UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC SESSION 2020/2021

EKC291 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY I

EXPERIMENT 15: SOLAR POWER CYCLE UNIT

GROUP NUMBER: 8

GROUP MEMBERS: CHEW YEN MIN (147400)

: NORNAFEELA KHAN BINTI NASEEM KHAN (148351)

: TEE JIA SONG (147516)

: MUHAMMAD AMIRUL HADI BIN MOHAMMAD NAZER

(148766)

INSTRUCTOR: PROFESSOR DR. MOHD. ROSLEE OTHMAN

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 1ST JUNE 2021

 TABLE OF CONTENT
Content Page

1.0 Abstract 2

2.0 Objective 2

3.0 Results and discussion 2-6

3.1 Experiment A 2-5

3.2 Experiment B 5-6

4.0 Conclusion 7

5.0 References 7

6.0 Appendix 8-9

6.1 Experiment data 8

6.2 Calculation 9

1
1.0 Abstract
The experiment was conducted to utilize the experimental data from the solar
power unit. In experiment A, different intensities of light were measured using
pyranometer and the water flowrate was kept constant (4L/min). Then, flow transducer
was used to measure the water flow rate while the intensity was kept constant at 23.087
W/m2. The graphs of efficiency against source intensity and flow rates were plotted to
analyse the relationship of efficiency of solar power unit with both the variables which
are intensity of light and water flow rates. In this experiment, a second order polynomial
equation, y = 0.0878x2 - 2.831x + 23.413 was observed in Figure 1 with R2 value equal
to 1. The efficiency of the solar unit measured decreased from 17.85% to 4.87% as
intensity increased from 2 W/m2 to 23.124 W/m2 at constant water flow rate of 4L/min.
Based on Figure 3, a linear equation y = 1.2521x - 0.117 was obtained with R2 value equal
to 1. The efficiency of the solar unit measured increased linearly from 2.403% to 9.908%
when the water flow rate increased from 2 L/min to 8 L/min at constant solar intensity of
23.087 W/m2. In experiment B, temperature was measured using temperature transducer
in a period of 0 to 60 min and the graph of temperature against time was plotted to
investigate energy storage in water. From Figure 5, a linear regression equation, y =
0.1943x + 41.971 was determined and the R2 value is equal to 0.99. The temperature of
tank water increased from 42℃ to 54℃ as the time increased from 0 to 65 minutes. Errors
due to external light source, heat loss to the surrounding and presence of air bubbles in
the conduit could occur when conducting the experiments. The significant factor affecting
the solar unit is the solar intensity due to the higher efficiency calculated compared to
water flow rates.

2.0 Objectives
▪ To utilize the experimental data from solar power unit
▪ To analyse the relationship between solar unit efficiency, solar intensity and water
flow
▪ To identify the significant factor affecting the solar unit

3.0 Results and discussion

3.1 Experiment A
To analyse the relationship between solar unit efficiency and solar intensity,
constant flow rate of water at 4L/min is used. The data used to analyse this relationship
is presented in graphical method as shown in Figure 1. In this case, solar intensity is the
manipulated variable while efficiency of solar unit is the responding variable. Based on
Figure 1, the data used can be represented with second order polynomial equation which
is y = 0.0878x2 - 2.831x + 23.413. R2 value obtained from this graph is equal to 1 (R2 =
1) which indicates that the second order polynomial equation perfectly fitted the data
(Fernando, 2020). However, the high standard deviation (8.6519) obtained from this
graph shows that the data are more spread out and thus, the results are less accurate
(National Library of Medicine, 2006). Based on Figure 1, it is observed that as the
intensity increased from 2 W/m2 to 16 W/m2, the solar efficiency decreased from 17.850%
to 4.868%. On the other hand, at intensity above 16 W/m2, the solar efficiency increased.
Therefore, the efficiency of the solar unit is dependent on the solar intensity. Any changes
on the solar intensity will results in different solar efficiency.

