1

Introduction to Geography
1. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY
The term 'geography was first used by the Greek geographer Eratosthenes in
the third century B.C. He produced a descriptive work called 'Geographica' which is
known to have contained the first recorded use of the word 'geography'. He described
geography as the study of the earth as the home of man. Geography is concerned
with the study of the earth's surface as a space within which the human population
lives. The word 'geography' is derived from the Greek word ge, meaning the earth,
and graphien, meaning to write or describe. Thus geography literally means writing
about, or description of, the earth.
Geography is one of the three major spatial sciences and studies about the
phenomena distributed on the surface of the earth. Other two spatial sciences are
geology and astronomy. Geology
studies about the interior of the
earth while astronomy is
Space Matter
concerned with the study of
heavenly bodies. Reality is three
dimensional which is composed of Spatial Sciences Material
Sciences
three different aspects : matter,
time and space. Thus, however,
knowledge can be divided into
three groups of sciences namely,
material science (study of matters), Time
temporal or historical science
(study of matters in respect of time
or periods), and spatial science (the Temporal Sciences
study about space or places). In
such classification of sciences,
geography stands as a spatial Fig. L.l. Three Dimensions of Knowledge.
science which is concerned with
the study of phenomena on the surface of the earth where people live or which is the
home of man.
If we compare geography with history or historical science, it is obvious that
history is the science of 'when' (time or period of time) while geography revolves
around 'where, particularly where the people live. The word where' refers to place
or location on the surface of the earth. Geography is a dynamic science because all
 History of Geographical Though
2
earth's surface are ever changing either by natural forces or by
the phenomena on the
people play in modifying the face of the earth. Thus, all the phenomena
the part that the subject matter of geography which are usuallw
on the surface of the earth make
classified in two broad categories, i.e.approachphysical phenomena and cultural (human)
Geography represents an to the empirical knowledge of the
phenomena. man-environment relationship as developed
earth-bound phenomena and studies the
different parts or locations on the surface of the earth, usually in the form of
in physical or cultural phenomena
assemblage of interrelated phenomena. Thus, all the shown on a map are basically
can be
which have a recognisable spatial distribution or
of geographical interest.
geographers
Some significant definitions of geography presented by eminent
are as under :
definition of geography was
1. Hartshorne : Perhaps the best known formal Hartshorne in his
provided by the American methodological geographer, Rechard
"geography is
book 'Perspective on the Nature of Geography' (1959). To him, of
concerned to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation
the variable character of the earth surface."
of
2. Humboldt :According to Alexander von Humboldt, one of the founders
modern geography, "geography is concerned with the study of nature",
3. Ritter:Carl Ritter was also the founder of modern geography. According to
him, "geography aims to study the earth's surface which is the home of man."
4. Hettner : Alfred Hettner, the famous methodological geographer of Germany
has defined geography more elaborately. According to him, "geography is a
chorological science which aims to study the areal differentiations and their spatial
relations on the earth's surface."
5. Barrows : American geographer H.H. Barrows (1923) has defined
geography as human ecology. He refers, "geography may be defined as dealing
solely with the mutual relations between man and his natural environment."
6. Schaefer : F.K. Schaefer was a famous critique of Hartshorne's idea and
definition of geography. To him, "geography has to be conceived as the science
concerned with the formulation of the laws goverming the spatial distribution of
certain features on the surface of the earth".
7. Ackerman : In the words of American geographer, E.A. Ackerman,
"geography is the scientific study of vast interacting system comprising all humanity
and its natural environment on the surface of the earth."
8. Finch and Trewartha : Finch and Trewartha, write, "geography is the
science of earth's surface. It consists of a systematic description and interpretation of
the distribution pattern and the regional associations of the things on the surface of
the earth. "
From the above definitions, it is quite obvious that earth's surface is the main
focus of geography and as a discipline it is the mirror of the earth. Thus,
however,
geography may be defined as a discipline that describes and interprets the variable
Introduction to Geography 3

