HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY 3

COURSE INTRODUCTION
This subject provides the basic principles and ideas about Human Behavior and
Victimology as one of the major subjects for criminology course. Furthermore, this topic
comprises part of the 20% in the Criminology Licensure Examination under Criminal
Sociology area. We study Human Behavior and Victimology, as part of the professional
subjects under the Criminal Justice Education curriculum to necessitate the need of
understanding why people act in a certain matter. Criminologists in our fields would
require such comprehension in the aim to analyze crime, which human commit, provide
a strategy for its prevention and devise methods for proper treatment .

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course covers the study on human behavior with emphasis on the concept of
human development and abnormal behavior. It includes strategies and approaches for
handling different kinds of abnormal behavior in relation to law enforcement and criminal
proceedings. It also includes the study of victimization, the role of community and
techniques in assisting offender’s reintegration and victim’s recovery.
COURSE OUTLINE
CHAPTER I – Introduction to Human Behavior
Part 1: Overview on Human Behavior
 What is Behavior?
 Kinds of Behavior
 Aspects of Behavior
 What is Human Behavior?
 Classification of Human Behavior
 Theories of Child(Human Development)
 Freuds Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)
 Trait Theory
 Personality Trait by Eysenck
 Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
Part 2: Abnormal Behavior
 What is Abnormal Behavior?
 What is Psychopathology?
 The 4Ds
 Identification of Abnormal Behavior
 Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
Part 3: Mental Disorder
 What is Mental Disorder
 What is Mental Retardation
 Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation
 Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation

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Part 4: Criminal Behavior
 What is Criminal Behavior
 Origins of Criminal Behavior
 The terrible triad for serial killers
 Childhood characteristics of serial killer
 What is Human Intelligence
 Binet Scale of Human Intelligence

CHAPTER II – Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanism

Part 1: Emotion
 What is Emotion
 Theories of Emotion
Part 2: Conflict
 What is Conflict
 Types of Conflict
Part 3: Depression
 What is Depression
 Causes of Depression
 Symptoms of Depression
 Different Forms of Depression
 How to Battle Depression?
Part 4: Stress
 What is Stress
 What is Stressor
 Two Types of Stress
 Three stages of Stress (General Arousal Syndrome/ GAS)
 Types of Short-Term Stress
 Types of Long-Term Stress
Part 5 : Frustration
 What is Frustration
 What is Internal/Personal Frustration
 Common Responses to Frustration
Part 6 : Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism
 What is Coping Mechanism?
 What is Defense Mechanism
 List of Coping Mechanism
CHAPTER III –DISORDERS
Part 1: Anxiety Disorder
 What is Anxiety
 Symptoms of Anxiety Disorder
 Types of Anxiety Disorder
Part 2: Mood Disorders
 Types of Mood Disorder
Part 3: Personality Disorder
 Types of Personality Disorders

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  Cluster A. Odd or Eccentric Disorder
 Cluster B. Dramatic, Emotional or Erratic Behavior
 Cluster C. Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
Part 4: Schizophrenia
 Schizophrenia Hallucination
 Characteristics of Schizophrenia
Part 5: Sexual Disorder or Sexual Dysfunction
 Types of Sexual Dysfunction
 Paraphillias
 Common Forms of Paraphilia
 Categories of Sexual Abnormalities

CHAPTER IV: VICTIMOLOGY

 History of Victimology
 Who is a Victimologist?
 Goals of Victimology
 Origin of Victimology
 Origin of Victim
 The Nature of Victimization
 Victim Characteristics
 Who is a Crime Victim
 Victimology versus Criminology
 Who Fear Crime?
 Near – Theories of Victimization
 Three Kinds of Crime Victim
 Von Hentig’s Classes of Victim
 Types of Victim/s
 Victim Precipitation Theory (1941) by Von Hentig
 Cohen and Felson’s (1979) Routine Activities Theory

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DISCUSSION OF TOPIC

CHAPTER I – Introduction to Human Behavior

Part I - OVERVIEW ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR

What is Behavior?
Behavior is a fundamental aspect of human and animal life, and includes patterns
of behavior, reactions, and activities that individuals or groups exhibit in relation to their
environment. The term 'behavior' refers to the observable and measurable activities of
humans and animals, ranging from simple reflexive actions to complex cognitive
processes.

Kinds of Behavior

Kinds Nature Examples

Overt Behaviors that are directly observable. Smiling, Pouting, Crying
Covert Behaviors that are hidden or not visible Hatred, Cursing, Jealousy,
to the naked eye. etc
Conscious Acts which are within the level of Walking, Clapping, etc.
awareness.
Unconscious Acts that are embedded in one’s Mannerisms
subconscious.
Simple Acts categorized according to the Smiling, Winking of the
number of neurons involved in the eye, etc.
process of behaving.
Complex Acts involving the use of more number of Dancing, Laughing,
neurons which are combination of simple Running, Crying
behaviors.
Rational Behaviors that are manifested with sanity Logical Reasoning
or reason.
Irrational Behaviors with no apparent reason or Laughing out loud at
explanation. nobody or nothing in
particular.
Voluntary Act done with full volition of will. Making decisions
Involuntary Bodily processes that goes on even Respiration, Circulation,
when we are awake or asleep. Digestion,
Somnambulism, etc.

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Aspects of Behavior

Aspects Nature
Intellectual Behaviors which pertain to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving
problem, processing information and coping with environment.
Emotional Behaviors which pertain to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong
motivation force.
Social Behavior which pertain to how we interact or relate with other people.
Moral It pertains to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
Psychosexual It pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love.
Political It pertains to our ideology towards society or government.
Values or It pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes.
Attitude

What is Human Behavior?

Human Behavior is the study of human conduct, the way a person behaves or acts;
includes the study of human activities in an attempt to discover recurrent patterns and
to formulate rules about man’s social behavior.
Human Behavior refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person in order to
fit the society’s idea of right or wrong, partly determined by heredity and environment,
and modified through learning. It is the way also how human beings act. Many people
use the word behavior to mean conduct. But in psychology and other behavioral
science, behavior is regarded as any activity of a person.
Human Behavior – is the voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person adopts in order
to fit the society’s idea of right or wrong.

Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

1. Inherited or Innate Behavior – refers to any behavioral response or reflex
exhibited by people dye to their genetic endowment or the process of natural
selector.
2. Learned or Operant Behavior – it involves the cognitive adaptation that
enhances the human being’s ability to cope with changes in the environment and
to manipulate the environment in ways, which improve the chances for survival.

Factors that Affect Human Behavior

1. Heredity – it is determined through genes. Genes are the segments of cell
structures called chromosomes by which parents pass on traits to their
offspring; genes are composed of chemical substances that give the offspring
a tendency toward certain physical and behavioral qualities.
2. Environment – consists of the condition and factors that surround and influence
an individual.
3. Learning – this is the process by which behavior chances because of experience
or practice.

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Goals and Objectives of studying Human Behavior
1. To describe behaviour whether normal and acceptable norms or its abnormal and a
deviant behaviour.
2. To identify factors that can predict behaviour, e.g. depressed, unrealistic and
unreasonable.
3. To understand and explain by identifying causes that bring about certain effects,
assemble them which are common facts or gather facts and define principles.
4. To control and change behaviour as a result of the prediction.

Classification of Human Behavior

1. Habitual – refers to demeanors which are resorted to in a regular basis it be

further characterized as: emotional and language.

2. Instinctive – are human conduct, which is unlearned and inherent, said to be

present at birth of a person, and significantly influenced by heredity.

3. Complex – refers to two or more habitual behavior which occurs in one situation.

Theories of Child (Human) Development

A. Personality Theory
Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

The structure of personality/tripartite personality

The structure of personality is made up of three major systems: the Id, the ego and
the super ego. Behavior is always the product of an inter action among these three
system; rarely does one system operate to the exclusion of the other two.

a. Id – id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on
the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for

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 the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented
part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification.

Freud called the id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world
of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.

b. Ego – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego’s
job is to meet the needs of the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality.
The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the
id must be constrained (reality principle).

Ego is the moderator between the id and the super ego which seeks compromises
to pacify both. It can be viewed as our “sense of time and place”.

c. Superego (conscience of man) – the superego develops during the phallic stage as
a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed
that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instinct of the id (resulting in a
high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting
in a low level of guilt.
Superego internalized societal and parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right
and “wrong” behavior (Burger, 2000)

Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

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 Freud’s model of personality development is the following:
1. Oral stage (0-18 months)

This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the
mouth. Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant
enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated as this
stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and
suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of
admiration for others.
2. Anal stage (18 months-3 years)

When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn
how much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can
have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to
punish them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion
of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represent external pressure to control bodily
functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an
anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant.
Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces thereby spiting his parents and may develop
an anal-retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate.

