Medical Physics

Chapter 2
Forces in and on the Body

i- Forces in the body:

1- Gravitational force (acting on the fluid inside the body).
2- Electrical force (electrical field).
3- Nuclear force (magnetic field).

ii- Forces on the body:

1- Static forces (body doesn’t move).
2- Frictional forces (between the body and surrounding surfaces).
3- Dynamic forces (body is in motion status).

Part (I) : FORCES IN THE BODY:

1- Gravitational force:
Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation. This law states
that: there is a force of attraction between any two objects. For example,
our weight is due to attraction between the earth and our bodies.
The gravitational force is very small on the moon because the attraction
between the moon and the bodies is small.

Effect of gravitational force:

i- The formation of varicose vein in the leg. This happens because of the
attraction of the earth to the blood. This attraction resists the flow up of
blood. The venous blood travels against the force of gravity on its way
to the heart.

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ii- The loss of some minerals of the bone. When a person becomes
weightless ( such as in an orbiting satellite ), then some of the bone
mineral is lost.
This effect happens even in which the presence of gravity ( such as
in which the person is in long term bed rest ). This case will cause
the removal of much of the force of the body weight from the bones
and can lead to serious bone mineral loss.
2- Electrical force:
This force is more complicated than gravity, since it involves
attraction and repulsive forces between static electrical charges as
well as magnetic forces produced by moving electrical charges.
Electrical forces are extremely large compared to gravitational
forces. For example, the electrical forces between an electron and
proton in H atom is about ( 1039 times ) greater than the gravitational
forces between them. Moving electrons is moving of electrical
charges which called electrical current.

The forces that are produced by the muscles are caused by electrical
charges attracting or repelling other electrical charges.

Types of Electrical Forces:

A – Static forces : Either attraction or repulsive forces between static

electrical charges.
B – Magnetic forces: These are produced moving of electrical charges
in the muscles and nerves.
C – Nuclear forces : Which keep the positive charges “protons” together
inside the nucleus.
We have two types of nuclear forces:

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 1 – Strong nuclear force: It is very larger than the other type. It is act as
“glue” to hold the nucleus against the forces that produced by the
proton on each other.

2 – Weaker nuclear force: It is involved with electron decay from the

nucleus. It may be related to the electrical force.

Part (II) : FORCES ON THE BODY:

They are either those where the body is accelerated (dynamics), or
when the body is at equilibrium ( statics ).
The force that is involved with both dynamics and statistics is called “
Frictional Force”.

A- Frictional Forces:
Friction and energy loss due to friction appears everywhere in our
everyday life. Friction limits the efficiency of most machines such as
the electrical generators and cars. On the other hand we make use of
friction in devices such as a rubber tires and car breaks.

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In the body friction effects are often important. The maximum force of
friction ( F ) is usually given by:
F= µN
Where µ is the coefficient of friction between the two surface, and N is
the normal force.

The value of µ depends upon:

1 – The two materials in contact.
2 – Essentially independent of the surface area.
Q/ A large block of ice are being pulled across a frozen lake. The block
of ice has a mass of 300 kg. The coefficient of friction between two ice
surfaces is small: μ = 0.05. What is the force of friction that is acting
on the block of ice?

Solution:

We have:

F= μ N

N = mg. Where m is the mass of ice, g is the gravitational value of

earth = 9.8 m/s2.

F = μmg
F = 0.05 × 300 kg × 9.8 m/s2
= 147 kg.m/s2 or 147 N.

The force of friction acting in the opposite direction as the block

of ice is pulled across the lake is 147 N.

B – Static Forces:
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When objects are static, they are in equilibrium i.e. the sum of forces in
any direction is equal to zero, and the sum of the torques about the axis
is equal to zero.
Many of the muscle and bone systems acts as levers which are
classified into:
1 – First Class Levers: They are least common in the body. The
fulcrum point ( F ) is between the muscle force ( M ) and the weight (
W ). An example is the head.
2 – Second Class Levers: They are found more than 1st class levers.
Here ( W ) is between ( F ) and ( M ). An example is the standing on
the toes.
3 – Third Levers: They are most common in the body. Here ( M ) is
between ( F ) and ( W ). An example is the arm in the elbow joint.

First Class Lever Second Class Lever Third Class Lever

W is a force that is usually the weight, F is the force at the fulcrum

point, and M is the muscular force.

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 Note that in order to achieve the equilibrium state:
Clockwise forces = Anti Clockwise forces
1 – Clockwise rotation forces are ( W and H ), H is the weight of the
forearm and hand.
2 – Anticlockwise rotation force is ( M ).
3 - We have to multiply each force by its distance from the rotation
point ( F) which on figure represented by ( R ).

Example: If W = 10 N, H = 20 N, calculate the value of M?

Solution:

Anti-Clockwise rotation forces = Clockwise rotation forces

M x 4 = H x 14 + W x 30
M x 4 = 20 x 14 + 10 x 30

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 ‫ ؞‬M = ( 280 + 300 ) / 4 = 145 N

Note that most of the joint in body are third – class levers, and joints
are designed for speed of movement rather than for lifting heavy loads.
In general, each muscle has a minimum length to which it can be
contracted and a maximum length to which it can be stretched and still
function.

