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 Production Technology of
TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL VEGETABLE CROPS
 Production Technology of
TROPICAL & SUB-TROPICAL VEGETABLE CROPS

Mr. Amit Kumar

Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology
MEERUT-250110, Uttar Pradesh, India
Dr. Satya Prakash
Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology
MEERUT-250110, Uttar Pradesh, India

Mr. Mohd Wamiq

Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology,
MEERUT-250110, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mr. Chhail Bihari
Department of Horticulture (Vegetable Science)
Nagaland Central University, SAS, MEDZIPHEMA-797106, Nagaland
Mr. Sajeel Ahamad
Division of Food Science & Post-harvest Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, NEW DELHI-110012, India

DELHI (INDIA)
Copyright © 2024, Jaya Publishing House, Delhi (India)

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First Edition 2024

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 FOREWORD
Tropical and subtropical vegetables hold significant importance in our diets for several reasons. These
vibrant and flavourful vegetables thrive in warmer climates and offer unique nutritional benefits. Rich
in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, tropical and subtropical vegetables contribute to overall health
and well-being. They often provide a rich source of vitamin C, which strengthens the immune system
and supports collagen production for healthy skin and joints. Additionally, these vegetables are often
packed with phytochemicals that have been linked to potential health benefits, including anti-
inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. The future of tropical and subtropical vegetables is bright, as
they offer not only tantalizing flavours but also valuable nutrition and contribute to the sustainable food
movement. India is blessed with diverse agro-climatic conditions that provide ample opportunities for
the production of a wide range of vegetables. India, the second-largest vegetable producer after China,
has been continuously expanding its vegetable production over the past few years. The present total
production of vegetables in India is 200.44 MMT and the area is 10.85 million hectares as per NHB
2021, and the demand for tropicaland subtropical vegetables has also increased significantly.
It is my pleasure to introduce this valuable “Production Technology of Tropical and Subtropical
Vegetable Crops”. The production of fresh and high-quality vegetables in tropical and subtropical
regions is a critical aspect of global food security. With the increasing demand for such tropical and
subtropical vegetables, it has become more important than ever before to embrace new and innovative
production techniques and technologies. This book covers a wide range of aspects related to tropical and
subtropical vegetables, including their introduction, origin, and distribution, importance and uses,
nutritional composition, taxonomy, and botany, followed by soil and climate, field preparation,
commercial varieties, seed rate, nursery management, sowing and transplanting, nutrition and water
management, use of growth regulators, intercultural operations and physiological disorders. It also
covers the latest data on the area and production of tropical and subtropical vegetables, as published by the
National Horticulture Board (NHB) in 2020-21. In addition, this book also provides comprehensive
information on the management of major insect pests and diseases, harvesting, and post-harvest
management. It also covers yield, future prospects and references related to tropical and subtropical
vegetable production.
The authors of this book have done an excellent job of compiling all the necessary information related
to tropical and subtropical vegetable production technology. The book is written in simple language and
is easy to understand for students, teachers, researchers, and innovative vegetable growers.
I am confident that this book will serve as a valuable resource for all those involved in the production of
tropical and subtropical vegetables, and it will contribute significantly to the development of the
vegetable industry in India. I congratulate the authors for their excellent work and thank them for
sharing their knowledge with us.

v
Contents

Foreword ..............................................................................................................................v
Preface ................................................................................................................................xi
About the Editors ............................................................................................................. xiii

SOLANACEOUS CROPS
1. Advances in Production Technology of Tomato ........................................ 1
Chhail Bihari, Abdul Rahman M, S.P. Kanaujia, Amit Kumar, Ajeet Kumar,
Rajat Rajput and Bibarie Mech

2. Advances in Production Technology of Brinjal ....................................... 21

Raj Kumar, Ranjit Chatterjee, Dibya Jyoti Mukhia, Ajeet Kumar and
Avneesh Rathour

3. Advances in Production Technology of Chilli ......................................... 37

Abdullah Zaid, Sumit Singh, Rohit Rawat and Shivani Dubey

4. Advances in Production Technology of Capsicum .................................. 49

Abdullah Zaid, Sumit Singh, Rohit Rawat and Shivani Dubey

MALVACEOUS CROP
5. Advances in Production Technology of Okra .......................................... 57
Suraj Luthra, Rajat Singh, Mohd. Wamiq and Agnivesh Yadav