3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

Genitals become primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on
masturbation that is, on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction
to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and
become rivals with their father for her affection.
The reminiscent with Little Hans’ case study. So the boys develop a fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify with him
rather than for fight him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and
represses his sexual feeling towards his mother.
This is known as:
a. Oedipus complex – this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and
loving relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).

b. Electra complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense

emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
Note: the Oedipus complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father
and married his mother.

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 4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the
process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles
playing house and sports.
5. Genitals stage (11 years)

This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in
obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and
lead to orgasm for the first. Sexual and romantic interests in others also become a central
motive.

What is Trait Theory?

Trait approach – trait approach identifies where a person might lie along continuum of
various personality characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits
that make up personality, the differences between people in terms of their personal
characteristics and how they relate to actual behavior.
Trait refers to the characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of
behaving, thinking, and feeling (Wade,et. Al, 2003)
Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait
1. Extraversion.

Extraversion is a measure of how energetic, sociable and friendly a person is.

Extraverts are commonly understood as being a ‘people’s person’ drawing energy
from being around others directing their energies towards people and the outside
world. Often seen as the ones talking the most in a social situation, extraverts are
traditionally characterized by sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and excitability.
2. Neuroticism

Neuroticism is typically defined as a tendency toward anxiety, depression, self-doubt,

and other negative feelings. All personality traits, including neuroticism, exist on a
spectrum—some people are just much more neurotic than others. It is sometimes
described as low emotional stability or negative emotionality.
3. Psychoticism.

Psychoticism states that a person will exhibit some qualities commonly found among
psychotics, and that they may be more susceptible, given certain environments, to
becoming psychotic. Examples of such psychotic tendencies include recklessness,
disregard for common sense, and inappropriate emotional expression to name a few
(Boeree, 1998)

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PART 2: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

What is Abnormal Behavior?

Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive or maladjusted behavior) – A group of behaviors
that is deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard
behavior of society.

What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to
understand their genetic, biological, psychological, and social causes.

The 4Ds
A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality;

1. Deviance – this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and
emotions are considered deviant because they are unacceptable or not common
in society.
2. Distress – this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the
disorder.
3. Dysfunction – this term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s
ability to perform normal daily functions, such as getting for work in the morning or
driving a car.
4. Danger – this term involves dangerous and violent behavior directed at the
individual, or others in the environment.

Identification of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:

1. Deviation from Statistical Norm – The word abnormal means` away from the
norm’. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and
intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a
few are abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is
extremely intelligent would be classified as abnormal. Examples are:

 Intelligence – it is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on

an IQ test or to get a score below 55, but only the lower score is considered
abnormal (Wakefield, 1992).
 Anxiety – A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and
someone who almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.

2. Deviation from Social Norm – Every culture has certain standards for acceptable
behavior; behavior that deviates from the standard is considered to be abnormal
behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to
another.

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 3. Maladaptive Behavior - Maladaptive behavior can result when a person just does
not see a path to their desired future. This can happen with any chronic illness or
major lifestyle change. With maladaptive behavior, self-destructive actions are
taken to avoid undesired situations. Maladaptive behaviors like these can become
a self-destructive pattern:
 Passive-aggressiveness. This is when you express negative feelings
indirectly rather than head-on. You say one thing but really mean another.
Your true feelings are woven into your actions.
 Withdrawal. When avoidance is your go-to strategy, you’re effectively
withdrawing from social interaction. Consider the college student who uses
video games to avoid joining clubs or meeting new people. The games are
a distraction and provide temporary relief from anxiety.
 Self-Harm. Some people deal with stressful events by hurting themselves,
such as:
a) cutting, scratching, or burning skin
b) picking at scabs or wounds
c) pulling out hair, eyelashes, or eyebrows d) self-hitting or banging your
head e) refusal to take needed medications

4. Personal Distress – The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the

individual’s subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most
people commonly diagnosed as `mentally ill’’ feel miserable, anxious, depressed
and may suffer from insomnia (Whitford, et. al., 2006)

5. Failure to Function Adequately

Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to
cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the
behaviors necessary for day – to – day living e.g., self – care, hold down a job,
interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. Suffering;
b. Maladaptiveness (danger to self);
c. Vividness and unconventionality (stands out);
d. Unpredictably and loss of control;
e. Irrationality/incomprehensibility;
f. Causes observer discomfort, and
g. Violates moral/social standards.

6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what
normal/ideal is and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This
requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary to mental
health. The six criteria by which mental health could be measured are as follows:

LEA T. SAPUAY 11
 a. Positive view to the self;
b. Capability for growth and development;
c. Autonomy and independence;
d. Accurate perception and reality;
e. Positive friendships and relationships, and;
f. Environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day – to – day
situations).

Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

The following are the signs of abnormal behavior:
 Long Periods of Discomfort – This could be anything as simple as worrying
about a calculus test or grieving the death of a loved one. When such distressing
feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated
to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and could
suggest a psychological disorder.

 Impaired Functioning – Here, a distinction must be made between simply a

passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems
unexplainable.

 Bizzare Behavior – Bizzare Behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate
that the individual is confused. The psychoses frequently results to hallucinations
(baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet
held as true by the individual).

 Disruptive Behavior – Disruptive Behavior means impulsive, apparently

uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their
human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe
psychological disorder.

PART 3: MENTAL DISORDER

What is Mental Disorder?

- Mental disorder from sociological viewpoint is the persistent inability to adapt
oneself to the ordinary environment. It is the individual’s loss of power to regulate
his actions and conduct according to the rules of society.
-
What is Mental Retardation?
- It is defined as an intellectual functioning level (as measured by standard tests for
intelligence quotient) well below average and significant limitations in daily living
skills (adaptive functioning).

- It refers to a mental disorder characterized by sub – average general functioning

existing concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental
disorder before the age of eighteen (18). The person suffering from low IQ.,
difficulty focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.

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Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation
1. Mild mental retardation (I.Q. 50 – 70) – educable
Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded
category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-70 and they can often acquire academic
skills up to about the sixth-grade level.
2. Moderate mental retardation (I.Q. 35– 55) – trainable
About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded.
Moderately retarded persons have IQ Scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry
out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision.
3. Severe mental retardation (I.Q. 20 – 40) – dependent retarded
About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely
retarded persons have IQ Scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care
skills and some communication skills.
4. Profound mental retardation (I.Q. under 20-25) – life support retarded
Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded.
Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ Scores under 20-25. They may be able
to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and
training.

Symptoms of Mental Retardation

 Failure to meet developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, walking, or

talking, in a timely manner
 Persistence of childlike behavior, possibly demonstrated in speaking style, or by a
failure to understand social rules or consequences of behavior
 Lack of curiosity and difficulty solving problems
 Decreased learning ability and ability to think logically
 Trouble remembering things
 An inability to meet educational demands required by school.

PART 4: CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

What is Criminal Behavior?

Criminal Behavior refers to the behavior which is criminal in nature; a behavior which
violates a law. It is also refers to conduct of an offender that leads to and including the
commission of an unlawful act.

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 Origins of Criminal Behavior
1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable
consequences of the bad seed or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition
toward antisocial and criminal conduct. The following are some studies and
theories related to biological causes of crime:
a. Born Criminal (Cesare Lombroso)
b. Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretchmer & William Sheldon)
c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)
2. Personality Disorder Factor
Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of
disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early
adolescence and continues into childhood such as Anti-Social Personality
Disorder (Psychoanalytic Theory-Sigmund Freud)
3. Learning Factor
Learning factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or
listening to people around us. The following are related learning theories are;
a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)
b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde)
c. Identification Theory (Daniel Classer)

What is a Serial Killer?

Serial murder, also called serial killing, the unlawful homicide of at least two people
carried out by the same person (or persons) in separate events occurring at different
times.

The term serial murder was popularized in the 1970s by Robert Ressler, an
investigator with the Behavioral Science Unit of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation.
The FBI originally defined serial murder as involving at least four events that take place
at different locations and are separated by a cooling-off period.

What is Macdonald Triad?

In 1963, forensic psychiatrist J. M. Macdonald observed in a paper, "The Threat to

Kill," that these behaviors (along with two others) often showed up in his most aggressive
and sadistic patients. Macdonald had compared 48 psychotic patients against 52 non-
psychotic patients who all had threatened to kill someone.

The three characteristics of almost serial killers during their childhood are: bed-
wetting, fire-starting and animal torture.