character of the earth's surface with reference to all the physical and human
phenomena.
2. SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
Geography is concerned with the study of the surface of the earth. It includes
the spatial study of physical, biological and human phenomena on the earth's surface.
In geography carth's surface includes three types of areas : (1) Lithosphere (upper
surface of the earth and adjacent earth's crust), (2) Atmosphere (Iower atmosphere of
the earth), and (3) Hydrosphere (seas and oceans situated on the earth). Thus, on the
basis of types of elements or phenomena and areas included in geographical studies,
the subject matter (scope) of geography may be classified as under :
(A) Study of Physical Phenomena
1. Lithosphere :
(i) Origin of the earth, internal structure of the earth, and geostacy.
(i) Indogenetic and exogenetic forces transforming the earth's surface.
(iüi) Rocks, Minerals and Soils.
(iv) Landforms (mountains, plateaus, and plains), drainage patterns etc.
2. Hydrosphere :
(i) Relief features of ocean basins.
(ii) Oceanic deposits and coral reafs.
(ii) Oceanic temperature and salinity.
(iv) Movement of oceanic water : waves, tides and ocean currents.
3. Atmosphere :
(i) Composition of atmosphere.
(iü) Distribution of insolation and temperature.
(111) Atmospheric pressure, winds and air masses.
(iv) Humidity, Precipitation, Climatic regions etc.
(B) Study of Biological Phenomena
(i) Ecology and ecological system (ecosystem)
(ii) Plant kingdom, Animal kingdom and Biome.
(C) Study of Human Phenomena
i) Inter-relationships between man and environment (or human ecology).
(ii) Population: distribution, density, growth, migration, composition,
population-resource relations, population problems and policies.
(iii) Human settlements: Rural and Urban setlements, their origin and
evolution, types, patterns, morphology, problems, planning etc.
(iv) Economy or Human occupations : hunting, fishing, forestry, livestock,
agriculture, mining and quarrying, manufacturing industry, transportation
and communication, trade, commerce, services etc.
 History of Geographical Thoughr
(v) Society and culture : evolution of man, human races, tribal life, socio
cultural processes, social organizations, cultural (spatial) diffusion,
cultural hearths, cultural regions and realms etc.
(vi) Political relations : national and international political environment,
international relations etc.

3. NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY

Geography as a discipline is concerned to provide scientific analysis of the

variable character of the earth surface. It focused on understanding the relationship
between man and environment. Geography has neither the status of a pure physical
science nor of a pure social science. By its nature, geography is recognised as a
spatial (carth) science, as an interdisciplinary science, as a study of spatial
integration, as the study of inter-relationships, and as a synthesising science.
Following are the significant features relating to the nature of geography.
(1) Geography is the study of earth's surface
Geography is one of the important spatial sciences, and is concerned with the
systematic description and interpretation of the distribution patterns and the regional
association of phenomena on the surface of the earth. Place or space on the earth's
surface is the core of geography and all the geographical studies are concerned with
the earth's surface. According to Hartshorne (1959), geography is concerned to
provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the variable
character of the earth's surface. The earth's surface, for geographers, include (1)
lithosphere (the thin zone of the upper crust extending as far down below the surface
as
as man has been able to penetrate), (2) atmosphere (as far high above the surface
man normally goes), and (3) Hydrosphere (seas and oceans situated on the earth).
Thus, geography as a discipline is concerned with the description of phenomena on
the earth's surface as the world of man.
and the
There are much differences in different areas on the surface of the earth
phenomena occurring on the earth's surface are variable in character. The main
concern of geography is how physical and cultural phenomena are distributed over
the surface of the earth and how they are alike or different from place to place.
Tracing the development of geography from the time of ancient Greeks and Romans,
with
Hettner asserted that geography is the chorological science which is concerned
the study of areas on the earth's surface. Thus, geography attempts to describe places
and regions and analyses their spatial interrelations.
(2) Geography is an interdisciplinary science
Geography by nature is an interdisciplinary science that attempts to integrate the
materials or phenomena that various sciences study separately. Any phenomenon
studied in geography may be at the same time an object of study in some other
systematic fields. According to Hartshorne (1976, 460), geography is not an
agglomeration of pieces of the systematic sciences, it integrates these phenomena
according to its distinctive chorographic point of view. Since geography cuts a
section through all the systematic sciences, there is an intimate and mutual relation
Introduction to Geography