CUCURBITS
6. Advances in Production Technology of Cucumber ................................. 65
Sajeel Ahamad, Ganesh Kumar Choupdar, Amit Kumar, Chhail Bihari,
Vivek Saurabh, Menaka M and Vinod B R

7. Advances in Production Technology of Muskmelon ............................... 79

Ramadugu Subash, Amit Kumar, Y Ram mohan, Mohd Wamiq,
Chakradhar paladugu and P Sudheer Kumar Reddy

8. Advances in Production Technology of Watermelon .............................. 91

A. Mamatha, Rajesh Kumar S P, Pavan Kumar G N, P. Vijay Babu and AVN Lavanya
vii
viii / contents

9. Advances in Production Technology of Pumpkin ................................. 107

Naveen Yadav Bairagani, Ramadugu Subash, Indraja Gudi,
Sudheer Kumar Reddy P, A. Reshma and Yellapu Rammohan

10. Advances in Production Technology of Summer Squash and

Winter Squash .......................................................................................... 119
Chhail Bihari, Rajat Rajput, Ajeet Kumar, Animesh Sarkar and Amit Kumar

11. Advances in Production Technology of Bottle Gourd .......................... 127

Mohd Wamiq, Manish Kumar, Suraj Luthra, Saurabh Kumar Singh and Suneel Kumar

12. Advances in Production Technology of Bitter Gourd ........................... 143

Imran Ali, Amit Kumar, Mohd Wamiq, Rahul Kumar and Vijay Pratap Yadav

13. Advances in Production Technology of Sponge Gourd and

Ridge Gourd ............................................................................................. 159
Chhail Bihari, Bibarie Mech, Abdul Rahman M, Animesh Sarkar, Manish Kumar
and Amit Kumar

14. Advances in Production Technology of Snake Gourd .......................... 171

Ganesh Kumar Choupdar, Sajeel Ahamad, Vivek Saurabh and Menaka M

15. Advances in Production Technology of Pointed Gourd ........................ 185

Amit Kumar, Saurabh Kumar Singh, Jagraj Singh, Mohd Wamiq,
Maneesh Kumar, Suneel Kumar and Ravi Kumar

16. Advances in Production Technology of Wax Gourd ............................. 197

Hradesh Shivhare

17. Advances in Production Technology of Ivy Gourd ............................... 207

Mohd Wamiq, Manish Kumar, Suraj Luthra, Khursheed Alam and Mujeev Ahmad

18. Advances in Production Technology of Chow-Chow ............................ 213

Nilakshi Bordoloi, T.P. Rathour, Rituraj Dutta and Anishta Rai

19. Advances in Production Technology of Long Melon ............................ 221

Prakash, Dhaneshvari Arya, Saurabh Yadav and Anuj Sohi

20. Advances in Production Technology of Snap Melon ............................ 233

Mohd Wamiq, Prof. Manoj Kumar Singh, Khursheed Alam and Amit Kumar
 contents / ix

21. Advances in Production Technology of Round Melon.......................... 241

Chetan Chauhan, Varsha Rani, Mukesh Kumar and Jagraj Singh

22. Advances in Production Technology of Spine Gourd ........................... 249

A.V.N. Lavanya, A. Mamatha, K. Chaitanya, T. Chandana, M. Shiva Prasad
and T. Mamatha
BEANS/LEGUMES VEGETABLE
23. Advances in Production Technology of Cowpea ................................... 259
Anjali Kumari Jha

24. Advances in Production Technology of Cluster Bean ........................... 269

P. Sudheer Kumar Reddy, Mondeddula Dhathri, K. Vaishnavi,
Ramadugu Subash and Malikireddy Jasmitha

25. Advances in Production Technology of French Bean ........................... 281

Mamatha A, Pavan Kumar G N, Rajesh Kumar S P, Vijay Babu P and Lavanya AVN

26. Advances in Production Technology of Indian Bean ............................ 295

Sajeel Ahamad, Chhail Bihari, Maneesh Kumar, Amit Kumar,
Ganesh Kumar Choupdar, Vivek Saurabh and Vinod B R

27. Advances in Production Technology of Lima Bean .............................. 303

Jagriti Pandey, Pragya Uikey, Anamika Pandey and Shikha Arya

28. Advances in Production Technology of Winged Bean .......................... 311

Pragya Uikey, Anamika Pandey, Jagriti Pandey and Shikha Arya

LEAFY VEGETABLES
29. Advances in Production Technology of Amaranthus ............................ 321
Pradip Kumar, Upasna Choudhary, Jagraj Singh, Shailendra Kumar, Vipin and
Nikhil Kumar Singh

