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Study Guide in GEE 2 Philippine Indigenous Communities Module No._5_

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. __

Philippine Indigenous Communities during the American Colonial Period

MODULE OVERVIEW
American colonialism can be characterized by its pursuit of the impenetrable Indigenous
Peoples that was unable to be largely Westernized by the Spaniards. Concealing their
colonial motives under the cloak of education, they were able to influence to some extent
the Igorots in the Cordilleras. Meanwhile in the south, Lumad resistance against the
Americans resulted to a bloody encounter. This module will look into the responses of the
Indigenous Peoples to the imposition of American rule.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1.) Examine the responses of the Indigenous Peoples to the imposition of American rule.
2.) Analyze the effects of Americanization to the lives of Indigenous Peoples.

LEARNING CONTENTS

The Imposition of American Rule in the Philippines

With the weakening grip of Spain to the Philippines towards the close of the 19 th
century, a new colonial power took the interest of colonizing the country for strategic
reasons. While the Filipinos were preoccupied in their battle against the Spaniards, the
arrival of the Americans loomed near. In 1898, Spain sold the Philippines to the United
States for $20 million during the Treaty of Paris. With the eventual arrival of the Americans
later on, they posed as a threat to the newly-independent Philippines as declared by
Aguinaldo’s Philippine Republic.

As Aguinaldo eventually surrendered to the Americans, the Philippines had now entered a
new era. The colonization of Americans brought about tremendous changes in the day to
day life of the Filipinos, be it the Christianized lowlanders or the Indigenous Peoples.
Guided with the principle of Benevolent Assimilation, this justified their colonization of the
country. Moreover, Protestantism gain a significant footing in the nation; English language
was introduced to the masses; many educational institutions were built up that subtly
promoted American values and propaganda; therefore the Filipinos were fashioned to act
and think like Americans.

The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes

When the Americans encountered the Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines such as the
Igorots and the Lumads, they searched for ways on how to colonize and integrate them to
with rest of the Filipinos. As a result, in October 2, 1901, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes
was created. David Barrow was its first director.The purpose of its creation can be seen in
the Article 1 of Act No. 253, mandated by the President of the United States of America
which created the Bureau:

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“There is hereby created, under the Department of the Inferior, a Bureau of

Non-Christian Tribes, which shall conduct systematic investigations with
reference to the non-Christian tribes of the Philippine Islands, in order to
ascertain the name of each tribe, the limits of the territory which it occupies,
the approximate number of individuals which compose it, their social
organizations and their languages, beliefs, manners, and customs, with special
view to determining the most practicable means for bringing about their
advancement in civilization and material prosperity…” (Act no. 253, 1901)

Therefore, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was created for three reasons:
1. To survey/study each tribe, their beliefs, practices, and their culture.
2. To bring them under the fold of American colonialism
3. To integrate them to the rest of the Philippines, such as the Christianized Filipinos.

Igorot Responses to American Rule

Dean Worcester with Kalingas (Dean Worcester photo collection)

Since the late 19th century, visiting American businessmen had seen the potential of
the Cordillera in the development of their mining industry. They knew that copper and gold
deposits were abundant in the land of the Igorots. Aware of the inability of Spain to hugely
conquer the Igorots, the Americans devised a different way of establishing their influence to
the Igorots. Unlike the Spaniards who used their swords and righteous preachers, the
Americans utilized education as a tool to colonize the Igorots.

American Education in the Cordilleras

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The Thomasites or American teachers sent by the United States were responsible for the
establishment of many primary schools in Igorot communities. Moreover, higher education
institutions were put up by American Prostestant and Catholic Missionaries. One of the
earliest American schools in the Cordillera was founded by Alice Kelly, a Thomasite. She
established a school for boys in Bua, Itogon, Benguet in 1903. This was followed by a girls
school also in the same place, in 1916. For higher education, the Saint Louis University
was one of the prominent institutions established by American missionaries in 1911.

The Americans believed that it was part of their “civilizing mission” to educate the Filipinos
such as the Indigenous peoples. Thus, the American brand of education has been the
centerpiece of their colonization process. With this approach, the Igorots had become more
receptive of their entry into the Cordilleras. As a result, American education has oriented
the Igorots to: (1) think in the Western way of knowing, (2) converse in the English
language, (3) adhere to Christian morals, (4) think that the indigenous/native culture was
inferior as compared to the Western one.Therefore, the general encounter between the
Igorots and Americans was less hostile. The Igorots had been deceived by the reason of
education provided by the Americans which resulted to their gradual Westernization and
abandonment of some beliefs.

American Governance of the Igorots

When the Americans arrived in the Cordillera they

reorganized the political subdivions in the Cordillera. In 13
August 1908, the Act. No. 1876 created the Mountain
Province. The province encompasses the whole Cordillera.
Its sub-provinces include Amburayan, Apayao, Benguet,
Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Lepanto.

