116 Second-order differential equation, 177
complex roots, 184 Integrating factors, 160, 162 Second partial derivative, 80, 81
definition, 151 Integration: Second partials test, 82
of cosine, 9 Separation of variables, 154, 155
degree, 152
first-order, 162 of exponential function, 6, 7 Sequence:
general solution, 153 inverse trigonometric forms, 17, 18 arithmetic, 95
homogeneous, 177, 180 of logarithmic function, 5 finite, 95
initial condition, 158 numerical methods, 41 geometric, 98
initial value problem, 158 using partial fractions, 27 infinite, 96
INDEX 273
Series: order of magnitude, 113 Taylor series, 132
absolute convergence, 120 power, 121 Three space, 67
alternating, 119 p-series, 111 Total differential, 79
comparison test, 112 radius of convergence, 122 Trace, 69
computational approximations, 134 ratio test, 115 Transcient solution, 167
conditional convergence, 120 sigma notation, 108 Trapezoidal rule, 41,42
converge, 100, 110 Taylor, 132 Trigonometric form of complex
definition, 100 test for divergence, 110, 111 number, 184
diverge, 100, 110 Sigma notation, 108 Trigonometric substitution, 35
Fourier, 138 Simple harmonic motion, 192
infinite, 100 critically damped, 194 Undetermined coefficients, 186
infinite geometric, 100 damping effect, 193 U.S. weights and measures,
integral test, 116 overdamped, 194 (table), 215
interval of convergence, 122 underdamped, 194
limit comparison test, 123 Simpson’s rule, 44 Volume conversions, 217 (table)
Maclaurin, 125, 126 Sphere, 70 Volume of a solid, 89
operations with, 128 Steady state solution, 167
274 INDEX
f
Common Trigonometric Identities
1 sin 9
1. sin 0 = 7. tan 9 = 12. sin (-0) = —sin 0
esc 9 cos 9
1 cos 0
2. cos 0 = 8. cot 9 = 13. cos (-0) = cos 0
sec 9 sin 0
1
3. tan 9 = 9. sin2 0 4- cos2 0 = I 14. tan (-0) = -tan 0
cot 0
1
4. cot 0 = 10. 1 + tan2 0 = sec2 0 15. cot (—0) = —cot 0
tan 9
1
5. sec 0 = 11. cot2 0 + 1 = esc2 0 16. sec (—0) = sec 0
cos 9
1
6. esc 0 = 17. esc (-0) = —esc 0
sin 0
18. sin (0 4- 0) = sin 0 cos 0 4- cos 0 sin 0 19. sin (0 — 4>) = sin 0 cos 4> ~ cos 0 sin <fi
20. cos (0 + 0) = cos 0 cos 0 — sin 0 sin 0 21. cos (6 — (f>) = cos 0 cos 0 + sin 0 sin </>
tan 0 + tan 0 tan 0 — tan (h
22. tan (0 + 0) =---- 23. tan (0 — <£) =--
1 — tan 0 tan 0 1 4- tan 0 tan </>
24. sin 29 — 2 sin 0 cos 0 25. (a) cos 20 = cos2 0 — sin2 0
(b) cos 20 = 2 cos2 0 — 1
(c) cos 20 = 1 - 2 sin2 0
2 tan 0 „ . 0 /1 - cos 0
26. tan 20 = 2?. sln 2 = ±V 2
1 — tan2 0
0 /1 4- cos 0 0 1 — cos 0
28. cos - = - 29. tan
sin 0
1
30. sin2 0 = — (1 — cos 20) 31. cos‘ 0 = — (1 + cos 20)
/0 + <A /0 - 0 f 9 4- <^)\ f 9 — 4>

32. sin 0 + sin 0 = 2 sin I—-— I cos I —^— 33. sin 0 — sin 4> = 2 cos I-I sin
2
'9 + 0 9 — <f> ^0 4- </> 9 - <f>
34. cos 0 + cos 4> = 2 cos ( —-— ] cos 35. cos 0 — cos 0 = —2 sin | —-— | sin
2 2 2 J V 2
36. sin (9 + (f>) + sin (0 — 0) = 2 sin 0 cos 0 37. sin (0 4- </>) — sin (0 — </>) = 2 cos 0 sin <j>
38. cos (0 + 0) + cos (0 — 0) = 2 cos 0 cos 0 39. cos (0 4-0) — cos (0 — 0) = —2 sin 0 sin 0
Differentiation Formulas
1- , (c) — 0 (c is a constant) 1A d , ■ V
dx 14. —(sin u) = cos w —
dx dx
,C (I , V .
15. —(cos u) = — sin u —
2'
dr dx
d . du
3. — (*") = nx"-' (* * 0) 16. —(tan m) = sec m —
dx dx
. d du i-d 2 du
4. —(cm) = c — (c is a constant) 17. (cot M) = -CSC H—
dx dx dr dx
c du dv *0d du
5. — (m + v) = — + — 18. — (sec u) = sec w tan u —
dr dx dx dr dr
, d , du dv ind du
6. — (m — v) = - 19. —(CSC U) = —CSC u cot M —
dr ("/A dr dx dx
-d dv du d 1 dw
7. — (mv) = u— + v — 20. — (arcsin m) = ■ — - —
dr dx dr
dx VI - m2
du dv du
, \ v—-u— 21. —(arccos m)
d ( u\ dx dx dx
(v*0) Vl — m2 ^
dx\v v 1 dw
22. —(arctan m) =- „
d du dr 1 + m2 dr
9. ^(un) = nun~'— («#0)
flA dr
d . . Id/
23. —(arccot;/) =-- —
dv _ dv du dr 1 + m2 dx
(chain rule)
dx du dx „ . d 1 du
24. — arcsec u) = —.. =—
d 1 du . ^ Vm2(h2 - 1) dx
11. — In «) = -— (w > 0)
dr m dx
25. —(arccsc u) =-— —
dr Vm2(m2 - 1) dx
12. ±(e“) = e“^
dr v 7 dr
13. y(6“) = p— ~ (*>0)