SALAD VEGETABLES
30. Advances in Production Technology of Celery ...................................... 331
Prakash, Rameshwar Jangu, Anita Choudhary and Deepa Beniwal

31. Advances in Production Technology of Parsley .................................... 339

Jagraj Singh, Satya Prakash, Amit Kumar, Mohit, Chetan Chauhan and Imran Ali
x / contents

PERENNIAL VEGETABLES
32. Advances in Production Technology of Drumstick ............................... 345
Rajat Singh, Suraj Luthra, Pavan Prajapati, Anuj Sohi and Vivek Kumar

33. Advances in Production Technology of Curry Leaf.............................. 357

Afiya R S

OTHER ROOT CROPS AND TUBER CROPS

34. Advances in Production Technology of Cassava ................................... 365
T.P. Rathour and S. Bhowmik

35. Advances in Production Technology of Sweet Potato ........................... 373

Vadde Mounika, Talamarla Yeswanth Mahidar Gowd and T.P. Rathour

36. Advances in Production Technology of Dioscorea ................................ 381

Ramdeen Kumar, Amit Kumar, Rajiv K. Patel, Saurabh Kumar Singh and Vinayak

37. Advances in Production Technology of Taro ......................................... 389

Chandan Kumar, Dheeraj Singh, A. S. Tetarwal, A. Dudi, B. R. Kuri and
M. K. Ahirwar

38. Advances in Production Technology of Elephant Foot Yam ................ 401

T Yeswanth Mahidar Gowd, Vadde Mounika, and T.P. Rathour
Preface

Vegetables, specifically, hold a crucial position within horticulture, playing a significant role in
driving our economy forward. In recent years, the demand for tropical and sub-tropical vegetables
has increased significantly, leading to the need for advancements in production technology to meet
this demand. Tropical and sub-tropical regions, with their rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems,
present both unique challenges and immense opportunities for vegetable crop production. This has
resulted in the development of innovative techniques for vegetable cultivation. The advances in
production technology have not only increased the quality and quantity of tropical and sub-tropical
vegetables but also led to higher yields and improved economic returns for growers.

A thorough analysis of the many tropical and subtropical vegetable crops, including their taxonomy,
physiology, and special agronomic requirements, serves as the foundation for our study. We can adjust
production methods to enhance yields and quality while reducing environmental effects by studying
every aspect of the crops. This book satisfies the demand for a quality reference cum edited book
among students. The authors have done an exceptional job of compiling all the necessary information
related to tropical and sub-tropical vegetable production technology. They have presented it clearly
and concisely, making it easy to understand and apply. Every effort has been taken to assure the
accuracy of the data gathered from a variety of sources, including people, organizations, institutions,
and publications. We expect that this book will be a helpful resource for educators, professionals,
and learners seeking employment in ICAR institutions, State Agriculture University, State Public
Services/UPSC/ARS/JRF/SRF/ASRB-NET along with entrance examinations for B.Sc., M.Sc., and
Ph.D. Degree in Vegetable Science and also very useful for progressive farmers, and horticultural
extension workers, and boost farmers’ income.

We are thankful to our all authors, contributors, friends, seniors, and juniors for their excellent work,
and thank them for sharing their knowledge with us and for their moral support. We are also thankful
to Publication to bring the finest format of this book.

We are confident that readers will greatly benefit from the content of this book in their various
pursuits. We wholeheartedly welcome any suggestions or ideas to enhance its educational value. We
strive to make this book an even more enriching experience for readers by incorporating educational
features that promote deeper understanding and practical application of the concepts discussed.
Your input and contributions are highly appreciated in this endeavor.