2
 Graph of efficiency against solar intensity at
constant flow rate of 4L/min
20.000
(2.1019, 17.850)
18.000 y = 0.0878x2 - 2.831x + 23.413
16.000 Standard Deviation = 8.65194
Standard Error of Estimate = 7.9043
14.000
Efficiency (%)

R² = 1
12.000
10.000
8.000
6.000 (23.1237, 4.868)
4.000
2.000 (12.9808, 1.445)

0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Solar intensity (W/m2)
Figure 1: Graph of Efficiency against Solar Intensity at constant flow rate of 4L/min

In comparison with data in Figure 2, it is obvious that the experimental data from
Figure 1 deviated from the data shown. From Figure 2, a positive trend was observed
where the efficiency of solar unit increased as the solar intensity increased. This is
because as the solar intensity increases, outlet temperature increases and thus the
efficiency also increases (Noghrehabadi et al., 2016). However, only the last two points
from the experimental data obtained were correct while the first point showed opposite
relationship. This might be due to some errors occurred when the experiment was
conducted which will be discussed later.

Figure 2: Influence of the incident solar radiation on the collector efficiency when a
nanofluid and water were used as coolants (Noghrehabadi et al., 2016)

To determine the relationship between solar unit efficiency and water flow rate,
constant solar intensity at 23.087 W/m2 is used. Figure 3 showed the influence of water
flow rate on the solar unit efficiency in graphical method. In this case, water flow rate is
the manipulated variable whereas efficiency of solar unit is the responding variable. A
linear equation y = 1.2521x - 0.117 was observed in Figure 3. The R2 value obtained from
this graph is equal to 1 (R2 = 1) which shows that the linear equation perfectly fitted the

3
data (Fernando, 2020). However, the high standard deviation of 3.8254 calculated from
the graph indicates that the data are more spread out and thus, the accuracy of the results
decreases (National Library of Medicine, 2006). From Figure 3, as the water flow rate
increased from 2 L/min to 8 L/min, the solar efficiency increased linearly from 2.403%
to 9.908%. Therefore, the efficiency of the solar unit is affected by the flow rate of water.
Any changes on the water flow rate will results in different solar efficiency.

Graph of efficiency against flow rate at constant

solar intensity of 23.087 W/m2
12.000
y = 1.2521x - 0.117 9.908
10.000 Standard Deviation = 3.8254
Standard Error of Estimate = 0.0300
Efficiency (%)

8.000 R² = 1

6.000 4.868

4.000
2.403
2.000

0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Flow rate (L/min)
Figure 3: Graph of efficiency against water flow rate at constant solar intensity of
23.087 W/m2

Based on Figure 4, the efficiency of solar unit increased as the water flow rate
increased. Both lines in Figure 3 and 4 showed the same positive trend indicates that the
experimental data obtained obeys the theoretical equation. The equation of thermal
efficiency is shown in Equation 1 (EKC291 Lab Manual, 2021). Theoretically, efficiency
of solar unit is directly proportional to the flow rate of water when other parameters such
as Cp, Tfi, Tfo, Ac and S are kept constant as shown in Equation 2 and 3. This is because as
flow rate of water increases, the heat gain by the collector also increases and thus, the
thermal efficiency increased. However, some errors may occur while conducting the
experiment which will be discussed later.

𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑜 −𝑇𝑓𝑖 )

η= ---------------Equation 1
𝐴𝑐 𝑆
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑜 −𝑇𝑓𝑖 )
𝑘= ---------------Equation 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑆
η = 𝑚𝑘 ---------------Equation 3
η∝𝑘

Where: m is the flow rate of the water through the collector.

Where Cp is the specific heat of water at constant pressure.
Where Tfi is the inlet water temperature.
Where Tfo is the outlet water temperature.
Where Ac is the operative area of the collector.
Where S is the intensity of source.
Where k is the constant.