To maintain the colonial order, the Philippine Constabulary

was also established in the Cordillera. Americans were sent
to serve as lieutenant governors. Lieutenant generals were
assigned to supervise the constabulary in every sub-
province of the Mountain Province. To ensure that they will
preserve their power over the Igorots, they utilized the
divide-and-rule strategy in policing them. This include the
use of one Igorot group to quell resistance from other Igorot
group. Thus, utilizing the existing intertribal tensions among
these groups.

Despite the seemingly peaceful encounter with the

Americans, the truth was there were also instances of hostilities that happened between
two sides. Cases of ambuscades were also reported, in which Igorots would attack the
Americans or Christianized natives whenever they felt that the latter’s action would
endanger or disrupt their way of life.

Igorot Land Ownership

Many Igorots lost ownership of their lands and experienced degradation in their
environment. The Public Lands Act of 1902 and 1905 made land registration as a

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requirement for ownership of property despite the Igorots’ continual habitation of the lands
way before the coming of the Americans. In this process, some Igorots who were not able
to register their lands lost their property at the hands of the government.

American Missionaries and the Igorots

Although during the Spanish colonial period, Christianity found its way to limited
areas in the Cordillera such as Abra and Benguet, most parts of it were still not touched by
this Western religion. With the initial peaceful encounter with the Igorots due to policies in
education, American missionaries found it easier to establish Catholic and Protestant
missions in the Cordillera.
Orginally aiming for the lowland Christian Filipinos, the American protestants had
focused their attention to the Igorots of Northern Luzon who were not yet largely introduced
to a Western religion such as the Protestantism. In 1904, the American Episcopal Church
led by Rev. John Staunton came to the Cordillera to establish Protestant communities. It
was centered on Sagada, Mountain Province. Other important Episcopalian missions were
founded on Bontoc, and Baguio. Aside from reinforcing American and Christian values in
their teachings, they put up medical facilities in the area that was also the centerpiece of
their religion.

On the other hand, Roman Catholicism was also able to gain strong foothold in the
areas of the Igorots. American missionaries such the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary (CICM) ventured in Bontoc and built their first mission there in 1907. After the
establishment of Catholic mission in Bontoc, other areas in the Cordillera followed, such as
Baguio. Some effects of the Christian missions and education in the Cordillera include: the
discontinuation of tribal warfares, (what was retained were warfare exhbitions for spectacle
or entertainment purposes only), the dressing up of upper garments for Igorot women who
originally did not wear such thing, and of course the belief to the western God.

Lumad responses to American Rule

In beginning of American colonization in Mindanao, Lumad groups were subdivided

into districts depending on their location. Mindanao was divided into the Districts of Davao,
Cotabato, Lanao, Sulu, and Zamboanga. With the imposition of American rule in Mindanao,

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many Lumads resisted the arrival of the new foreign power. Prime example of this was the
assassination of Governor Edward Bolton. He was the district governor of Davao. In 1906
while traveling in Davao, Bolton was killed Mungalayan, a well-known second chief among
the Lumad group, Tagakaolo. Since the Lumads have continuously fought for their lands
ever since the Spanish colonial period, they were also non-receptive of American presence
in their lands.

The Tungud Movement of 1908

In 1908, a Lumad religious movement took place in Tungud, Davao. The movement was
spearheaded by Mapakla or Meskinan, a Manobo. His religious movement grew popularity
due to his life story that he projected among the Lumads. Stories about the life of Meskinan
states that during his early life, he experienced a serious illness resulted to near-death
encounter. During that time, his family abandoned him. Nonetheless, despite this, he
claimed that he was miraculously healed days later in which he claimed was a gift from a
good spirit. Due to this story that he shared on his preachings, he was able to gain
multitudes of followers. Later on his following reached other tribes in Bukidnon and Agusan.

In relation to American rule, his religious movement aimed to attack the Americans and
other Christianized natives due to the reason that in the Davao district, many Lumads was
set to be displaced to their original lands due to the colonial resettlement placed by District
Gov. Frederic Lewis.

However despite its goal of resisting colonial rule, the American authorities accused
Meskina as a fraud religious leader. This was because of extortion cases that were
reported in the movement. The Americans elaborated his involvement to commercial
activities to make profit such as the selling of talismans or lucky charms to his followers.
Moreover, it was found out that he charged fees to his followers who wanted to be a cult
leader in his movement. Later on, the movement

The St. Louis World’s Fair of 1904

In 1904, an event in the United

States of America called The St.
Louis World’s Fair took place in
order to commemorate 100th
anniversary of the American
purchase of Louisiana
( a state in USA) from the French. In
the fair different exhibitions were on
display that was participated by
about 45 countries around the
World. Nonetheless, the St. Louis
Fair became an opportunity for the
United States to showcase its victory
of conquering Indigenous peoples from its colonies such as the Philippines. Morever, the
fair implicitly flexed white superiority over the conquered indigenous peoples from the non-
Western world.