Editors

xi
About the Editors

Mr. Amit Kumar is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Horticulture (Fruit

Science) from CoH, SVPUA&T, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. He has successfully
qualified for ICAR-ASRB NET in Fruit Science in 2021. He completed his
B.Sc. (Hons.) in Horticulture in 2019 from CoH, BUA&T, Banda, Uttar
Pradesh, and his M.Sc. (Ag) in Fruit Science and Horticulture Technology
in 2021 from CoA, OUA&T, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Mr. Kumar was
selected for the award of the ICAR PG Scholarship. He was also awarded
the Best Researcher Award (2021), Best Master Thesis Award (2022), Best
Research Scholar Award (2022), and Young Horticulturist Award (2023) by various Professional
Societies. He has published 16 Research Papers, 16 Review Papers, 35 Popular Articles, 25
Book Chapters, 03 Books, 01 Practical Manual, and More than 30 Abstracts as well during
his academic years. He has actively participated and presented his work in various National/
International Conferences, Training, Seminars, Webinars, and Workshops.
Dr. Satya Prakash currently working as a Professor and Head of the
Department of Fruit Science at the College of Horticulture, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology in Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh. Previously, he served as the Senior Scientist and Head at K.V.K.
Muzaffarnagar from December 2003 to May 2013. There he promoted
Floriculture and Vegetable intercropping with sugarcane and Gerbera
cultivation in ventilated poly house increasing the farmer’s income and
maximum utilization of natural resources. In recognition of his work, K.V.K.
Muzaffarnagar received the "Best K.V.K. Zonal Award 2013" from ICAR, New Delhi. From
May 2013 to April 2018, Dr. Prakash served as the Professor and Head at K.V.K. Saharanpur.
There he promoted Export quality production of Horticultural crops and Mushrooms. Again,
based on his contributions, K.V.K. Saharanpur was honored with the "Pandit Deendayal Krishi
Vigyan Protsahan Award 2016" from ICAR, New Delhi. Throughout his career, Dr. Prakash has
received awards and appreciation from various organizations, including Managing Directors
U.P.B.S.N, World Bank Mission, District Magistrate, and Ministry of Agriculture, GOI. He
has been honored with the SCSI Gold Medal award, Leadership Award, Summer Memorial
Award, Young Scientist Award, R.S. Yadav Outstanding Award, Fellow Award, Outstanding
Horticulturist Award, and Distinguished Scientist Awards from several reputable societies. Dr.
Prakash has also made significant contributions to academia, having guided three Ph.D. and
seven postgraduate students. He has authored 110 research papers in NAAS-rated journals,
eight books, 26 book chapters, nine technical bulletins and manuals, 81 articles, and presented
105 abstracts. Moreover, he has presented his research papers at 15 international conferences
and 39 national conferences. Dr. Prakash has delivered 135 horticultural talks on ETV U.P,
four talks on Doordarshan Delhi, and 158 talks on CRS. He has also participated in training
and study missions in Israel, Egypt, Indonesia, and Nepal, where he showcased his work in
international forums. Furthermore, he has represented his work in international forums through
training and study missions in Israel, Egypt, Indonesia, and Nepal.

xiii
xii / about the editors

Mr. Mohd Wamiq is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Horticulture in the

Department of Vegetable Science at the College of Horticulture, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh. He obtained his undergraduate and post-graduate degrees from
the Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences
in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh in 2020. In 2021, Mr. Wamiq successfully
qualified for the ICAR ASRB-NET in Vegetable Science. Mr. Wamiq has
published several research papers and review papers in both national and
international journals. Additionally, he has authored several articles in various magazines.
Mr. Chhail Bihari completed his B.Sc. (Hons) in Horticulture in 2019
from CoH, BUA&T, Banda, Uttar Pradesh, and his M.Sc. (Ag.) in
Vegetable Science in 2021 from DRPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar.
Currently, he is pursuing his Ph.D. in Horticulture (Vegetable Science) at
the College of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences, Nagaland
Central University, Medziphema, Nagaland. He successfully qualified for
the ICAR-ASRB NET in Vegetable Science in 2021 and achieved the 23rd
rank in JRF conducted by ICAR AIEEA (PG). He was awarded the ICAR-
JRF and UGC-Non-NET fellowship during his Ph.D. studies. In addition, he received the Best
Master's Thesis Award and the Best Research Scholar Award in 2023 from various professional
societies. He has published a few research papers, articles, and book chapters and presented his
work at various national and international conferences and seminars.
Mr. Sajeel Ahamad completed his B.Sc. (Hon’s) Horticulture with a Gold
Medal in 2019 from CoH, BUA&T, Banda, Uttar Pradesh and M.Sc. (Ag.)
Postharvest Technology in 2021 from ICAR-IARI New Delhi. Presently
he is pursuing his Ph.D. in Horticulture (Postharvest Management) from
ICAR-IARI New Delhi. He qualified ICAR-ASRB NET in Fruit Science
and Vegetable Science in 2021, and 2023 respectively. He has secured AIR
8th rank in JRF and 1st rank in SRF conducted by ICAR AIEEA (PG), and
ICAR AICE-JRF/SRF (Ph.D.) in 2019 and 2021 respectively. He was selected for the award
of ICAR-JRF and SRF fellowship. He was also awarded the Best Master Thesis award, Best
Research Scholar Award, and Young Horticulturist Award by various professional societies. He
has published 7 review papers, 10 popular articles, 12 book chapters, 2 Books, and 15 abstracts
and presented his work in various national and international conferences and seminars.
34