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The terrible triad for serial killers
The three characteristics of almost serial killers during their childhood are: bed-
wetting, fire-starting and animal torture.
1. Bed-wetting- bed wetting is the most intimate of these, “triad” symptoms, and is
less likely to be wilfully divulged. By some estimates, 60% of multiple murderers
wet their beds past adolescence. Kenneth Bianchi apparently spent many a night
marinating in urine-soaked sheets.

2. Fire-starting (fascination of fire) – Children and young people start to play with
fire for various reasons, ranging from natural curiosity in toddlers to older children
using fire setting to express feelings of anger or emotional distress.
The signs particularly point to those who intentionally use fire to harm, such
as setting fire to a place frequented by people. This is said to be a young person’s
first attempt at showing aggression or violence.
In other cases, fire setting can also be a way of releasing pent-up frustration
and anger. Fire fascination was an early manifestation of their obsession with
destruction.
Otis Toole and Carl Panzram were two serial killers who started fire during
their childhood. Carl Panzram burned down the reformatory he was sent to. Toole
set fire to a neighbor’s house. Fire fascination was an early manifestation of their
obsession with destruction.

3. Animal Torture (Cruelty to Animals) – Most serial killers, before moving to

human victims, start with animals.
Ed Kemper killed neighborhood cats. A dog’s severed head was found on
a stick in the wood near Jeffrey Dahmer’s childhood home.
Note: There is no guarantee that if the three aforesaid conditions are present, the child
will grow as serial killer. They are only early signs to beware of.

Childhood characteristics of serial killer

a. Majority of serial killers have a history of sexual and physical abuse during their
childhood.
b. Half of the serial killers’ families, the biological father had left before the child were
12 years old. In cases where the father didn’t leave, he was domineering and
abusive.
c. Delinquent acts such as pyromania, theft, and cruelty to animals were present
during the childhood of the most killers.

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 Famous Serial Killers

1. Ted Bundy

He was a 1970s serial murderer, rapist and necrophiliac. He was executed in Florida's
electric chair in 1989. His case has since inspired many novels and films about serial
killers. Bundy confessed to 36 killings of young women across several states in the 1970s,
but experts believe that the final tally may be closer to 100 or more. The exact number of
women Bundy killed will never been known. His killings usually followed a gruesome
pattern: He often raped his victims before beating them to death.

2. Edmund Kemper

He killed both his grandparents at the age of 15 to "see what it felt like." Upon release,
he drifted, picking up and releasing female hitchhikers. But he soon stopped letting them
go, killing six young women in the Santa Cruz, California, area in the 1970s. In 1973 he
killed his mother and her friend before turning himself in.

3. Jeffrey Dahmer

He was an American serial killer who took the lives of 17 males between 1978 and
1991. Over the course of more than 13 years, Dahmer sought out men, mostly African
American, at gay bars, malls and bus stops, lured them home with promises of money or
sex, and gave them alcohol laced with drugs before strangling them to death. He would
then engage in sex acts with the corpses before dismembering them and disposing of
them, often keeping their skulls or genitals as souvenirs. He frequently took photos of his
victims at various stages of the murder process, so he could recollect each act afterward
and relive the experience.

4. Ed Gein

He grew up in a repressive household dominated by a controlling mother. Following

her death in 1945, his mental health disintegrated. After Gein was apprehended as a
suspect in a 1957 murder, the investigation of his home yielded a highly disturbed man
who kept human organs and fashioned clothing and accessories out of body parts

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What is Human Intelligence?
Human Intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics. First,
Intelligence is best understood as a compilation of brain-based cognitive abilities.
According to 52 eminent researches, intelligence reflects`` a very general mental
capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems,
think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience’’.

Binet Scale of Human Intelligence

IQ SCORE Original Name Modern Name

Below 20 Idiot Profound
20 to 49 Imbecile Severe
50 to 69 Moron/Feebleminded Moderate
70 to 79 Borderline Deficiency Mild
80 to 89 Dull Dull Normal
90 to 109 Normal or Average
110 to 119 Superior
120 to 139 Very Superior
Over 140 Genius or Near Genius

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 CHAPTER II – Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanism

PART 1: EMOTION
What is Emotion?

 Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts

and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial
expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings.

 Emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and
psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. Emotionality is associated with
a range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and
motivation.

 Emotions are conscious mental reactions (such as anger or fear) subjectively experienced
as strong feelings usually directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by
physiological and behavioral changes in the body. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

NOTE:
Personality is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make
a person unique.
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors

Categories for Theories of emotion are:

The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories: physiological,
neurological, and cognitive.
1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for
emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses.
3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in
forming emotions.

Theories of emotion are:

1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange – James Lange theory
states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the
environment: emotion occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and its
derivatives states that a change situation leads to changed bodily stat. as James
says” the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion.”

2. Cannon-bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- this suggest that
people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion
and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. These actions include changes
in muscular tension, perspiration, etc. The theory was formulated following the
introduction of the Jame-lange theory of emotion in the late 1800s, which
alternately suggested that emotion is the result of one’s perception of their reaction
or bodily change.
Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire.

LEA T. SAPUAY 18
PART 2. CONFLICT

Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between
incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is an negative emotional state caused by an
inability to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse (uriarte,2009)

TYPES OF CONFLICT
The following are the types of conflict:

1. Psychological Conflict (internal conflict) – psychological conflict could be going

on inside the person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values)
Freud would say unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our
personalities are always in conflict.

2. Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:

A . Interpersonal Conflict.
B . Two individual me against you
C. Inter-group Struggles – us against them;
D. Individual Opposing a Group – me against them, them against me;
E. Intra-Group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a task.
F. Approach-Avoidance – Conflict can be described as having features of approach
and avoidance: approach-approach ; avoidance-avoidance; approach-
avoidance.

NOTE: Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that
we do not want.

Kinds of Approach-Avoidance

a. Approach-Approach Conflict – In Approach Approach Conflict, the individual

must choose between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In these
two pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.

Examples: A student wishes to pursue a graduate degree and has been accepted into two graduate
programs and needs to make a decision about which one to attend.

GOAL+ PERSON GOAL+

LEA T. SAPUAY 19
 b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – avoidance-avoidance conflict involves more
obvious sources of stress. The individual must choose between two or more
negative outcomes. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot keep
quiet without opting also.

Examples: a woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has
to remain unemployed. “I don’t want this, and I don’t want that.

GOAL+ PERSON GOAL+

c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – approach-avoidance conflict exists when there

is an attractive and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a
positive goal necessity, a negative outcome as well.

Examples: Gina is beautiful, but she is lazy. “I want this, but I don’t want what this
entails”

Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important
final exam. Cheating will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also a good grade.

d. Multiple-Approach-avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex

combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose
between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences
(Lahey, 2001)

Example: A woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive valences like-
providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.
Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because she has to quit her
attractive job and salary, recognition which makes her dependent, the situation builds up tension
in her.

PART 3. DEPRESSION
Depression is an illness that cause a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the
time. It is different from normal feelings or sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can
have depression. If often runs in families. But if can also happen to someone who does
not have a family history of depression. You can have depression one time or many times.

LEA T. SAPUAY 20
Causes of depression

The causes of depression are not entirely understood. Things that may trigger depression
include:
Abuse. Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse can make you more vulnerable to
depression later in life.
Age. People who are elderly are at higher risk of depression. That can be made worse
by other factors, such as living alone and having a lack of social support.
Conflict. Depression in someone who has the biological vulnerability to it may result
from personal conflicts or disputes with family members or friends.
Death or a loss. Sadness or grief after the death or loss of a loved one, though
natural, can increase the risk of depression.
Gender. Women are about twice as likely as men to become depressed. No one's
sure why. The hormonal changes that women go through at different times of their
lives may play a role.
Major events. Even good events such as starting a new job, graduating, or getting
married can lead to depression. So can moving, losing a job or income, getting
divorced, or retiring. However, the syndrome of clinical depression is never just a
"normal" response to stressful life events. •
Substance misuse. Nearly 30% of people with substance misuse problems also have
major or clinical depression. Even if drugs or alcohol temporarily make you feel better,
they ultimately will aggravate depression.

SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION
People who are depressed may:
 Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness
 Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, even over small matters
 Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as sex, hobbies or sports
 Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much
 Tiredness and lack of energy, so even small tasks take extra effort
 Reduced appetite and weight loss or increased cravings for food and weight gain
 Anxiety, agitation or restlessness
 Slowed thinking, speaking or body movements
 Feelings of worthlessness or guilt, fixating on past failures or self-blame
 Trouble thinking, concentrating, making decisions and remembering things
 Frequent or recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal thoughts, suicide attempts or suicide
 Unexplained physical problems, such as back pain or headaches

LEA T. SAPUAY 21
What are the different forms of depression?

