Excavation support and bracing methods: a brief review

Walter I. Paniagua(1)
(1)
Pilotec, Mexico City <wpaniagua@pilotec.com.mx>

ABSTRACT. An overall review of support methods is presented, divided in retaining systems,

and bracing systems. The first include slurry walls (cast in place, and precast), concrete and steel
sheetpiles, shotcrete, soil mixing, and pile soldiers and lagging. The latter include anchors, berms,
struts, top-down (structural slabs and/or beams), and self-supported structures. The intention is to
provide different options of several methods, for different kind of soils, ground water conditions
and neighbor structures. Finally, a qualitative comparison between the characteristics of each of
these methods is presented.

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, evolution of knowledge and technology has been reflected in construction around
the world; the number of tall buildings in large cities has increased, pushing geotechnical
engineering to perform increasingly deeper foundations, and to consider appropriate methods for
wall retaining in large excavations along with bracing systems that adapt to project requirements.

Correct selection of this systems depends on each project’s conditions; furthermore, the more
complete and accurate geotechnical information available, the higher success the excavation
construction procedure will achieve. Currently, piles are the most widely used method for
excavation retaining followed by slurry walls whose use has increased in recent years. Figure 1
shows the most widely used retaining systems around the world. This paper describes the
characteristics of some of the most common retaining and bracing systems, providing
recommendations for construction procedures as well as a qualitative analysis of each one.

60%
48%
50%
40%
30%
19%
20%
10% 8% 8% 10%
10% 5%
0%
Slurry Piles Soil Jet Soldier Soil Sheet
walls mixing grouting pile nailing pile
wall
Fig. 1. Excavation retaining, modified from Bottiau, M. (2006).

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2. RETAINING SYSTEMS

2.1 Cast-in-place slurry walls

The slurry wall technique started in Italy in 1938, and the first slurry was built in the United States
of America in 1962. It was then used in the construction of the San Francisco subway and in the
World Trade Center in New York City. The slurry wall technique was adopted in Mexico City
after 1967. Slurry walls, also known as diaphragm walls or cut-off walls, are reinforced concrete
structures used as a temporary fastening element for longitudinally open trenches in the soil. Some
important elements of the construction procedure are:

Guide walls. Besides verifying the topographical position of the wall, guide walls control the
entrance of the grab in the correct position and stabilize the upper part of the excavation. They are
generally made of concrete reinforced with steel wire mesh (Fig. 2.)

Excavation. The excavation is performed in primary and secondary panels, each one within three
stages. Primary panels are equipped with stop-ends, which usually are withdrawn after initial setup
of concrete. Typical excavation equipment are:

• Freefall mechanical grabs (Fig. 3)

• Freefall hydraulic grabs
• Reverse circulation rig
• Kelly hydraulic grabs:
o Full Kelly
o Telescopic Kelly
o Short Kelly, with self-direction grabs
• Hydromill

Fig. 2. Concrete guide walls Fig. 3. Freefall mechanical grabs

To stabilize the excavated trench, muds are used. Some of the most important characteristics of
the muds, that influence excavation performance are:

• Density: expresses weight by unit volume of muds.

• Viscosity: is a measure of the mix’s internal resistance.

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• Sand content: an amount under 5% is desirable.

• pH: between 9-11 is desirable.

Bentonite muds: Are obtained by mixing bentonite clay with water. These muds are placed during
trench excavation and form a crust (called "cake”) on their walls, as a sort of membrane with very
low permeability that withstands application of the pressure created by the stabilizing fluid to the
excavation walls . It is essential on non-cohesive soils and permeable sands where the highest
possible viscosity is required.
Polymer muds: Work as stabilizing fluids in the excavation and have some benefits over bentonite
muds: organic polyacrylamide polymers form large chain molecules, composed by the same group
of particles coming from the same material. When mixed with water, they quickly obtain
stabilizing qualities due to their anionic ability.

The procedure for using muds is shown in Figure 4, and includes the following steps:

• Mixing
• Hydrating (for bentonite mud)
• Transportation and placement
• Recovery and regeneration
• Final disposal

Fig. 4 Bentonite mud facility.

Stop-ends. Steel stop-ends allow temporary confinement of one or both of the vertical ends of one
of the primary panels, during the concrete pouring process in order to shape their surface to
produce a tongue-and-groove that allows structural shear connection with the next panel. Stop-end
geometry must be in line with the shape of the grab that excavates the trench, i.e. flat or circular.