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Therefore, in showcasing the Philippines to the people of United States, living ethnic groups
of the country were brought to the United States. 1,100 Igorots, Kalingas, Mangyans,
Negritos, Bagobos, and other ethnic groups were recruited to serve as a display for the
exhibition. They braved their way into the United States, enduring the temperate weather
that caused illness and death to some of the recruits. Upon their arrival in St. Louis, they
were forced to wear their traditional dress. Due to this, it created spectacle among the
Americans, who for the first time saw a Philippine Indiegenous People on their land. Even
though it raised awareness to the existence of Philippine Indigenous Peoples to the
ordinary people of United States, it was also horrible that it was dubbed as a “human zoo.”
The indigenous peoples were treated as exotic live specimens for the sake of entertainment
of the Westerners.

The Cariño Doctrine

In spite of the subjugation endured by the Indigenous peoples (IPs) during the
American rule, there were instances that their rights were acknowledged by the colonial
rule. This was the case that happened to an Ibaloi leader name Mateo Cariño when he was
favored by the US Supreme Court on 23 February 1909.

During the Spanish colonial period, after converting to Christianity, Mateo Carino, an Ibaloi
chief, was given land by the Spaniards in Kafagway (located in present day Baguio). Later
on, when the Philippine Revolution against Spain happened, he spearheaded the Ibalois of
Kafagway to attack the Spaniards in La Trinidad, Benguet. With this act of bravery he was
later assigned as municipal president of Baguio in 1898 under the Aguinaldo Revolutionary
Government. However, when the Americans arrived in Baguio, they removed the
ownership rights of Carino and the Ibalois to their lands due to their allegiance with
Aguinaldo. Moreover, the Americans were planning to transform Kafagway (located in the
center of Baguio) to become the Summer Capital.

With the American confiscation of their land, it prompted Carino to file a petition to Court of
Land Registration on February 23, 1904. However, his petition was junked by the Supreme
Court of the Philippines, citing that under the new law, his land was classified as a public
property since the American rule on land states that lands acquired by people during the
previous Spanish rule, can become public land and fell into the hands of the government
upon their discretion. Therefore, Carino’s claim that his land was officially given to him by
the Spaniards was not accepted. He later on filed his case to the Supreme Court of the
United States of America wherein he was finally favored by the law in 23 February 1909.
The court recognized his native title of the land as it was continuously inhabited and utilized
by his family even before the arrival of the Americans.

Due to this event, the case of Carino became the Carino Doctrine which served as the
guiding principle of the Philippine law regarding the ancestral lands of the Indigenous
Peoples in the country. It inspired the creation of an exclusive law for indigenous peoples in
the country in which is the Republic Act No. 8371 or the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of
1997. This doctrine was even adapted by other nations in the world in the formulation of
their respective laws for the protection of their indigenous peoples.

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SUMMARY

REFERENCES

Abela, G. (2021). The Carino Doctrine: An Igorot Legacy for All the Indigenous Peoples of
the World. Groundswell News. https://groundswellnews.com/the-carino-doctrine-an-igorot-
legacy-for-all-the-indigenous-peoples-of-the-world/.

Act No. 253, October 02, 1901. Supreme Court E-Library.

https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/28/35887.

Adonis, D and Couch, J. (2017). “The trails to get there”: Experiences of attaining higher
education for Igorot Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines. Australian Journal of Adult
Learning 57, no. 2.

Blount, J. (1913). American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912. New York and
London: The Knickerbocker Press.

Buendia. R. (1987). The Case of the Cordillera: An Unresolved National Question.

Philippine Journal of Public Administration 21, no. 2. https://pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-
archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1987/Num
%202/07_The%20Case%20of%20the%20Cordillera.pdf.

Fong, J. (2017). Ibaloys “Reclaiming” Baguio: The Role of Intellectuals. Plaridel 14, no. 2.

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Florendo, M. Ethnic History (Cordillera). National Commission for Culture and the Arts.
https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-cultural-
heritagesch/historical-research/ethnic-history-cordillera/.

History. Province of Benguet Official Website.

https://web.archive.org/web/20141019211257/http://www.benguet.gov.ph/index.php?
Itemid=268.

Lent and Igorot Religious Practices. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/3733/lent-and-igorot-religious-holidays.

Lumad in Mindanao. Natioinal Commission for Culture and the Arts.

https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-cultural-
heritagesch/historical-research/lumad-in-mindanao/.

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