There are several forms of depressive disorder the most common are
Major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder.

1. Major depressive disorder – this is also called major depression. It is

characterized by a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability
to work, sleep, study, eat and enjoyed once – pleasurable activities. Major
depression disabling and prevent a person from functioning normally. An episode
of major depression may occur only once in a person lifetime, but more often, it
recurs throughout a person’s life.

2. Dysthymic Disorder- (or also referred to as Dysthymia) – The symptoms do not

occurs for more than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is
described as having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than major
Depression. Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years
accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:

A. Decrease or increase in eating;

B. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
C. Low energy of fatigue;
D. Low self-esteem;
E. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
F. Feeling hopeless.

3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is

accompanied by some form of psychosis, such as a break with reality,
hallucinations, and delusions.

4. Postpartum Depression – This is a major depressive episode that occurs after

having a baby. A new mother develops a major depressive episode within one
month after delivery. It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience
postpartum depression after giving birth. In rare cases, a woman has a severe form
of depression called postpartum psychosis. She may act strangely, see or hear
things that aren’t there, and be danger to herself and her baby.

5. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a

depressive illness during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight.
The depression generally lifts during spring and summer. SAD may be effectively
treated with light therapy , but nearly half of those with SAD do not respond to light
therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and psychotherapy can reduce SAD
symptoms, either alone or combination with light therapy.

6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common

as major depression or dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical

LEA T. SAPUAY 22
 mood changes-form extreme highs (e.g., mania) to extreme lows (e.g.,
depression).

7. Endogenous Depression - Endogenous means from within the body. This type
of depression is defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.

8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression (also known as adjustment

disorder with depressed mood) – depressive symptoms develop in response to a
specific stressful situation or event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending). These
symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and lasts no longer than 6 months
after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended. Depression symptoms cause
significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g. relationship, work, school) and
do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder.

PART 4. STRESS

Stress refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism – human or animal – to

respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined.
Stress is a form of the middle English destresse, derived via old French from the
latin STRINGERE, to draw tight.
The term stress was first employed in biological context by the endocrinologist
HANS SELYE in the 1930s. Stress can through as any event that strains or exceeds an
individual’s ability to cope. (lazarus 1999)

What is stressor?

Stress or is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or

positive) for example, getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a
great deal of stress with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.

Two types of stress

1. Eustress (positive)- eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives
from the Greek EU meaning either “well” or “good’. When attached to the word
“stress”’ it literally means “Good Stress”

It is a stress that is healthy or gives one of feeling of fulfillment or other positive

feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances
function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work) is
considered eustress.

2. Distress (Negative) - distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress

that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to
anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior (lazarus 1974).

LEA T. SAPUAY 23
Three stages of stress

1. Alarm- alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realize
the body’s stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenalin will be
produce in order to bring about the fight –or-flight response.

2. Resistance – resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes

necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body
begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body
cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.

3. Exhaustion- exhaustion is the third and final stage in the general arousal
syndrome (GAS) model. At this point, all of the body’s resources are eventually
depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic
nervous system symptoms may reappear sweating, raised heart rate etc.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers,
depression, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular
problem, along with other mental illnesses.
TYPES OF SHORT-TERM STRESS

1. Acute Time- acute time refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and
are over relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing math in your
head fall in this category. This thing may come on without warning but are short in
duration.

2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in duration.

Think of a classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses that rise out of other
things (like a course of study) and are over quickly.

Types of long-term stress

1. Stressful Event Sequences – stressful event sequences stress is a single event

that start from a chain of challenging situations. For example, losing a job or
surviving a natural disaster.

2. Chronic Stress – chronic stress lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people
two assume new roles or change their self-perception think of a refugee living their
native country or an injury leading to permanent disability. This are life-changing
events- your rarely get to go back to the way things were.

3. Distant Stress - Distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood
abuse or trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the
immune system distant stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional and
mental health (scott,2011)

LEA T. SAPUAY 24
PART 5. FRUSTRATION
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from
reaching a goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic
activity resulting from a blocked goal. It is associated with motivation since we won’t be
frustrated if we were not motivated to achieve the goal frustration may be external or
personal.

What is External Frustration?

External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that
impedes progress toward a goal.

What is Personal Frustration?

Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual's inner characteristic
that impedes progress toward a goal (Uriate, 2009)

Sources of Frustration

1. Physical Obstacles such as: drought typhoons flat tire, etc. that prevents a person
from doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.

2. Social circumstances such as: obstacles through the restriction imposed by other
people and customs and laws social being

3. Personal Shortcomings such as: handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness

or paralysis

4. Conflicts between Motives such as: wanting to leave college for a year to try
painting but also wanting to please one parent by remaining in school.

The following are common responses to frustration:

1. Aggression - it refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person
or objects. the intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.

2. Displaced Aggression - it refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other

than the actual source of one's frustration

3. Scapegoating - it refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for

conditions not of their making

4. Escape - it is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by

psychologically withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or
illegal drug use.

LEA T. SAPUAY 25
PART 6. COPING MECHANISM VS. DEFENSE MECHANISM

Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with mirror to major
stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious one’s other are learned
behaviours and still other are skills that individuals consciously master in order to reduce
stress or other intense emotions like depression. Not all ways of coping are equally
beneficial, and some can actually be very detrimental.

Defense mechanism refer to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. these are

unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with
reality and to maintain self-image healthy persons normally use different defenses
throughout life according to Freud defense mechanism are method that ego uses to avoid
recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety: it is the unrealistic
strategies use by the ego to discharge tension (lahey, 2001 &Rathus, 2003).

The following is the complete list of coping mechanism:

1. Acting Out - this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the
super ego and yet desired by the Id. We thus cope with the pressure to do what
we believe is wrong by giving in to the desire. A person who is acting out desires
may do it in spite of his/her conscience or may do it with relatively little thought
thus the act may be being deliberately bad or may be thoughtless wrongdoing.

Example: An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs. A person who dislikes
another person seeks to cause actual harm to him/her.

2. Aim Inhibition - sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe or realize
that we are unable to achieve in aim inhibition we lower our sights reducing our
goals to something that we believe is actually more possible or realistic.

Example: A person who sexually desire another person but is unable to fulfil
that desire (for example the other person is married) convinces.
A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam
grades so becomes a vet assistant instead.

3. Altruism - Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of other maybe
you can heal yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.

LEA T. SAPUAY 26
 Example: A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up charitable foundation
and gains great pleasure from how it helps others get out of the poverty trap. She receives
social accolade and public recognition for her good deeds gratefully.

4. Attack - The best form of defense is attack, it is a common saying and is also a
common action and when we fell threatened attacked (even psychologically ) we
will attack back. When personal feel stressed in some way, whether other the
person is a real cause or not, he/she may also attack inanimate objects.

Example: A Person is having problems with his/her computer. He/she angrily bangs the
keyboard

5. Avoidance - In avoidance we simply find ways of avoiding having to face

uncomfortable situations thing or activities the discomfort for example may come
from unconscious sexual or aggressive objects.

Example: I dislike another person at work i avoid walking past his/her desk when
people talk about him/her I say nothing
My son does not like doing homework whenever the subject of school comes up he
changes the topic he also avoids looking directly at me.
6. Compensation - Where a person has a weakness in one area they may
compensate by accentuating or building up strengths in another area thus when
they are faced with their weakness they can say ah but I am good at and hence
feel reasonably good about the situation

Example: A person who failed in math excelled in English. People who are not
intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills.

7. Denial - Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred the
person affected simply acts as if nothing has happened behaving in ways that
others may see as bizarre

Example: A man hears that his wife has been killed and yet refuses to believe it still
setting the table for her and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom
Alcoholic vigorously deny that things may go wrong pessimists deny they may
succeed.

8. Fantasy or day dreaming – when we cannot achieve or do something that we

want, we channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings fantasy also
provides temporary relief from the general stresses or everyday living

Example: a boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the teacher
(remember the movie (if they really wanted to)

9. Fight or flight reaction- when we perceive a significant threat to us then our

body get ready either for a fight to the death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by

LEA T. SAPUAY 27
a clearly superior adversary. It also happens when a creative new idea makes us feel
uncertain about things of we previously were sure. The biochemical changes in our brain
makes us aggressive, fighting the new idea or make us timid, feeling from it.