Reinforcement steel. To provide steel reinforcement for a wall, it is necessary to assemble rebars
into cages, fastened with separation stirrups or diagonal reinforcements. The spacing between
rebars is important, to allow the free flow of concrete between them and the trench walls. (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Reinforcement steel assembly, and lifting.

Concrete pouring with tremie pipe. The use of a tremie pipe is essential for pouring concrete
into a panel, from the bottom of the excavation, to the top, avoiding concrete contamination with
the excavation mud. Concrete must be pre-mixed for better quality control, have the necessary
fluidity to settle quickly and the tremie pipe be water-tight, and must not be moved through the
fresh concrete. A plug is used to separate concrete from the mud during the proces, as shown in
Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Tremie pipe operation, and concrete pouring.

2.2 Precast walls

Precast walls are a series of prefabricated concrete walls, that are placed inside of a previous
excavation, stabilized with mud. The construction procedure is very similar to cast-in-place walls;
however, they may be fabricated at a plant or at the worksite. Typical widths are between 0.20 and
1.20 m; they usually require less bracing and have an aesthetic look. These characteristics may be
considered as having advantages over the cast-in-place procedure, mostly in terms of execution
time. The general procedure can be summarized as follows:

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• Fabrication of wall
• Construction of guide wall
• Excavation of trench with grab
• Placing the precast wall
• Self-hardening mud

The trench for these walls is stabilized with bentonite mud but, prior to placement of the pre-
fabricated concrete slabs, the mud is replaced by a mix of cement, bentonite and water (self-
hardening mud); once all the slabs are in place, it hardens to a resistance similar to the soil, in order
to support and confine the wall into its position. Some examples of precast walls are shown in
Figures 7 to 9.

Fig. 7 Precast walls fabrication and transport to job site.

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Fig. 8 Lifting of precast walls.

Fig. 9 Precast walls in deep excavations.

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2.3 Concrete sheet piles

The use of concrete sheet piles is known since 1914; they are of square or rectangular section,
very similar to wooden sheet piles, and are driven one after another to create a continuous wall.
The construction procedure can be summarized into three steps:
• Construction of guide walls.
• An almost square concrete sheet pile without a beveled tip is placed in the corner,
preferably driven into a previous borehole, with partial extraction of material.
• Driving of the following sheet piles, while taking care that the tongue part of the sheet pile
stirs the soil of the groove, that is found in the already placed sheet pile.
Geometry. Usually, a section of a concrete sheet pile varies from a 20 to 40 cm thickness, width
between 40 to 70 cm and length of up to 16 m, Figure 10. The tips are usually beveled between
30° and 45° with the idea that they will tend to move close to the previously placed sheet pile.

Fig. 10 Section of a typical concrete sheet pile (in cm), and construction on site.

Driving equipment. Concrete sheet piles are primarily driven by freefalling or impact hammers
(hydraulic, diesel, Figure 11), being careful to protect the sheet pile header with caps. In
extraordinary cases, driving has been made with a vibratory hammer.
Complications during driving. Sheet piles may deviate from verticality during the driving
process in case of an obstacle or if the lower part of the sheet piling follows a curved line. Due to
this incidence, it is necessary to make special pieces that may be fabricated with any tongue-and-
groove combination.

2.4 Steel sheet piles

These kind of sheet pile is the most widely used around the world; they could be manufactured by
a hot rolled or cold rolled process, are known for being lightweight, higher resistance and good
durability.

Geometry selection of the profile depends on the construction applications and structural demand,
as well as project conditions. Figure 12 shows a comparison of different profiles based on their
use and application.

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Fig. 11 Driving of concrete sheet piles, with single-action diesel hammer.

Fig. 11 Customary sections of steel sheet piles.

Driving equipment depends on the soil and the selected profile, generally vibratory hammers that
carry the vibration to the sheet pile, thus reducing friction that is created between them and the soil
at the time of driving. Figure 12 shows examples of application.

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Fig. 12 Sheet pile applications: Z-section, and flat section in cellular structure.