Advances in Produc on Technology of Cassava

T.P. Rathour1 and Snigdhya Bhowmik2
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
Nadia (West Bengal)
2
College of Agriculture, Pasighat (Arunachal Pradesh)

Introduction
Manihot esculenta, sometimes known as tapioca or cassava or yuca
(among other regional names), is a woody shrub that is native to
South America and is found in Brazil and certain areas of the Andes.
It belongs to family Euphorbiaceae and having chromosome number
2n=2X=36. Cassava is a perennial plant, although tropical and
subtropical areas widely farm it as an annual crop for its delicious
starchy root tuber, a significant source of carbohydrates. Most cassava
is consumed in its cooked form, but large amounts are also used to
extract tapioca, a starch that may be utilized in food, animal feed, and
industry. After rice and maize, cassava is the third-largest source of
Fig. 1 : Cassava
dietary carbs in the tropics. Over half a billion people rely on cassava
as a staple item to sustain their basic diet in the developing countries. It can thrive on poor soils and
is one of the most drought-tolerant crops. The Portuguese brought tapioca, a major starchy root crop
produced in the tropics, to India in the 17th century. Other names for tapioca are Cassava, Mandioc,
Manioc, Manihot, Yuca, Kahoy, etc. in different countries, and tapioca is also known as the “King of
Tropical Tuber Crops.” (Ashutosh Upadhyay and Pratyaksh Pandey, 2020) mostly grown in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka in southern peninsular India.

Area and production

Meanwhile, cassava spread to the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, where it
is used as raw material for the production of starch. Asia stands second in cassava production among
the cassava-producing continents in the world. In India, the total area and production were recorded
at 134 hectares and 4742 MT respectively (NHB 2021-22).

Botany
Tapioca is a member of the genus Manihot and species esculenta, but it is unknown in its natural
state. There are 98 species in the genus Manihot, which range from subshrubs to shrubs and trees
and the majority of them produce latex and have cyanogenic glucosides. Wild tapioca species have
slender, fibrous roots. From progenitors of tapioca are M. flabellifolia and M. peruviana in their
natural state. Tapioca is a thin, sparsely branching shrub that grows 2–7 meters tall. The stem is
366 / A Textbook on Advances in Production Technology of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Vegetable Crops

thick and palmately lobed, and the segments above obovate lanceolate, and glabrous. It also has
noticeable leaf scars. Near the ends of branches, axillary racemes give rise to inflorescences.
Male and female flowers are found at the top and bottom of the monoecious inflorescence,
respectively. The size of female flowers is greater than that of male flowers. Five joined, yellow-
tinged sepals make up each flower. Ten stamens, alternately long and short, converging and
diverging, are grouped in two whorls of five stamens in the male flower. Free filaments and tiny,
basifixed anthers are both present. orange-colored, fleshy, basal nectariferous disc.
Perianth lobes are entirely free in female flowers. The ovary is superior, situated on a glandular disc
with ten lobes, a tricarpellary, three loculi, and six ridges. Each locule contains a single ovule, and
the styles are surrounded by three-lobed stigmas, with the third lobe being the most lobed. The fruit
has nine longitudinal plicate wings and is ovoid in shape. Tapioca is cross-pollinated mostly by
entomophilous insects.

Fig. 2 : Cassava plants

Importance
This plant’s roots or tubers are its most valuable component. When compared to other tuber or root
crops, tapioca has the highest starch content (between 25 and 40 percent). HCN, a highly dangerous
substance, is found in tubers. Slices of tapioca will no longer contain cyanamide derivatives after
drying in the sun. An essential alternative energy source to meet the demands of the expanding
population. Tapioca has a greater potential for food production per unit of land area, the ability to
endure biotic and abiotic stresses, and the ability to adapt to dry conditions and marginal areas.