Example: a lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking the forest. That
person may choose to wrestle the lion or run away to save his life

10. RATIONALIZATION - When something happens that she finds difficult to

accept, then we will make up a logical reason why it has happened. We rationalize to
ourselves. We also find it very important to rationalize to other people, even those we do
not know.

Example: A person fails to get a good enough results to get into a chosen university and
then says that he/she didn’t want to go there anyway

11. SELF-HARMING: The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in

some way or otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.
A. Slapping oneself
B. Punching a hard wall
C. Cutting oneself with a knife
D. Reckless Driving
E. Taking narcotic drugs

12. TRIVIALIZING - When we are faced with a disappointment over something

that is important to us, we are faced with the problem of having our expectations and
predictions dashed. We may even have told other people about it beforehand, making it
doubly embarrassing that we have not gained what we expected. One way that we
trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off.

Example: I lose a lot of money due to gambling. I tell myself that I didn’t need it anyway.

LEA T. SAPUAY 28
 CHAPTER III –DISORDERS

PART 1. Anxiety Disorder

Anxiety is a psychological disorder that
involves excessive levels of negative emotions,
such as nervousness, tension, worry, fright, and
anxiety. It is a generalized feeling of
apprehension, fear, or tension that may be
associated with a particular object or situation or
may be free-floating, not associated with
anything specific. Anxiety can cause such
distress that it interferes with a person’s ability
to lead a normal life (Lahey, 2001).

What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear?

Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is either
not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable, whereas, fear is
an emotional and physiological response to a recognized external threat or a response to
real danger or threat.

What are the symptoms of anxiety disorder?

Symptoms vary depending on the type of anxiety disorder, but general
symptoms include:

 Feelings of panic, fear and uneasiness

 Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts
 Repeated thoughts or flashback of traumatic experiences
 Nightmares
 Ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand washing
 Problems sleeping
 Cold or sweaty hands and/or feet
 Shortness of breath
 Palpitations
 An inability to be still and calm
 Dry mouth
 Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
 Nausea
 Muscle tension
 Dizziness

LEA T. SAPUAY 29
 What are the types of Anxiety Disorder?
There are several recognized types of anxiety disorders, including:

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder- this disorder

involves excessive, unrealistic worry and
tension, even if there is little or nothing to
provoke the anxiety. Accordingly, symptoms
include restlessness or feeling keyed up,
difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle
tension and jitteriness, deep disturbance, and
unwanted, intrusive worries.

2. Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
(OCD) – People with OCD are
plagued by constant thoughts or fears
that cause them to perform certain
rituals or routines. The disturbing
thoughts are called obsessions - are
anxiety-provoking thoughts that will
not go away.

3. Panic Disorder – this disorder keeps recurring

attacks to a person of intense fear or panic, often
with feeling of impending doom of death. People
with this condition have feeling of terror that
strike suddenly and repeatedly with no warning.
Other symptoms of a panic attack include
sweating, chest pain, palpitations (irregular
heartbeats), and feeling of choking, which may
make the person feel like he or she is having a
heart attack or “going crazy.”

LEA T. SAPUAY 30
 4. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) –
PTSD is a condition that can develop following
a traumatic and/or terrifying event such as
sexual or physical assault, the unexpected
death of a loved one, or a natural disaster.
People with PTSD often to be emotionally
numb.

5. Specific Phobias – A Specific Phobia is an

intense fear of a specific object or situation,
such as snakes, heights, or flying. Phobia is
an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific
situation, activity, or object.
The level of fear usually is inappropriate to
the situation and may cause the person to
avoid common everyday situations.

Some specific phobias are:

Acrophobia -fear of heights
Ailorophobia -fear cats
Amaxophobia -fear of vehicle or driving
Anuptaphobia -fear of staying single
Aquaphobia -fear of water or swimming
Arachnophobia -fear of spider
Astraphobia -fear of storms, thunder, and lighting
Airophobia -fear of flying, airplanes
Biblophobia -fear of books
Blennophobia -fear of slime
Bogyphobia -fear of demons
Cathisophobia -fear of sitting down
Cibophobia -fear of foods
Claustrophobia -fear of confinement

LEA T. SAPUAY 31
 Coitophobia -fear of sexual intercourse
Cremnophobia -fear of precipices
Cynophobia -fear of dogs
Demophobia -fear of crowds
Dromophobia -fear of crossing street
Ecophobia -fear of home
Entomophobia -fear of insects
Gamophobia -fear of marriage
Gephyrophobia -fear of marriage
Geascophobia -fear of crossing bridge or a large body of water
Gymnophobia -fear of nudity
Hamatophobia -fear of sins or sinning
Hapephobia -fear of touching, or being touched
Hematophobia -fear of blood
Hodophobia -fear of travels
Homilophobia -fear of sermons
Kenisophobia -fear of motion
Kopophobia -fear of mental and physical exams
Lygophobia -fear of the dark
Mersophobia -fear of darkness
Microphobia -fear of germs
Nyctophobia -fear of fear of darkness
Ocholophobia -fear of crowds
Odontiatophobia -fear of dentists
Ophiophobia -fear of snakes
Opthalomophobia -fear of being stared at
Onomatophobia -fear of certain word or name
Panophobia -fear of everything
Paralipophobia -fear of responsibility
Pathophobia -fear of disease
Philophobia -fear of falling in-love or being loved
Phobophobia -fear of fears
Pyrophobia -fear of fire
Phyrotophobia -fear of getting wrinkles
Selenophobia -fear of the moon
Telephonophobia -fear of using the telephone
Trophophobia -fear of moving
Thanotophobia -fear of death or dying
Zenophobia -fear of strangers
Zoophobia -fear of animals in general

LEA T. SAPUAY 32
PART 2 - MOOD DISORDERS

Mood Disorders are disorders characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbances

in feeling or mood. These are major disturbances in one’s condition or emotion, such as
depression and mania. It is otherwise known as affective disorder (DSM-IV-TR, 200).

What are the symptoms of mood disorder?

Depression symptoms include:
a. Sadness g. Dejection
b. Difficulty sleeping h. Exaggerated
c. Fatigue i. Changes in appetite
d. Hopeless j. Feelings of incompetence
e. Despair k. Loss of interest
f. Sense of inferiority. l. Inability to function effectively

Types of Mood Disorder

1. Bipolar Disorder
In bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic-depression, there are swings in
mood from elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness) with
no discernible external cause.

Two Phases of Bipolar

a. Manic Phase-During the manic phase of this disorder, the patient may show
excessive, unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may
also show poor judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative. Manic may
speak rapidly, have unrealistic ideal, and jump from subject to subject. They may
not be able to sleep or sit still for every long.

b. Depressive Episode- The other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive episode.
Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are lethargic. During
bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show irritability and withdrawal.
Accordingly (wade, 2004), the depressed person speaks slowly and
monotonously while the manic person speak rapidly, dramatically, often with many
jokes and puns. The depressed person has low self-esteem while the manic
person has inflated self-esteem.

LEA T. SAPUAY 33
PART 3. PERSONALITY DISORDER
Personality disorder are chronic maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that
are thoroughly integrated into the individual’s personality and that are troublesome to
others or whose pleasure sources are either harmful or illegal (Livesly, 2001).
Types of Personality Disorder: Cluster A, B & C
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR, 2000), a
reference used to clinically define mental illnesses, there are ten different personality
disorders categorized into three main grouping or clusters.

Clusters A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors

1. Schizoid Personality Disorders (SPD) - Those with SPD may be perceived by

others as somber, aloof and often are referred as “loners.”
Manifestations:
a. Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.
b. Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
c. Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.

2. Paranoid Personality Disorders (PPD) - Although they are prone to unjustified

angry or aggressive outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, those
with PPD more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively serious.
Manifestations:
a. They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
b. They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence
to support their suspicions.
c. They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.

3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD)-This disorders is characterized a need for

isolation as well as odd, outlandish, or paranoid beliefs. Some researchers suggest
this disorder is less severe than schizophrenia.
Manifestations:
a. They engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior.

LEA T. SAPUAY 34
 b. They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
c. They may believe they have magical control over others.
d. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to
be suspicion of others.

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

1. Antisocial Personality Disorders (APD) - APD is characterized by lack of

empathy or conscience, a difficulty controlling impulses and manipulative
behaviors. Antisocial behavior in people less than 18 years old is called conduct
disorders.
Manifestations:
a. Act in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of other people.
b. Anti-social personalities often break the law.
c. Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
d. They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
e. They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse their children and exploit their
employees.
f. They may even kill other people.
g. People with this disorders are also sometimes called sociopaths or psychopaths.
People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury,
imprisonment, loss of employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence, and failed
personal relationship.