between it and each of these fields (Fig. I.1). Hettner (1905) in the first decade of
rwentieth century attempted successfully to provide status of integrating discipline to
geography and associated
geography with other Systematle Sclences
Physlcal Blological Socdal
systematic or classified Sclences Sclencs Sclencas
sciences. The inter
disciplinary character of
geography has been
accepted by all the
eminent geographers of
the twentieth century
including Hartshorne,
Carl Sauer, Griffith
nom

Taylor, Huntington, S.P.

Chatterjee etc.
Systematic weGeogrephy
The subject matters
Phyaical Geography Human
described by different Geography
branches of geography are Reglonal K
variously concerned with Geography
different systematic
sciences. For example, Fig. 1.2. Inter-disciplinary Character of Geography.
owing to similar subject matters, geomorphology is connected with geology,
climatology with meteorology, oceanography with ocean science, soil geography
with pedology, zoogeography with zoology, plant geography with botany, racial
geogranhy with physiology and ethnography. Similarly, economic geography is
related with economics, social geography with sociology and political geography
with political science. Thus, one may find that now the status of
geography is
established as an interdisciplinary science.
(3) Geography is an empirical science
Being an empirical science geography concerns itself with empirical questions
that are associated with a factual content. Empirical questions are concerned about
how phenomena or things are in reality. In this context reality may be defined as the
world which can be experienced and secured. This means that
geography is
concerned with the study of objects, things or phenomena that can be experienced
and measured objectively. In nineteenth century in Germany
Alexander von
Humboldt and Carl Ritter founded the modern geography. Both founders of modern
geography insisted that geography should be empirical and a geographer should
proceed from observation to observation in search for general principles and laws
and not from preconceived opinions and hypothesis. Humboldt
for careful observation of objects in the field and for emphasized the need
the careful and precise
measurement of observations.
Ageographer deals with concrete data or phenomena which are recognisable
and thus, geography studies what really exists particularly at the
physical or cultural phenomena selected for geographical studies present time. The
are generally
 History of Geographical Thoughr
6
geography
concrete data about them may be collected. Thus, modernsurface.
observable and and interpretation of the
earth's
empirical description
concerns itself with inter-relationships
(4) Geography is the study of inter-relationships or inter-connections. It
Geography is viewed as the study of
terrestrial unity which implies that all terrestrial
is govermed the principie of organic are interrelated and form
and cultural, inorganic and
phenomena, physical principle
associations of land and man on the surface of the earth. Infact,
the unique inter-relationships is the corner stone of geography and it is the
of terrestrial unity or
geographical progress. Founders of modern geography in
dominant idea in all principle of terrestriai unity as the
and Ritter both accepted the
Germany, Humboldt analysis. In the preface to his Cosmos,
sole theme and methodology of geographical
cach organism as part of the
Humboldt wrote : "We are naturally led to consider not merely an isolated
or the animal,
entire creation, and to recognise in the plant living or extinct." (Freeman, 1961,
species, but a form linked to other form either
33).
Ritter, "geography is the department of science that deals with the
For Carl independent unit, and shows
globe in all its features. phenomena and relations, an (Dickinson, 1969,
man's creator"
that connections of this unified whole with man and
of his Anthropo
36). Ratzel also made it the fundamental unifying concept is to know
geographie. Andre Cholley in France observed: "The object of geography
of phenomena
the earth in its total character, not in terms of individual categories
physical, biological and human arranged in a series, but rather in terms of the
combinations produced among them, because it is these combinations which create
the diferent physical and human aspects which the surface of the earth reveals to
us." (Hartshorne, 1976, 14).
American geographer. H.H. Barrows (1923) stressed to recognize geography as
human ecology. The recognition of human ecology in geography has further
strengthened the bonds of interrelationship. Ecology is concerned with the study of
the ecosystem which brings environment, man and the plant and animal worlds
within a single framework. It is an interacting system comprising living things and
their non-living environment. D.M. Smith (1977) refers that geography offers a broad
synoptic view of spatial relationships in human afairs.