Soil and climate

The optimal soil for tapioca cultivation is any well-drained soil, especially red lateritic loam with a
pH range of 5.5-7.5. It grows most successfully in a tropical, warm, humid climate with an evenly
distributed annual rainfall of more than 100 cm. This crop can be grown up to an altitude of 1000
meters.

Field preparation
To get a fine tilth, plough the land 4–5 times. At least 30 cm of soil depth should be present, and
ridges and furrows should be formed with the following spacing.

Varieties
Sree Padmanabha: This variety is resistance to cassava mosaic disease. The growing season is
October through November, June through July. 38 t/ha is a moderate yield of tuber. upright posture
 Advances in Production Technology of Cassava / 367

with top branches. normal seed germination and blossoming. Long, cylindrical tubers with white
flesh that are low in cyanogenic glucoside. 270–300-day duration.
Sree Sahaya (H.2304): non-branching, multiple hybrid, and yield is 35-40 t/ha in 10-11 months.
Sree Prakash (S. 856): Non-branching, dwarf, early maturing (7-8 months), highly tolerant to
Cercospora leaf spot, and yield 35-40 t/ha.
Sree Harsha: Triploid clone, non-branching, and high starch content (38-41%).
Sree Vijaya, Sree Jaya: These are clonal selections with a short lifetime (6 months) that are
appropriate for low land cultivation as a rotation crop in paddy-based intercropping systems; they
yield 26 to 30 t/ha and are vulnerable to CMD.
Co 2, Co 3, CO (TP) 4, MVD 1, H 165, H 226, Sree Vishakam (H.1687) Sree Pekha, Sree Prabha,
Co (Tp) 5, H - 97, H - 165, H - 226 and are the most popular varieties of tapioca.

Season and propagation

Cassava needs irrigation around the area. The rainfed crop should be planted in April. Choose robust,
healthy, mosaic-free plants while taking planting supplies. Prepare setts from the center of the stem
that is 15 cm long and has 8 to 10 nodes. Avoid mechanical damage when handling and preparing
the setts. The cut end needs to be even. Before planting, soak the setts in 1 g of carbendazim in 1
liter of water for 15 minutes. Place the setts vertically on the sides of ridges and furrows, with the
buds pointing upward. For one hectare of planting, 17,000 sets are required. If the soil is rainfed,
the setts should be treated for 20 minutes with a solution of potassium chloride (5 g/lit) and two
micronutrients (ZnSO4 and FeSO4), each at 0.5%. The sets are submerged for 20 minutes in 30 g/l
each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria.

Minisett technique
Minisett cassava farming is a sensible choice for the quick reproduction of planting material (Shruthy
and Rajshree, 2020). In the conventional approach, planting material consists of stakes 20 cm long
with 10 to 12 nodes (buds). However, only two buds are often allowed to sprout before being saved,
with the remaining ones being thrown away and so squandered. By using the mini-sett approach,
it is feasible to maximize the likelihood that each bud will sprout and develop into a new plant,
improving the multiplication ratio. This method was devised on the premise that once the buds and
sprouts appeared, the roots would stop collecting nutrients from the mother planting material and
instead begin to draw them from the soil. Therefore, in terms of sprouting, the size of the planting
material may not truly matter. As a result, the conventional 20 cm long setts with 10–12 nodes might
be reduced to two nodes.

Planting
On the sides of ridges and furrows, place the setts vertically with buds pointing upward at the
following spacings.
• Under rainfed condition: 60 × 60 cm (27,777 setts)
• Under Irrigated condition: 75 x 75 cm (17,777 setts) and 90 x 90 cm (12,345 setts)
• Under Kanyakumari circumstances: 90 x 90 cm (12,345 setts)
368 / A Textbook on Advances in Production Technology of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Vegetable Crops

Irrigation
At the time of planting, the first irrigation should be applied. Second irrigation is administered on the
3rd day, then every 7 to 10 days up to the 3rd month, and every 20 to 30 days up until the 8th month.

Drip irrigation
Install the drip system with the main and sub-main, and space the inline laterals 1.5 meters apart. In
the lateral system, space the drippers 60 cm apart for 4 (Litre/hour) and 50 cm apart for 3.5 (Litre/
hour). The laterals should be positioned in the middle of each raised bed, which should be 120 cm
wide and 30 cm apart.