2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)- This mental illness interferes with an

individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderline are highly sensitive to rejection,
and fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid being left alone, such
as suicide threats and attempts.
Manifestations:
a. They have intense emotional instability, particularly in relationship with other.
b. They make frantic to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others.

LEA T. SAPUAY 35
 c. They may experience minor problems as major crises.
d. They express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures,
self-mutilation, and other self-destructive acts.
e. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.

Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug
dependence, and bulimia; dissociate disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Furthermore, 10 percent of people with this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30.

3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) - NPD is characterized primarily by

grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend to be
extremely self-absorbed, intolerant of others’ perspectives, insensitive to others’
needs and indifferent to the effect of their own egocentric behavior.
Manifestations:
a. They a grandiose sense of self-importance.
b. They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited
success or power.
c. They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often
have every fragile self-esteem.

4. Histrionic Personality Disorders (HPD)- Individual with this personality

disorders exhibits a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attempt to get
attention in unusual ways, such as bizarre appearance or speech.
Manifestations:
a. They strive to be the center of attention.
b. They act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.
c. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated
emotional reactions.

LEA T. SAPUAY 36
 CLUSTER C: ANXIOUS, FEARFUL BEHAVIORS

1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) -Those

with avoidant personalities are often
hypersensitive to rejection and unwilling to take
social risks. Avoidant displays a high level of
social discomfort timidity fear of criticism
avoidance of activities that involve interpersonal
contact.
Manifestation:
a. They possess intense, anxious shyness.
b. They are reluctant to interact with others unless
they feel certain of being liked
c. They fear being criticized and rejected
d. They often view themselves as socially inept
and inferior to others.

2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) -

People with dependent disorder typically exhibits
a pattern of needy and submissive behavior and
reply on others to make decision for them.
Manifestation:
a. They have severe and emotional dependency on
others
b. They have difficulty in making decisions without
a great deal of advice and reassurance from
others.
c. They urgently seek out another relationship
when a close relationship ends.
d. They feel uncomfortable by themselves.

LEA T. SAPUAY 37
 3. Obsessive–compulsive personality
disorder (OCPD), also called ANANKASTIC
PERSONALITY DISORDER is a personality
disorder characterized by a general pattern of
concern with orderliness, perfectionism,
excessive attention to details, mental and
interpersonal control, and a need for control
over one's environment, at the expense of
flexibility, openness, and efficiency. Work
holism and miserliness are also seen often in
those with this personality disorder.

Manifestations:
a. They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.
b. They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take
time for leisure activities and friendship.
c. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.
This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often includes more
bizarre behavior and rituals. (Lahey, 2001 & Santrock, 2003).

PART 4. SCHIZOPHRENIA

Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with reality,

marked disturbances of thought and perception and bizarre behavior. At some phase
delusions or hallucinations almost always occur.
EMIL KRAEPELIN first identified the illness in 1896 when he distinguished it from
the mood disorders. He called it DEMENTIA PRAECOX, which means a premature
deterioration of the brain. Emil’s thoughts were later disputed by psychiatrist. One of these
was Eugene Bleur, an eminent Swiss psychiatrist, who in 1911 gave term
“schizophrenia.” He developed the word by combining two Greek words schizein
meaning “to split” and phren “mind.” This emphasized a splitting apart of the patient’s

LEA T. SAPUAY 38
affective and cognitive functioning, which are heavily affected by the disease. Also,
schizophrenia came from the New Latin words schizo, meaning “split,” and phrenia,
meaning “mind” (King, 2008).
Schizophrenia Hallucination
1. Tactile (touch) People with Schizophrenia often have the sensation that there are
things (like bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.
2. Visual (sight) this kind of hallucination cause the person to see things that are not
really there.
3. Auditory (hearing) this is the most common type of hallucination. People with
auditory hallucination hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.
4. Olfactory (smell) the person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells things
(usually foul smelling things) that others do not smell.
5. Command (hearing) when a voice commands the person to do something he/she
would not ordinary do.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
1. Disturbance of Thought and Attention
People suffering Schizophrenia often cannot think logically and as the result of this
they cannot write a story because every word they write down might make sense but
are meaningless in reaction to each other and they cannot keep their attention to the
writing. The principal disturbance in the schizophrenic’s thought processes is multiple
delusions. This is divided into two sud-categories:

a. Persecutory Delusion- the schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked

about spied upon or his/her death being planned.
b. Delusions of Reference-the schizophrenia give personal importance to
completely unrelated indicate object or people.
2. Disturbances of Perception
During acute schizophrenic episodes people say that the world appears different
to them. Their bodies appear longer, colours seem more intense and they cannot
recognize themselves in a mirror.

LEA T. SAPUAY 39
3. Disturbances of Affect
Schizophrenia person fail to show normal emotions. This symptom is easiest
described as an excessive lack of correlation between what an individual is saying
and what emotions they are expressing.
4. Withdrawal from Reality
During schizophrenic episode the individual become absorbed in his inner
thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense that the individual may
not know the month or day or the place where he is staying.
5. Delusions and Hallucinations
In the most cases it is accompanied by delusions. Delusions are inflexible
misleading belief. They appear as a result of exaggeration or distortion of reasoning
as well as false interpretation of things and events.

PART 5. SEXUAL DISORDER

Sexual dysfunctions are disorder related to a particular phase of the sexual

response cycle. Sexual disorders include problems of sexual identity, sexual
performance, and sexual aim.

TYPES OF SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION

A. Dysfunction of Sexual Desire (occurs during the Excitement Phase):

1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder – It is marked
by lack or no sexual drive or interest in sexual
activity. It is characterized by persistent, upsetting
loss of sexual desire.

2. Sexual Aversion Disorder – It is characterized by a

desire to avoid genital contact with sexual partner.
It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety, or
disgust about engaging sex.

LEA T. SAPUAY 40
B. Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (occurs during the Arousal/Plateau Phase):
1. Male Erectile Disorder – It refers to inability to maintain or achieve an erection
(previously called as impotence).
2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder – It refers to none responsiveness to erotic
stimulation both physically and emotionally (previously called frigidity).
C. Dysfunctions of Orgasm (occurs during the Orgasmic Phase):
1. Premature Ejaculation – It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the
beginning or sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation.
2. Male Orgasmic Disorder – It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual
intercourse.
3. Female Orgasmic Disorder - It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm,
either manually or during sexual intercourse.
D. Hyper Sexuality:
1. Nymphomania (or FUROR UTERINUS) – A female psychological disorder
characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex (etymology of
the word is nymph).
2. Satyriasis – In males the disorder is called satyriasis and the etymology is satyr
(At health, Inc., 1996-2013).

Category II. Paraphilia

Paraphilia (in Greek “para” = over and “philia” = friendship) is a rare
mental health disorder term recently used to indicate sexual arousal in response
to sexual objects or situation that are not part of societal normative
arousal/activity patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for reciprocal
affectionate sexual activity.
The disorder is characterized by a 6-month period of recurrent, intense
sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges involving a specific act, depending on
the paraphilia.

LEA T. SAPUAY 41
 COMMON FORMS OF PARAPHILIA ARE:
a. EXHIBITIONISM – this is also known as flashing, is behaviour by a person that
involves the exposure of private parts of his/her body to another person in a situation
when they would not normally be exposed.

TYPES OF EXPOSURE
Various types of behavior classified as exhibitionism includes:
1. Flashing – It is the display of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an
up-and-down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his
or her genitals.
2. Mooning – refers to the display of the bare buttocks while bending down by the
pulling-down of trousers and underwear. This act is more often done for the sake
of humour and/or mockery than for sexual excitement.
3. Anasyrma – Lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose
genitals.
4. Martymachlia – Is a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others
watch the execution of a sexual act.

B. FETISHISM – People with a fetish experience sexual urges and behaviour which
are associated with non-living objects. For example, the object of the fetish could
be an article of female clothing, like female underwear. Usually the fetish begins in
adolescence and tends to be quite chronic into adult life. Sexual fetishism, first
described as such by Sigmund Freud.

LEA T. SAPUAY 42
 TYPES OF FETISHISM
1. SEXUAL TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM (TRANSVESTISM) – Like most paraphilia,
TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM begins in adolescence,
usually around the onset of puberty. Most practitioners
are male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or
seeing female clothing. Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles,
corsets, and slips), stockings, shoes or boots may all be
the FETISHISTIC OBJECT.