2.5 Piles
Cast-in-place piles may be used as a retaining method by creating a barrier; is used mainly in the
case of access restrictions, or sites where low noise and vibrations restrictions are present. Also,
availability of equipment is a major advantage, as opposite to slurry walls, or other. Three general
procedures are acknowledge:
Secant piles. This system consists of piles with a side lap between primary and secondary piles.
Usual lap is 10-20% of the pile diameter. After primary piles are built, secondary piles are drilled
intersecting the primary piles, in order to close the structure, stop water flow and prevent soil
migration between the different elements.
The construction procedure for this method is classified according to the construction of the
primary piles as follows:
Hard/hard technique: Primary and secondary piles are constructed with reinforced concrete or high
resistance mortar, using a continuous flight auger.
Soft/hard technique: The primary piles are constructed with a mix of cement-bentonite in order to
facilitate the drilling of secondary piles using equipment with a lower torque. This technique is
limited to shallow or relatively low bending moments.
A concrete guide wall is used for placing both primary and secondary piles. The piles are drilled
every fifth position, with a rotating drill or continuous flight auger. Placement of reinforcement
steel and concrete depend on the type of drill to be used (Figure 14).
Tangent piles. Primary and secondary piles are adjacent to each other, without any overlapping.
A variation on this procedure is constructing secondary piles with smaller diameters outside the
axis of the primary piles. This procedure allows the use of drilling equipment with less torque than
with secant piles, although it is not impervious (Figure 15).
Separate piles. Piles with separation between 2-3 diameters, in order to develop soil arching
between piles (Figure 16).

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Fig. 14. Secant piles Fig. 15. Tangent piles Fig. 16. Separate piles

2.6 Shotcrete

Shotcrete is defined as concrete transported by some means, moist or dry, through a hose and
pneumatically shot at a very high speed and energy, against a surface.

For the case of retaining excavation walls or slopes, shotcrete protects the soil against filtering of
rainwater and erosion, as well as temperature change. Protection and stabilization of slopes and
excavations are the most important applications of shotcrete because it is generally composed by
varied and continuous materials. Figure 17 shows the general procedure for application in a soil
face. Shotcrete may be placed by "dry" method, where water is added in the nozzle, or by "wet"
method, where water is incorporated since the mixing of aggregates and cement.

Fig. 17 Shotcrete application, and finished wall.

Some applications may include descendent walls, where steel reinforcement is formed, then
shotcrete is placed, with a hand quality finish, for aesthetic purposes, Figure 18. In many cases.
shotcrete is used in combination with soil or rock anchors.

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Fig. 18 Descending walls, using shotcrete.

2.7 Soil mixing

Consists in mechanically mixing the soil in situ with a cementing agent, injected as grout to obtain
circular columns or rectangular panels with high shear resistance, low compressibility and very
low permeability. This technique is also known as deep mixing.
This method has been used since the 1970s in Japan, originally and during several decades,
exclusively for improving soils with semi-rigid inclusions. Since the beginning of the 21st century,
its used has increased considerably for retaining earth walls in excavations. This new application
is based on the most recent advancements in soil mixing equipment.
There are specially designed tools to make the mix and form the columns; Figure 19 shows several
of the latest technologies in soil mixing.

CVT system TSM tool Cutter soil mixing, CSM

Fig. 19 Different soil mixing techniques.

For the procedure, columns or panels are placed one after another in a similar pattern as the secant
piles to create a wall that is braced with struts or anchors. Steel beams may be installed in the fresh

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mix, with the goal of resisting shear forces and flexion moments that the pressure from water on
the earth may exert on the retaining wall.

Fig. 20 Execution sequence for columns and rectangular panels; a finished CSM wall.

2.8 Soldier piles and lagging

It is used as temporary retaining system, and is a combination of vertical piles (soldier piles) and
wood or shotcrete lagging. Soldier piles are generally I or H steel beams, even though other
combined profiles are feasible, Figure 21. Notice that this procedure is not impervious. General
construction procedure is as follows:

Fig. 21 Soldier piles and wood lagging.

• Driving of soldier piles; depending on soil conditions, it may be done with a free falling
hammer, diesel, hydraulic or vibratory hammers. Also, it is possible to install the pile inside
a borehole (Figure 22).

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• Soil excavation, up to the first bracing level. As soil is removed, wood is placed in the soil
face, using wedges against the beams. Also, shotcrete may be used instead of wood.
Sometimes, precast concrete slabs are used, Figure 23.

• The excavation/bracing process is repeated, until final depth is reached.

Fig. 22 Soldier piles drive , and installed in borehole.

Fig. 22 Lagging with wood, and with shotcrete.

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3. BRACING SYSTEMS

3.1 Anchors
Anchor systems provide external forces in order to stabilize slopes, open-air excavations or
underground galleries. They may be used isolated, or as complement of structures, like retaining
walls, sheet piles, slurry walls, etc. In this chapter, active anchors (which are prestressed, with a
tension force) will be discussed, in opposite to passive anchors.

A tension anchor is composed of three main parts, Figure 23: (1) fixed section (grout bulb), that
provides bonding between the soil and the anchor; (2) free section, that transfers anchorage force
to the anchor head, (3) anchor head, where tension force is applied. The main stages of the
construction procedure are:

Fig. 23 Basics in an anchor configuration.