Sequential cropping
Grow Co2 vegetarian cowpea in the March and harvest green pods before growing cassava in June-
July. After harvesting the green pods, disc plough the cowpea haulms onto the field. Sequential
cropping reduces FYM (12.5 t/ha) and P (30 kg/ha) treatments by 50%.

Manuring
Irrigated crops: Apply 25 t/ha FYM and incorporate it during the ploughing process. Apply
45:90:120 kg of NPK/ha as a basal application and 45:120 kg of N:K/ha 90 days after planting
while preparing the soil.
Rainfed crop: FYM at 12.5 t/ha is utilised as a basis, together with 50 kg N, 65 kg P, and 125 kg
K/ha. When there has been rain for 30 to 60 days after planting, 2 kg of Azotobacter is sprayed into
the soil (2.0 kg Azotobacter + 20 kg FYM + 20 kg soil per ha).
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Fertigation
Fertigation requirement 90:90:240 kg of NPK per hectare throughout the cropping time, apply once
at every three days intervals.

Intercultural operation
• Gap filling: After planting, fill up all gaps within 20 days.
• Weeding: First weeding should be done 20 days after planting. Depending on the weed’s
aggressiveness, subsequent weeding should be performed once per month for up to 5 months.
• Thinning: Tinning should be on the 60th day after planting, thin to two shoots per plant.
• Intercropping: Grow aggregatum onions, coriander, short-lived legumes, and short-lived
vegetables as intercrops from the planting date for up to 60 days.

Plant protection
Insects and Pests
1. Mites: In summer damage high, blotching of leaves, yellowish specks initially occurs and
curling, drying and shedding of leaves. Spraying with Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lit between the
third and fifth month can help to control mites.
2. White fly (Bemisia tabaci): Chlorotic spots on the leaves which latter coalesce forming
irregular yellowing of leaf tissue.
• Development of sooty mould.
• Severe infestation results in premature defoliation.
• Vector of cassava mosaic virus.
Integrated pest control practices:
• Eliminate Abutilon indicum, an alternative weed host.
• Place 12 yellow sticky traps per hectare.
• Make smart use of nitrogen.
• Prevent overwatering.
• Spray 3% neem oil, 25 g/lit of fish oil rosin soap, or 25 EC/2 ml of methyl demeton. For
better contact with the foliage when using neem oil, teepol should be applied at 1 ml/lit.
Apply methyl demeton in the early phases of crop growth and phosphate in the late stages.
• Avoid using artificial pyrethroids.
• Don’t let the crop grow over its allotted time.
3. Spiralling white fly: Yellowing of leaves, sooty mould in lower leaves and dropping of affected
leaves are the major damaging symptoms.
• Develop resistant genotypes first.
• To lure the adult, install a sticky cum light trap and activate it between 4 and 6 in the
morning.
• Mist Triazophos 40 EC at 2 ml/lit or Dichlorvos 76 WSC at 1 ml/lit. Include a wetting
agent.
• Preserve the parasitoids Encarsia guadelupae and E. haitiensis.
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Diseases
1. Mosaic: White or pale-yellow or pale-green patches on infected leaves. The leaflets have a
localized mosaic pattern. Leaves are often twisted, distorted, and stunted. Whitefly (Bemisia
tabaci) is the carrier of the virus and transmission is through their feeding habits. The heavily
infected plant is distorted, retarded, and dwarfed.
Choose plants in good health for your planting supplies. Adopt the above-mentioned IPM
techniques for the control of white fly vectors.
2. Cercospora Leaf Spot: Sever spotting premature defoliation, spots are circular to angular,
greyish and velvety appearance are major symptoms of this disease and later plant will die.
Mancozeb, sprayed twice at intervals of 15 days, at a concentration of 2 g/lit, can control the
Cercospora leaf spot.
3. Tuber Rot: Cassava root rot diseases are caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora in the
soil. In poorly drained soils, where there is a prolonged wet period, the damage caused by these
microorganisms may be greater. There is no external symptom. When uproots the tuber only we
could see the symptom. The symptom starts as small water-soaked brown lesions in the tuber,
as the disease advances it covers the entire tuber. Finally, the tuber will rotten and exhibit a foul
smell
• Avoid stagnant water.
• Provide efficient drainage systems.
• Apply Trichoderma viride across the soil at a rate of 2.5 kg/ha as a base and at the third and
sixth months after planting.
• Spot drench with Copper Oxychloride 2.5 g/lit.