4
Figure 4: Efficiency of the solar unit with the nanofluid and pure water for various flow
rates (Noghrehabadi et al., 2016)

There were some errors found during the experiment. The inaccurate data
recorded in experiment A might be due to the effect of external sources on the light
radiation. Light from the light source of the laboratory, reflected light from the outside
surroundings and shadows could cause fluctuations in the intensity readings on
pyranometer. It is recommended that the experiment be carried out in a room where no
external light source may interrupt. Next, heat loss from the water tank also might cause
errors in the data recorded. The values of temperature difference might be affected. Thus,
it will also affect the efficiency of the solar unit. Besides that, the temperature and
intensity of radiation values may be inaccurate because the experiment had already begun
before the system ran until the readings were stabilised. Moreover, the water flow rate
recorded might not be accurate due to the presence of air bubbles in the conduit.

3.2 Experiment B
Experiment B was carried out to show how tank water can be used as energy storage
medium. The data used to analyse this relationship is presented in graphical method as
shown in Figure 5. In this case, time taken is the manipulated variable while temperature
of tank water is the responding variable. Based on Figure 5, the data used can be
represented with linear regression equation which is y = 0.1943x + 41.971. R2 value
obtained from this graph is 0.99 (R2 = 0.99) which indicates that the linear regression
fitted most of the data. However, high standard deviation value (4.08428) shows that the
data are more spread out from the mean value (48.286℃). Based on Figure 5, it is
observed that the temperature of tank water increases from 42℃ to 54℃ as the time
increases from 0 to 65 minutes. This proved that tank water can be used as energy storage
because as temperature of tank water increased, the average kinetic energy of the water
molecules also increased. As a result, the energy contained in the tank water also
increased. Furthermore, as time increases, the energy contained in the water tank also
increases because the water used are exposed to solar radiation for longer period of time.

5
 Graph of temperature of tank water against time
60 53 53 54
51 52

Temperature of tank water (℃)

49 50
47 48
50 45 46
44
42 42
40
y = 0.1943x + 41.971
30 Standard Deviation = 4.08428
Standard Error of Estimate = 0.42538
20 R² = 0.99

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)
Figure 5: Graph of temperature of tank water against time

Figure 6 showed the statistical data for Experiment B. From time 0 hour to 1 hour,
the straight line has a positive gradient. Meanwhile, in Figure 5, for duration of
approximately 1 hour, it has a straight line with a positive gradient too. Hence, we can
conclude that the results that we obtained from Experiment B were accurate and followed
the trend of the statistical data.

Figure 6: Graph of average temperature of water tank against time (Auti et al., 2013)

There was also error detected in this experiment. As mentioned earlier, higher
standard deviation values (4.08428) shows that the data are more spread out from the
mean value (48.286℃). Therefore, we can conclude that there was error occurred during
the experiment. The heat loss from the water tank to the surrounding caused a slight
fluctuation in the data. From Figure 5, we noticed that at temperature 42℃, 53℃ and
54℃, the points are not on the straight line. This error can be improved by having a
protective heat insulator layer on the surface of the water tank to reduce the heat that were
loss to the surrounding.

6
4.0 Conclusion
This experiment was conducted based on the principle of conservation energy where
the solar energy was converted into thermal energy. From the analysis of the data above,
the efficiency of the solar unit was measured. A graph of efficiency against solar intensity
was plotted to study the relationship between efficiency and solar intensity. Based the
graph, as the solar intensity increased from 2 W/m2 to 16W/m2, the efficiency decreased
but beyond 16 W/m2, the solar efficiency increased. The data obtained from the
experiment was slightly deviated from the theoretical data which stated that as the solar
intensity increases, the efficiency also increases. A graph of efficiency against water flow
rate was also plotted to study the effect of water flowrate on the solar efficiency. From
the graph, it was found that as flow rate increases from 2L/min to 8L/min, the efficiency
also increased from 2.4% to 9.9% following the theoretical data. Lastly, for experiment
B, a graph of temperature against time was plotted to investigate the energy storage in
water tank. As the time increases from 0 to 60 minutes, the temperature of tank water also
increases from 42℃ to 54℃. This shows that the energy contained in the water tank also
increased in terms of kinetic energy. Thus, from the experiment, it is proven that water is
suitable to be used as solar energy storage medium. From this experiment, the light
intensity affects the efficiency of solar unit the most compared to water flow rates. This
is because the efficiency calculated based on the intensity was higher than the efficiency
calculated based on water flow rate. Therefore, the significant factor that affecting the
solar unit efficiency will be the solar intensity. Thus, all the objectives were achieved.