(5) Geography is a synthesising science
Synthesis has always remained the teleology of geography because it has
strongest affiliations with both physical sciences and human sciences. "It integrates
the materials, which other sciences study separately, in terms of the areal integrations
which the heterogeneous phenomena form in different parts of the world (Aadhikari,
2004, 10). Thus, the view that geography is a synthesising discipline has always been
fundamental to its philosophy.
Humboldt and Ritter both had viewed geography as a unified discipline, part
regional and part systematic, and equally focussed on the study of man as well as the
physical environment that surrounds man. Before 1950, geographers adopted an
empiricist philosophy which puts emphasis on depiction of the observed world and
 14 History of Geographical Thought
SCIENCES
6. RELATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY WITH OTHER
interdisciplinary and multi.
Dealing the scope of geography we find that it is an
disciplinary science. Its somne parts (physical geography) have their strongest
(human
affiliation with environmental and physical or natural sciences, and other
sciences
geography) with various social sciences. While different physical and social
deal with distinctive types of phenomena, geography studies those phenomena in the
context of space. Thus, geography has established itself as a synthesising discipline
on the ground of spatial variation and empirical knowledge.
(A) Relations of Geography with Physical Sciences
Physical sciences are also known as natural sciences. Such sciences are
concerned with inanimate matter or energy such as astronomy, mathematics,
geology. physics, biology, etc. and their sub-fields. Relations of geography with
these sciences is discussed below :
(1) Astronomy and Geography
Astronomy is a pure natural science which systematically deals with celestial
bodies as concrete objects and phenomena having known situation in the universe. It
deals with the heavenly bodies which include stars, planets, satellites, constellations,
meteors etc. Geography attempts to identify and measure the impact of the motion of
these heavenly bodies on living and non-living phenomena on the surface of the
earth. Geography also attempts to study the form, size, movement and motion of
celestial bodies especially of the sun, the earth and the moon and their impact on the
earth's surface. Various aspects of geographical studies like solar and lunar eclipses,
origin of tides, spatial and seasonal variation in temperature and insolation, changes
in weather and climate etc. Thus, we find that astronomy and geography are highly
associated and astronomical geography has been a subfield of physical geography.
(2) Mathematics and Geography
Mathematics is the science of studying and expressing the relationships between
quantities and magnitudes, as represented by numbers and symbols. Statistics is a
branch of mathematics which is concerned with the collection, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data. With the help of mathematics the precise location,
nature and speed of motion and movement, form and size of celestial bodies
including the sun, the earth and the moon have been successfully determined. The
use of morphology in geomorphology basically depends on mathematical rules.
In geography, the location and geometrical situation of a place or region is
expressed with the help of longitudes and latitudes measured in degrees, minutes and
seconds. Various cartographic presentations in geographical analysis like projections,
scales, diagrams, graphs etc. are essentially based on mathematical and statistical
methods. Thus, geography is highly related with mathematics.
(3) Geology and Geography
Geology is the scientific study of the earth's crust, the rocks of which it is
composed and the history of its origin and development. There are many branches of
geology, the broad sub-fields being physical geology and historical geology. Physical
Introduction to Geography 15

geology is concerned with the process and shape of the earth's crust while historical
geology is concerned with the study of the sequence of earth history.
Geomorphology, the study concerned with landforms, is included as a branch of
geology in the U.S.A., but in Britain it is usually regarded as a branch of geography.
Geography,. particularly geomorphology is essentially the study of the
morphology of the carth's surface. Morphology of the earth's surface is the
manifestation of the rock structure in various forms. In the words of W.M. Davis,
"landform the result of structure, process and stage." The term structure refers to
geology, and the words 'process' and 'stage' refer to geography. Geology and
geography both are concerned with the study of the distribution of rocks and
minerals and their mode of occurrence and composition. Thus, however,
geomorphology is the outcome of interaction and interrelationship between geology
and geography.