Plant physiological disorders

Iron Deficiency: When a deficiency symptom first appears, apply ferrous sulphate 2.5 g/lit 3 to 4
times over a weekly period. Lime should be added in an equal amount to neutralise the solution.

Chlorosis
By foliar spraying of 1% FeSO4 + 0.5% ZnSO4 at 60 and 90 DAP, the micronutrient deficit can be
managed.

Harvesting
Crop harvesting can begin nine to eleven months after sowing. The leaves turn yellow as the tuber
ages, and half of them dry out and fall off. The ground nearby the stem’s base has cracks in it. A fork
or crowbar can be used to uproot tubers.

Yield
The yield of cassava is depending on the soil, climate, variety, and management practices. The
average yield under rainfed conditions is 20 to 25 t/ha and in irrigated conditions is 40 to 50 t/ha.

Post-harvest practices
After the cassava harvest, you might engage in the following activities:
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• Utilize non-fibrous tubers that are no older than 10 months and no later than 16 months after
planting. After harvesting, they have to be utilized within 24 hours.
• Pre-drying: To effortlessly dispose of soil particles, sun-dry currently harvested roots for
no more than four hours.
• Processing of cassava chips: To remove dust and other foreign matter which could bring
about low-quality very last consequences, wash the roots with water. Cut the woody part of the
roots with a bolo or a sharp knife. Peel the roots that will be used to make flour or starch using
a sharp knife or bolo. However, it is not necessary to peel the roots for animal meals. Slice the
roots into tiny rounds no thicker than 5 mm.
• Direct sun-drying: Put bamboo or other woven mats on a level, clean surface that is completely
exposed to the sun. On the matting, distribute the chips similarly but not too closely.
• Granulation: Using a cassava granulator, fresh roots may also be minced into smaller pieces
that measure 8 to 10 mm. Granules are less cumbersome to carry, require less drying time, and
cost more.

Cassava flour and starch

• After peeling, wash the tuber again.
• Slice thinly or use a papaya shredder to shred.
• Allow settling after soaking or washing in water that removes some of the starch. Drain the
cassava shreds.
• With sinamay fabric, line a “bilao” or basket and lay the cassava shreds out. Dry till brittle or
crunchy.
• Put through a No. 120-mesh screen after grinding using a cornmeal grinder. The cassava flour is
shown here. Seal an airtight container, ideally one made of plastic, after packing.
• The starch was present in the water used to soak the cassava.
• Dry the starch fully outside in the sun after decanting out the water. Pack inside of dry containers.

Storage: There are several ways to store cassava. These include root storage in wooden boxes and
methods for storing soil. Choose a storage location that is acceptable, well-drained, ideally shady,
and somewhat sloping. Cassava shouldn’t be kept in a wet environment since the roots will quickly
rot.

Future prospects
Cassava/Tapioca holds significant promise as a future prospect for crop improvement, playing a
crucial role in ensuring food security and sustainable agriculture. As global population growth and
climate change pose challenges to traditional crop cultivation, enhancing cassava’s traits becomes
increasingly important. Researchers are focusing on various aspects of cassava improvement,
including enhanced yield, disease resistance, nutritional content, and climate resilience. Genetic
modification and advanced breeding techniques are being employed to develop cassava varieties
with increased starch content, improved protein quality, and enhanced tolerance to pests, diseases,
and environmental stressors. Additionally, efforts are being made to reduce cyanogenic compounds
in cassava, making it safer for consumption and addressing food safety concerns. Moreover,
developing cassava varieties with shorter growth cycles can facilitate multiple harvests in a year,
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increasing overall productivity. Collaborative initiatives between research institutions, governments,

and local communities are pivotal in realizing these improvements. By harnessing the potential of
cassava through innovative research and sustainable agricultural practices, we can ensure a more
resilient and nutritious food supply for the growing global population while promoting economic
growth and environmental stewardship.

References
Anonymous, (2020-21). National Horticulture Board, Indian Horticulture Database. Ministry of Agriculture &
Farmers Welfare, Government of India. www.agricoop.nic.in
Chadha, K.L. (2019). Hand Book of Horticulture. Second Edition, Volume 1, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi.
Ashutosh Upadhyay and Pratyaksh Pandey (2020): Just Agriculture, Cultivation of cassava/Tapioca (Manihot
esculenta Crantz) in India. 1(2): 161-164.
Sruthy, K. T. and Rajasree, G. 2020. Minisett Nursery Techniques in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): A
Review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 9(03): 2731-2735.