2. FOOT FETISHISM – It is pronounced FETISHISTIC

sexual interest in human feet. It is also one of the most
common FETISHISTIC interests among humans. A foot
fetishist can be sexually aroused by viewing, handling ,
licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing the feet and toes of
another person, or by having another person doing the
same to his/her own feet.

3. WET AND MESSY FETISH (WAM) – A form of sexual

fetishism that has as person getting aroused by
substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding,
chocolate sauce, etc. It could also involve wet clothes, or any combination of the
above.

c. FROTTEURISM (FROTTAGE) – FROTTEURISM is the act of obtaining sexual

arousal and gratification by rubbing one’s genitals against others in public places or
crowds or sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of their body against a
non – consenting, unfamiliar woman.

LEA T. SAPUAY 43
d. PEDOPHILIA – Pedophilia is used to refer to child sexual abuse which comes from
the Greek word (paidophilia) (pais), “child” and (philia), “friendship”. It is also
called “pedophilic behavior”.
e. MASOCHISM – Sexual masochism involves acts in which a per son delivers sexual
excitement from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused.

f. SADISM - Sadism is the act attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by the infliction
of pain and suffering upon another person. The word is derived from the name of the
Marquis de Sade, a prolific French writer of sadist novels.

g. VOYEURISM (PEEPING TOM)

Voyeurism came from the French “VOUYER”
meaning, “One who looks”. This is the act of
reaching sexual pleasure or gratification by
watching or observing the subject from a
distance, or by stealth to observe the subject with
the use of peep-holes, two- way mirrors, hidden
cameras, secret photography and other devices
and strategies (see figure 3).

h. SCATOLOGIA – It is also called COPROLALIA, deviant sexual practice in which

sexual pleasure is obtained through the compulsive use of obscene language. The
affected person commonly satisfies his desires through obscene telephone calls
(TELEPHONE SCATOLOGIA), usually to strangers. Related terms are
COPROPRAXIA, performing obscene or forbidden gestures, COPROGRAPHIA,
making obscene writings or drawings.

i. NECROPHILIA – Necrophilia is also called THENATOPHILIA and NECROLAGNIA,

is the sexual attraction to corpses. The word is artificially derived from Ancient Greek
(nekros; “corpse,” or“dead”) and (philla; “friendship”).

LEA T. SAPUAY 44
j. ZOOPHILIA – ZOOPHILIA is the practice of sex between humans and animals (also
known as (BESTIALITY/BESTOSEXUAL). It came from the Greek (zÓion, “animal”)
and (philia, “friendship” or “love”), also known as ZOOSEXUALITY. A person who
practices zoophilia is known as a ZOOPHILE.
k. MYSOPHILIA – Mysophilia is obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by a filthy
surrounding. Put simply, this is getting horny from smelling, chewing, or rubbing
against dirty underwear (Greek, mysos, uncleanness + -philia).

CATEGORY OF SEXUAL ABNORMALITIES

1. HETEROSEXUAL
This refers to sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is a normal sexual
behavior, socially and medically acceptable.
2. HOMOSEXUAL
This refers to relationship or having a sexual desire towards member(s) of his/her
own gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either a man or woman, but
female homosexuals are usually called lesbians.
3. INFANTOSEXUAL
This refers to a sexual gratification towards an immature person such as
PEDOPHILIA.
4. BESTOSEXUAL
This refers to the sexual gratification towards animals. This is familiar to
BESTIALITY AND ZOOPHILIA.
5. AUTOSEXUAL (SELF GRATIFICATION OR MASTURBATION)
It is a form of “self-abuse” or “solitary vice” carried without the cooperation of
another person to the induction of a state of erection of the genital organs and the
achievement of the orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation.
6. GERONTOPHILIA
This refers to a sexual desire with elder person.

LEA T. SAPUAY 45
7. NECROPHILIA
This refers to a sexual prevention characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual
intercourse with a corpse.
8. INCEST
This refers to sexual relations between persons wh0, by reason of blood
relationship cannot legally marry.

2. UNDER SEX
A. SEXUAL ANESTHESIA- This refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal
during sexual act in women.
B. DYSPAREUNIA- It refers to the painful sexual act in women.
C. VAGINISMUS- It refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act.

C. Sexual Abnormalities
As to Mode of Sexual Expression or way of Sexual Satisfaction
1. ORALISM
This refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification.
This includes any of the following:
a. FELLATIO (IRRUMATION) - The female agent receives the penis of a man into
her mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with act sucking the
sexual organ.
b. CUNNILINGUS - The sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the
external female genitalia.
c. ANILISM (ANILINGUS) - It is a form of sexual pervasion wherein a person derives
excitement by licking the anus of another person of either sex.
d. SADO-MASOCHISM (ALGOLAGNIA) - This refers to a painful act as factor for
gratification. The example of this is flagellation, it is a sexual deviation associated
specifically with the act of whipping or being whipped.

LEA T. SAPUAY 46
 e. SADISM - This refers to the attainment of pain and humiliation from the opposite
sex as the primary factor for sexual gratification
f. FETISHISM- It is a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized
presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and /or
gratification

D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body

1. SODOMY – This refers to the sexual act through anus of another human being.
2. URANISM – This refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering, fondling
with breast, licking part of the body, etc.
3. FROTTAGE (Frotteurism) – it is form of sexual gratification characterized by the
compulsive desire of a person to rub his sex organ against some parts of the body
of another.

E. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual Stimulus

1. VOYEURISM – it is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep
to see persons undress or perform other personal activities. The offender is sometimes
called “Peeping Tom” the person masturbates in excess.

2. MIXOSCOPIA (SCOPTOPHILIA) – it refers to a perversion wherein sexual pleasure is

attained by watching couple during their sex intimacies.

F. Sexual abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner

1. TRIOLISM (from French word, trios which means three)
It is a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are participating in the
sexual orgies. The combination may consist of two men and two woman or two women
and a man.
TROILIST (a person) becomes aroused and gratified by the “sharing”.
2. PLURALISM

LEA T. SAPUAY 47
 It is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person participates in the sexual
orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act in a room and they may even
agree to exchange partners for “variety sake” during “sexual festival”.

LEA T. SAPUAY 48
 CHAPTER IV: Victimology

VICTIMOLOGY – is simply the study of victims of crimes and their contributory role, if
any, in crime causation. It is also the scientific process of gaining substantial amounts of
knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of victims.

VICTIMOLOGY is a branch of criminology that examines the emotional, physical and

economic impact of crimes on the victims. Victimologists also examine the relationships
between victims and their victimizers to discover why and how the victim was chosen. In
simpler terms, it is the study of the victims of crime.

Andrew Karmen, who wrote a text entitled “Crime Victims: An Introduction to

Victimology” in 1990, broadly defined victimology:

Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships between

victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system -
that is, the police and courts, and corrections officials -and the connections between
victims and other societal groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and
social movements.

From this, we can see that victimology encompasses the study of:
1. Victimization;
2. Victim – offender relationships;
3. Victim – criminal justice system relationships;
4. Victims and the media;
5. Victims and the costs of crime, and
6. Victims and social movements.

VICTIMOLOGY VS. CRIMINOLOGY

• Victimology is best viewed as an area of specialization within criminology while
criminology embraces the scientific study of crimes, criminals, criminal laws and the
justice system, societal reactions, and crime victims;

• Criminologists ask why certain individuals become involved in lawbreaking while

others do not while victimologists ask why some individuals, households, and entities are
targeted while others are not, and why over and over again;

• Criminologists apply their findings to devise crime prevention strategies while

victimologists use patterns and trends to develop victimization prevention strategies and
risk-reduction tactics

• Both criminologists and victimologists study how the criminal justice system
actually works versus how it is supposed to work

LEA T. SAPUAY 49
WHO IS A VICTIMOLOGIST?

Victimologist refers to any person with the following foremost duties;

1. Investigates victims’ flight: the impact of the injuries and losses inflicted by
offenders on the people they target;
2. Carry out research into the public’s political, social, and economic reactions to
the plight of victims;
3. Study how victims were handled by officials and agencies within the Criminal
Justice System, especially interactions with the police officers, prosecutors,
defense attorneys, judges, probation officers and members of the parole boards;
4. It determines whether crime victims have been physically injured, economically
hurt, robbed of self – respect, or emotionally traumatized;
5. It aims to devise way to help victims recover; and
6. It finds out if the victims are effectively assisted, served, accommodated,
rehabilitated and educated to avoid further trouble (Karmen, 2007).

Who is a Crime Victim?

Crime Victim generally refers to any person, group, or entity who has suffered
injury or loss due to illegal activity. The harm can be physical, psychological, or economic.