Anthropology
H i s t o r y

H i s t o r i c a l
Ethnography
SSocial ocilg
Geography
G e o g .

Astronomy Astronomical GeographyEconomics

Economic
Geog.

GEOGRAPHY

B i
G o
e o g r a p h y

Geolgy Geomrphlgy Climatology

Meteorology
Biology

Fig. 1.4. Relations of Geography with other sciences.

(4) Physics and Geography

Physics is the scientific study concerned with physical processes and matter and
energy and their interactions. As geography studies variable phenomena on the
surface of the earth, the mechanism of physical phenomena requires to be studied
within the framework of physics. The processes and changes concerned with
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere are studied within the framework of
 16
History of Geographical Thogh
physics. Climatology as the physics of
interpret the atmospheric processes and atmosphere applies the methods of physics to
physics to explain and interpret changes. Similarly, oceanography is the
hydrospheric processes. Geomorphology is the
physics of lithosphere and studies the lithospheric processes and changes. Thus the
characteristics of phenomena to be studied in
climatology, oceanography. geomorphologyvarious
and
branches of physical geography
biogeography
show
are quantifiable. that objects
Geography, particularly physical geography seeks to draw
circumference the fundamental principles of physics in an obvious within its
interpret the terrestrial phenomena. The hypothetical attempt to
deductive
in physical geography has been
mostly developed in physics. method
Thus,
usually used
geography is
highly interrelated with physics and uses
(5) physical laws, principles and methods.
Biologyand Geography
Biology is concerned with the study of living things or life
in all its
manifestations. Two major branches of biology are (plants and animals)
Botany is related with the scientific study of plant life botany and zoology.
study of the classification, structure and while zoology is the scientific
idiographic tradition in geography shows functions of all forms of animal life. The
the strong link of
and its branches - botany and zoology. These geography with biology
traditionally been confined to a classification systematic
and
branches of biology have
species on the surface of the earth which form unique description of various kinds of
Geography also attempts to describe and interpret features and phenomena.
(plants) and fauna (animals) phenomena on the earth's distributional aspects of flora
classification. Thus, biogeography is closely related withsurface and also provides their
biology.
There are two branches of
(animal geography). Plant geography biogeography - plant geography and zoogeography
is related with botany as both botany
geography seek to describe and classify the spatial pattern of and plant
attempt to analyse them according to spatial flora phenomena and
conditions. Similarly, zoology and
zoogeography are concerned with the description of
the different lands. Thus, faunal (animal) phenomena of
biology.
zoogeography is closely related with zoology, a
subfield of
(B) Relations of Geography with Social
Sciences
Social sciences include those disciplines that
study human society, its organization and the attempt in a systematic way to
relationship individual members to it
or to groups within it. Major social sciences are
of
history and political science. Relations of anthropology, sociology, economics,
discussed here. geography with these social sciences are
(1) Anthropology and Geography
Anthropology is the study of human beings as animals and as members of
society. It includes the study of the origin of human beings, the distribution of
various ethnic groups, the development of technical skills, religion,
other aspects of culture as well as social systems. language and
Thus, Anthropology attempts to
 I7
Introduction to Geography
describe and interpret the human races, there physical, biological and cultural traits
and organizations, and seeks to classify them accordingly. Both anthropology and
geography attempt to identify and classity human races on the basis of physical and
cultural traits of their habitants and describe and interpret the variable racial
phenomena on the spatial part of the earth surface.
The interrclationship between anthropology and geography has resulted in the
development of 'anthropogeography' which studies different human groups in terms
of physical environment and geographical distribution of human races. The term
'Anthropogeography' is synonymous with human gcography. The book
'Anthropxogeographie' written by Friedrich Ratzel, a famous German geographer, is
well known book of human geography. Thus, geography,. particularly human
geography and cultural geography are closely related with anthropology.
(2) Sociology and Geography
Sociology is the study of the social behaviour or social action of human beings,
the origin, evolution and structure of human society and its institutions. It is mainly
concerned with the institutional aspects of the society which include social
organization of communities, family system, culture, rituals, customs, social system