5.0 References

Auti, A., Singh, T., Pangavhane, D. & Chavan, A. (2013). Solar Water Desalination
System with Condenser Without Using Electricity for Rural Areas. American Journal of
Applied Sciences, 10(9), 1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2013.1109.1114

Lab Manual EKC 291 Chemical Engineering Lab 1 Semester 2 2020/2021, School of
Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Fernando, J. (2020). R-Squared Definition. [Online] Available at:

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/r-squared.asp [Accessed 1 Jun 2021]

National Library of Medicine (2006). Standard Deviation. [Online] Available at:

https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/stats_tutorial/section2/mod8_sd.html#:~:text=A%20sta
ndard%20deviation%20(or%20%CF%83,data%20are%20more%20spread%20out
[Accessed 1 Jun 2021]

Noghrehabadi, A., Hajidavalloo, E. & Moravej, M. (2016). Experimental investigation of

efficiency of square flat-plate solar collector using SiO2/water nanofluid. Case Studies in
Thermal Engineering, 8, 378–386.

7
6.0 Appendix
6.1 Experiment data

Experiment A
Table 1: Experimental data to analyze the relationship between solar unit efficiency, solar intensity and water flow
Run Intensity Intensity PR1 (W/m2) Mass Flow Flow Rate, Temperature Temperature Input Output Efficiency
No. PR1 (lux) Measured Average Rate, m (kg/s) FT1 (L/min) In, TT1 (°C) Out, TT2 (°C) (W) (W) (%)
1385 2.072 0.0332 2 41 44 3.0665 0.4165 13.581
1 1405 2.102 2.104 0.0664 4 43 45 3.1108 0.5553 17.850
1429 2.138 0.1327 8 44 46 3.1639 1.1105 35.100
8497 12.712 0.0332 2 44 48 18.813 0.5553 2.952
2 8677 12.981 12.946 0.0664 4 49 50 19.212 0.2776 1.445
8787 13.145 0.1327 8 49 51 19.455 1.1105 5.708
15653 23.417 0.0332 2 47 53 34.657 0.8329 2.403
3 15457 23.124 23.087 0.0664 4 49 55 34.223 1.6658 4.868
15187 22.720 0.1327 8 50 56 33.625 3.3316 9.908

Experiment B
Table 2: Experimental data to show that the tank water can be used as a storage medium for solar energy.
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Temperature (℃) 42 42 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 53 54

8
 6.2 Calculation
1. Conversion of intensity from lux to watt per meter square.
1 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 0.001496𝑊
𝑆= ×
𝑚2 1 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
Where: S is the light intensity in W/m2

2. Formula to find mass flow rate.

1𝑚𝑖𝑛 1𝑚3
𝑚̇ = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × ×
60𝑠 1000𝐿
Where: 𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate in kg/s
ρ is the density of water (1000 kg/m3)
V is volumetric flow rate (L/min)

3. Formula to find efficiency.

𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1)
η= × 100
𝐴𝑐 × 𝑆
Where: η is the efficiency (%)
Cp is specific heat capacity of water (4.184J/kg.℃)
𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑇2̇ − 𝑇𝑇1) is the energy output (W)
Ac is the operative area of collector (1.48m
𝐴𝑐 𝑆 is the energy input (W)

Sample of calculation
For Run No.1, at 1405lux,
1 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 0.001496𝑊
𝑆 = 1405 × ×
𝑚2 1 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑆 = 2.102𝑊/𝑚2
1𝑚𝑖𝑛 1𝑚3
𝑚̇ = 1000 × 4 × ×
60𝑠 1000𝐿
𝑚̇ = 0.0664𝑘𝑔/𝑠
0.0664 × 4.184 × (45 − 43)
η = × 100%
1.48 × 2.1019
η = 17.850%