C – Dynamics Forces:

This force is important when the body is moving and hitting another
body. It appears on the body where acceleration or deceleration is
involved.
This force is used in the “ Forensic Medicine”. Newton originally wrote
the law that measures this force :

The change of movement∆(mass x velocity)

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
Short time interval or ( ∆t )

Or:

∆( mv )
𝐹=
∆t
Since:
∆v
𝑎=
∆t
Therefore:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

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Where:
F= force; m= mass ; v= velocity ; mv = momentum
a= acceleration and t= time

When the heart beats ( systole ) is increased, this is an example of a

dynamic force of the body, as the blood circulation becomes faster.
Example:
A 60 kg person walking at 1 m/sec, bumps into a wall and stops in a
distance of 2.5cm in about 0.05 Sec.
What is the force developed on impact?
Solution:

F= Δ( mv ) / Δt
Δ( mv )= 60x1 – 60 x 0 = 60 kg.m/sec
F = 60 / 0.05 = 6000/5
‫ ؞‬F = 1200 N or ( kg.m/sec2 )
The Effect of Acceleration:
There are many effects when the body accelerated, which are:
1 – An apparent increase or decrease in body weight. An example is the
body weight inside a moving elevator.
2 – Changes in the internal hydrostatic pressure.
3 – Distortion of the elastic tissue of the body.
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4 – The tendency of solids, with different densities suspended in a
liquid, to separate.
5 – If the acceleration becomes large, the body will lose control because
it does not have adequate muscle force to work against the larger
acceleration force.
6 – Under certain conditions, the blood may pool in various regions of
the body. The location of pooling depends upon the direction of
acceleration. If the person is accelerated in the head, the lack of blood
flow to the brain can cause unconsciousness.
7 – Astronauts in an orbiting satellite are in a condition of
“weightlessness” some physiological changes take place.
8 – Tissue can be distorted by acceleration, and if the forces are very
large, tearing can take place.

Sedimentation:
Sedimentation of small spherical objects of radius ( a ), density ( ρ ) in a
solution of density ( ρO ) in a gravitational field. The retarding force ( Fd
) and terminal velocity ( v ). Viscosity of solution is ( ƞ ),
through which the sphere is passing, so that:

Fd = 6π a ƞ v
The SI unit of viscosity is:
Pascal.sec. ( Pa.s) or: kg. / (m. sec)

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When a particle or spherical object is moving at constant speed, Fd is in
equilibrium with the difference between the downward gravitational
force and upward buoyant force.
The buoyant force can be defined as: It is the weight of the liquid that
the particle displaces.
We have:
1 - The force of gravity ( Fg ) :
Fg = 4/3 π a3 ρ g : ( ρ is the sphere density ).
2 – The buoyant force ( FB ):
FB = 4/3 π a3 ρO g : ( ρO is the liquid density ).
3 – The retarding force ( Fd ):

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Fd = 6 π a ƞ v
‫ ؞‬Fg – FB = Fd
Knowing that : The acceleration of gravity g = 9.8 ~ 10 m/sec2 .
The terminal velocity ( sedimentation velocity ):
v = 2a2 / 9ƞ [ g( ρ – ρO ) ] or,
Ƞ = 2a2 [ g( ρ – ρO ) ] / 9 v Pa.s
In some forms of diseases ( rheumatic fever, rheumatic heart disease
and gout: ‫) النقرس‬, the red blood cells ( RBCs ) clump together and the
effective radius increase. Thus, an increased sedimentation velocity
occurs.
In hemolytic jaundice and sickle cell anemia, the RBCs change shape or
break. The radius decrease, thus the rate of sedimentation is slower than
normal.

The effective of rotational acceleration (Centrifuge):

A centrifuge device in medicine is used for sedimentation of blood and
urine examinations. It has the following specifications:
Rotation rate of a centrifuge = ƒ
Position on the radius of centrifuge = r
Then the effective acceleration is given by:

geff = 4 π2 f2 r

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Schematic diagram of centrifuge with radius r (left). Centrifuge device set with test tubes samples(right).

Hematocrit test is detecting abnormalities in blood, it is depending on:

1- Radius of centrifuge ( r ).
2- Speed of centrifuge.
3- Duration time of centrifugation.

Standard method for hematocrit is ( 30 min ) duration at rotation rate

( f= 3000 rpm: revolution per minute ), with r = 22cm.

The normal range of hematocrit is : (40 – 60)% for male and less for
female.
If result is > 40% , this indicates anemia ( lower number of RBC in
blood).
While if it is < 60% , this indicates polycythemia ( Higher number
of RBC in blood ).

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-Percentage of blood cells and plasma in blood is given by:
-Red blood cells (Erythrocyte): 45% of whole blood.
-White blood cells (Leukocytes) and platelets: 1% of the whole
blood.
Serum or plasma: 54%.

END OF CHAPTER

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