and overall the way of living. All these aspects of human society are studied in
geography in spatial context.
Each spatial part or region of the carth's surface is identified by its inhabitants
and their way of living which result into 'social phenomena. When a person attempts
to study the variable character of its social phenomena on the earth's surface, he
secks to integrate sociology with geography. Social geography as a subfield of
human geography has drawn many of its concepts and thoughts from modern
sociology. Social geography is seem to be the logical expression of the interaction
between sociology and geography because it attempts to describe and interpret the
social phenomena in spatial context.
(3) Economics and Geography
Economics is a social science which is basically concerned with people's
economic activities and the principles governing the production units, forces or
means of production, division of labour, and a number of institutional aspects like
capital investment and assets, entrepreneurial skills, technology, investment funds
and various economic organizations. In other words, economics is the scientific study
relating to the production and distribution of material wealth and to human behaviour
working within the limits imposed by the relative scarcity of the resources available.
All these phenomena concerned with economics have a definite location or situation
and time which must be studied in spatial (geographical) and temporal (historical)
context. Thus, spatial aspect of the study of any economic phenomena is related with
geography.
Economic geography is a major branch of human geography which is the
outcome of interaction of geography with economics. It attempts to study the spatial
variation in the distribution of different economic phenomena on the earth's surface
including the activities related to production, distribution or exchange and
 History of Geographical Thought
services. Economic geography which focuses on testino
consumption of goods and hypothesis concerned with variable economie
and the empirical validation of
developed a much stronger affinity with a economics. Above
phenomena has
geography interdependent.
discussion makes economics and
(4) History andGeography development of the study of past
any thing in time. It ismanifestations
History is the study of ete
conditions, ideas, cultural
political
events, economic, social and fill up the entire circumference of our
History and geography
(Clark. 1989). presents place. Geography is a
perception, as history shows time and geography
phenomena beside each other in space while history is a report of
report of Both history and geography
phenomena that follow one another in reference to time.
concerned with integrating different kinds of phenomena. The description of
are knowledge of their historical
present geographical phenomena requires sufficientthe relief of a region one must
development. For example, in the interpretation of
Similarly in the interpretation of
take into account its geological development first. India, one must first try to gain
the present political phenomena of a country say "Likewise the
knowledge of the political development of India since Independence. geographic
interpretation of historical events requires some knowledge of their(Hartshorne,
background, in this case geography is the means to a historical end"
1976, 463).
Historical geography, the geography through time is the study of the changing
landscape and society of a region. CT. Smith (1965) had listed four different
approaches of historical geography which are : () the operation of geographical
factor in history, (2) the evolution of the cultural landscape. (3) reconstruction of past
geographies, and (4) the study of geographical change through time.
Actually, geographical studies require some knowledge of historical approaches
and methods on the one hand, and historical analysis also requires proper knowledge
of geographical environment of the place to be studied. Thus, geography and history
both are interdependent in nature.
(5) Political Science and Geography
Political science is the study of organization, functions and conduct of the state
and of government. It attempts to describe and interpret the political phenomena of a
politically organized territory or a nation or state. A political scientist requires some
knowledge of geographical background of the teritory to be studied. Political
geography denotes the interrelationship and interdependence of political science and
geography. As a branch of human geography, political geography is concerned with
the boundaries, extent, divisions, territories, resources and internal and external
relationships of politically organized areas such as states and nation states. Political
geography is also concerned with the effects of political actions and government
policies on social and economicconditions of the people, and with the significance of
geographical factors behind political conditions, activities and problems. Thus.
political science and geography are closely related and interdependent.