dr log^ c dr
Integration Formulas
+1
1. xn dx — + C («=£—!) 11. cot u du = In |sin u\ + C
« + l .
2. k f(x) dx — k /(r) dr (/c is a constant) 12. sec u du = In |sec u + tan u\ + C
3. [/M ± #(*)] dx = /(r) dx ± g(x) dx 13. esc u du — In |csc u — cot u\ + C
„n+ I
4. w" d/ + C (n ¥= -1) 14. sec2 u du = tan u + C

w + 1
du
5. = In \u\ + C 15. esc2 u du = —cot u + C
u
6. eu du = e" + C 16. sec u tan u du = sec u + C
7. a11 du = — + C (a > 0. a ± 1) 17. esc u cot u du = —esc u + C

In a
8. sin u du = —cos u + C 18. u dv = uv v du (Integration by parts)
du 1 u . ,
9. cos u du = sin m + C 19. = — arctan —b C (a +■ 0)
a2 + m2 a a
du . u . .
10. tan u du — —In cos u\ + C 20. — — = arcsin —h C (a f I))
W - M2 a
ISBN □-S3b-cllblD-l
PEARSON
PEARSON
Custom
Prentice
Publishing 9780536916105
02/07/2019 14:42-3

Calculo Tecnico Dale Ewen

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H

Exponents and Radicals Right-Triangle Trigonometry

1. am • an = am+n side opposite A

Algebraic Products Quadratic Formula

X = ay is equivalent to y = log,, x (a > 0)

Straight Lines 5. logu 1 = 0

j= V17!,;2 = — 1, 73 = ~j,j4 = 1J5 =j,—

Rectangular Trigonometric Exponential

[r(cos 0 + j sin 0)]" = r"(cos nd + j sin n0)

Technical Calculus, Fifth Edition

This special edition published in cooperation with Pearson Custom Publishing.

Printed in the United States of America

Please visit our web site at www.pearsoncustom.com

PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING

Three-Space: Partial Derivatives

Progressions and the Binomial Theorem

5 First-Order Differential Equations 151

6 Second-Order Differential Equations 177

Table 1 U.S. Weights and Measures 215

C.1 Introduction to theTI-83 Keyboard 225

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

■ Integrate expressions that are derivatives of logarithmic functions.

■ Integrate trigonometric functions.

■ Integrate expressions that are derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.

■ Use the method of integration by parts.

■ Use tables to find integrals.

■ Find the area of a region defined with polar coordinates.

■ Evaluate improper integrals.

1.1 THE GENERAL POWER FORMULA

Integrate sin5 2x cos 2x dx.

Integrate eix{2 — e3xy dx.

2 CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

tions. In Example 5 we need to multiply the function —* by 1 in the form S6C X

tan x sec x \ / tan x

SECTION 1.1 The General Power Formula

fnlnt (cos'1 (3 >0 .1275981263

10. cosx sin x dx 11. sin 4x (cos 4x+ 1) dx

12. | cos 2x (1 — sin 2x)2 dx 13. V9T sec x sec X tan x dx

x sec2 x2 dx arctarr x In2 4x

4 CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

Since integration is the inverse of differentiation and — (In u) = —, we find

the derivative of the denominator is a constant multiple of the numerator.

sec 2>x tan 3x dx

sec 3x tan 3x dx 1 (du

= ^ln |2 + sec 3x\ + C

SECTION 1.2 Logarithmic and Exponential Forms 5

= - jin |-26| + “ In |-7|

From the derivative formula — (e “) = e", we find

Integrate e5' dx.

CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

For bases other than e, we have

a " du - -1- C (a > 0, a ¥= 1)

Find the area bounded by xy = 1, x = 1, x = 2, and y = 0.

SECTION 1.2 Logarithmic and Exponential Forms 7

sin x dx sec2 3x dx cos 2x

esc x cot x esc2 4x cosx

28. (sec~ x)e2unxdx 29. xex2+2dx 30. (cos x) esm 1 dx

45. Find the area bounded by y : = 1/(1 + 2x), x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0.

1.3 BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS

We have found that

— (sin u) = cos u and —(cos u) = — sin u

8 CHAPTER 1 Methods of Integration

Integrate cos 3x dx.

Integrate sin(4x + 3 )dx.