Legally, ‘’victim’’ typically includes the following;

a. A person who has suffered direct, or threatened, physical, emotional, or
pecuniary harm as a result of the commission of a crime; or
b. In the case of a victim being an institutional entity, any of the same harms by
an individual or authorized representative of another entity.

Goals of Victimology
The study of victimology focuses on five goals:
1. To understand and measure the extent and nature of crime as victims perceive
them;
2. To assess the relative risk of victimization
3. To appreciate the nature and extent of losses;
4. To study the relation between victim and offender;
5. To investigate the social reaction of the family, community, and society toward the
victim of crime.

LEA T. SAPUAY 50
 Origin of Victimology

The scientific study of victimology can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s. Two
Criminologists, Benjamin Mendelsohn and Hans Von Hentig began to explore the field
of victimology by creating ‘’typologies’’. They are considered the ‘’fathers of the study
of victimology.’’
They suggested the theory that the victim’s behavior and attitude caused the crime
to be committed. The field of victimology originally devoted most of its energy to
examining the numerous ways victims shared the responsibility of specific crimes with the
criminal offenders (Karmen, 2007).
Origin of Victim
The concept of victim dates back to ancient cultures and civilizations, such as the
ancient Hebrews. Its original meaning was rooted in the idea of sacrifice or scapegoat
– the execution or casting out of a person or animal to satisfy a deity or hierarchy.
Over the centuries, the word victim came to have additional meanings. During the
founding of victimology in the 19040s, victimologists such as Mendelsohn, Von Hentig,
and Wolfgang tended to use textbook or dictionary definitions of victims as hapless dupes
who instigated their own victimizations (Karmen, 2007).

The Nature of Victimization

Victim Characteristics
Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and nonvictims. Among
them are age, gender, social status, marital status, race and residence.
 Age – Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization risk
that do older persons.
 Gender – except for the crimes of rape and sexual assault, males are more likely
than females to suffer violent crime. Men are twice as likely as women to
experience aggravated assault and robbery. Women, however, are six times more
likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
When men are the victims of violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger; women
are much more likely to be attacked by a relative that are men. About two – thirds
of all attacks against women are committed by a husband, boyfriend, family
member, or acquaintance.
 Social Status – People in the lowest income categories are much more likely to
become crime victims than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals are most
likely the victims of crime because they live in crime – prone areas. Although the
poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely to be
targets of personal theft crimes, such as pocket picking and purse (bag) snatching.

LEA T. SAPUAY 51
  Marital Status – divorced and never – married males and females are victimized
more often than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest
victimization risk.
 Race – In the U.S., African Americans (blacks) are more likely than whites to be
victims of violent crime.
 Residence – Urban residents are more likely than rural or sub – urban residents to
become victims of crime.

Who Fear Crime?

Surveys reveal some of the differences in the public’s fear of crime. Among these
differences are the following:
a. Gender – Females are more fearful than males.
b. Race/Ethnicity – Nonwhites are more fearful of crime than whites.
c. Age – People 30 years old and older are slightly more fearful than people less than
30 years old.
d. Religion – Jews are more fearful than Protestants or Catholics.
e. Community – People living in urban areas are more fearful than people living in
rural areas.
f. Region – Easterners and Southerners are more fearful than Westerners and
Midwesterners.
g. Education – The higher the level of education of a person, the lower is the person’s
fear of crime.
h. Income – Fear of crime victimization declines with increasing family income.

Near – Theories of Victimization

For many years criminological theories focused on the actions of the criminal
offender; the role of the victim was virtually ignored. In contrast, modern victimization
theories already acknowledge that the victim is not a passive target of crime, but someone
whose behavior can influence his or her own fate.

1. Victim Precipitation Theory (1941) by Von Hentig

Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some individuals initiate a
chain of events that lead to their victimization. According to this view, some people may
actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim
precipitation can be either Active or Passive.
a. Active Precipitation – It occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or
fighting words, or even attack first.
b. Passive Precipitation – It occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristic that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker. The
crime can occur because of personal conflict. This may also occur when the victim
belongs to a group whose mere presence threatens the attacker’s reputation,

LEA T. SAPUAY 52
 status, or economic well – being – for example, when two people compete over a
job, promotion, love interest, or some other scarce and in demand commodity.
2. Benjamin & Mater’s Threefold Model
This is one is found in a variety of criminological studies, from prison riots to strain
theories.
Conditions that support crime is classified into three general categories:
a. Precipitating Factors – These includes time, space, being in the wrong place at the
wrong time.
b. Attracting factors – These includes choices, options, lifestyles (the sociological
expression ‘’lifestyle’’ refers to daily routine activities as well as special events one
engages in on a predictable basis).
c. Predisposing factors – these includes all the socio – demographic characteristics
of victims, being male, being young, being poor, being a minority, living in squalor,
being single and being unemployed.

3. Cohen and Felson’s (1979) Routine Activities Theory

This one is quite popular among victimologists today who are anxious to test the theory.
Briefly, it says that crime occurs whenever three conditions come together:

1. Suitable Targets - and we'll always have suitable targets as long as we have
poverty.

2. Motivated Offenders - and we'll always have motivated offenders since

victimology, unlike deterministic criminology, assumes anyone will try to get away with
something if they can; and

3. Absence of Guardians - the problem is that there are few defensible spaces
(natural surveillance areas) and in the absence of private security, the government can't
do the job alone.

Three Kinds of Crime Victim

1. Direct or Primary Crime Victim

-This kind of victim directly suffers the harm or injury which is physical,
psychological, and economic losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim
- Victims who experience the harm second hand, such as intimate partners or
significant others of rape victims or children of a battered woman. This may include family
members of the primary victims.
3. Tertiary Crime Victims
- Victims who experience the harm vicariously, such as through media accounts,
the scared public or community due to watching news regarding crime incidents.

LEA T. SAPUAY 53
 ROOTS/PIONEERS OF VICTIMOLOGY:

 Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900-1998)

- Victimology should be part of criminology.
- General Victimology
 Hans von Hentig (1887-1974)
- The Criminal and His Victim
- Classified victims according to personality
- Importance of subject-object relations
- Special Victimology

1. Hans Von Hentig

– A German criminologist who published an article with the title “Remarks on the interaction
between perpetrator and victim” (1941). He treated the victim as one of the participants in
crime. Victims were classified according to the nature of involvement in the criminal act. It
was thought that the study of victim’s role might result in a better prevention of crime.

TYPES OF VICTIM BY HANS VON HENTIG:

a. Depressive type – who was seen as an easy target, careless and unsuspecting.
b. Greedy type – was seen as easily duped because his/ her motivation for easy
gain lowers his/ her natural tendency to be suspicious.
c. Wanton type – is particularly vulnerable to stresses that occur at a given period
of time in the life cycle, such as juvenile victims.
d. Tormentor type – the victim of attack from the target of his abuse, such as the
battered woman.
GENERAL CLASSES OF VICTIMS BY HENTIG:
a. The Young – the weak by virtue of age and immaturity.
b. The Female – often less physically powerful and easily dominated by males.
c. The Old – the incapable of physical defense and the common object of
confidence scheme.
d. The Mentally Defective – those who are unable to think clearly.
e. The Immigrant – those who are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding
society.
f. The Minorities – racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment
by the agency of justice.

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2. Benjamin Mendelsohn
– A criminal law scholar who presented a paper in French at a congress in Bucharest
in which he coined the term victimology. He drew attention to the part played by
victims in precipitating crimes of violence, for example through provocation.

TYPES OF VICTIM BY MENDELSOHN:

a. The completely innocent victim – such a person is an ideal victim in popular
perception. In this category placed persons victimized while they were unconscious,
and the child victims.
b. Victims with only minor guilt and those victimized due to ignorance.
c. The victim who is just as guilty as the offender, and the voluntary victim. Suicide
cases are common to this category.
d. The victim guiltier than the offender – this category was described as containing
persons who provoked the criminal or actively induced their own victimization.
e. The most guilty victim who is guilty alone – an attacker killed by a would be
victim in the act of defending themselves were placed into this category.
f. The imaginary victim – those suffering from mental disorders, or those victims
due to extreme mental abnormalities.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES OF VICTIMS:
1. The Depressed – those submissive by virtue of emotional condition.
2. The Acquisitive or Greedy – the value or act of wanting more propels such
individuals into victimization.
3. The Wanton or Overly Sensual – those ruled by passion and thoughtlessly
seeking pleasure.
4. The Lonesome – similar to the acquisitive type of victim, by virtue of wanting
companionship or affection.
5. The Heartbroken – those emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and
pains.
6. The Tormentor – the type of victim who asked for it, often from his own family
or friends.

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