Anchor preparation. Steel reinforcement is prepared (either strands or rebar), along with
accessories to avoid corrosion and allow proper distribution of grout between soil and
reinforcement, Figure 24.
Drilling. The type of drilling will depend on soil type, density/consistency, and may be: rotation,
percussion, sonic, etc., Figure 25.
Anchor installation. The anchor is transported and inserted manually into the borehole, Figure
26.
Grout injection. Water-cement grout is pumped to the fixed section, and volume and pressure are
controlled. Sometimes, additives are used to improve time for setup as well as fluidity of the grout
admixture.
Preparation of anchor header. Includes pouring of the reaction footing, pouring or installation
of the whaler, placement of bearing plate, aligning wedges, anchor plate and wedges.
Post-tension. It is performed with an hydraulic jack, that holds the ends of the cables and,
supported by the header, allows controlled application of tension force, Figure 27. In Figure 28, a
general overview of an anchored wall is shown.

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Fig. 24 Strands and prepared anchors.

Fig. 25 Anchor drilling.

Fig. 26 Anchor transportation, and placing into the borehole.

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Fig. 27 Post-tensioning of anchors.

Fig. 28 Anchored walls: left, with shotcrete; right, with pile soldiers and wood lagging.

3.2 Struts
Struts are made of steel pipes, beams, open struts, or other, depending on project requirements,
Figure 29. Their goal is to support the soil pressure due to overcompensation when extracting
material from the area.
Pipe struts have diameters between 16” and 20” and open struts are usually square section. Length
is variable depending on excavation size; they have headers on each end that absorb the force from
the hydraulic jacks to apply strut pressure to the excavation walls.
Hydraulic jacks are placed at the end of each strut to apply the necessary pre-load, to avoid lateral
and vertical displacements of the excavation wall. The amount of pre-load is arguable: it may go
from the equivalent pressure obtained with k0, the one calculated with ka, or a fraction of one of
this.
The sequence of works is similar to the one with anchors: a first stage of excavation is done;
afterwards, struts are placed, and pre-load is applied. Then, next excavation stage may proceed,
and so on. Struts may be removed once the final earth contention is built, usually structural slabs.

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Fig. 29 Different kind of struts for excavation support, after Wang and Xu (2012).

3.3 Berm-slope
The berm-slope method for excavations consists in excavating the center of the general area first,
keeping the soil close to the retaining wall, to create slopes with a perimetral berm; then, in the
excavated area, the main structure is built; then, in alternate sections, the slopes and berms are
excavated, placing struts between the retaining walls and the main structure; finally, the building
is built in stages, removing the struts, Figure 30.
This method must be used in places with enough space to hold a slope. Slope width and inclination
must be determined in such a way that there will not occur a slope failure. In spite of no slope
failure, slope resistance is lower than in their normal state which causes higher deviations or
settlements on the soil surface making it necessary to perform a test prior to the excavation in order
to protect the adjacent properties.

The greatest inconveniences are: possible water leaks or low resistance between the main central
structure and the perimeter structure; additionally, big deflections and soil movements may occur,
especially in soft soils.

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Fig. 30 Excavation of central core, with perimetral berm-slope; right, struts placed between wall
and center building.

3.4 Structural slabs (top-down)

The top-down method consists in the following:
• Building the retaining wall. In some cases, it can be done as the excavation proceeds, i.e.
with shotcrete.
• Performing the drilled shafts of the project; a plunged column is installed (Figure 31),
corresponding to the final column within the basements levels. If drilled shafts are not
necessary for foundations purposes, they will be needed for the excavation support method.
• Street level (zero-level) slab is built, leaving a window to perform further operations.
• Through the window left, excavation of the first basement is done, with proper ventilation
and illuminating systems (Figure 32). At this point, structure above he zero-level slab can
be started (hence, top-down name), if possible.
• Construction of next level of basement slab; the process repeats, until final slab is built.

Concrete slabs are the permanent structures that replace temporary steel struts, so finishing
construction of the underground structure and the excavation process at the same time. The
underground structure is constructed from the top to the bottom, contrary to the conventional
foundation construction.
The concrete slabs used for top-down are heavier than the steel struts used for conventional
excavations; additionally, the super-structure – constructed simultaneously to the excavation –
adds more weight to the columns.

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Fig. 31 Plunged columns, to be installed in the top of drilled shafts.

Fig. 32 Basement excavation, using structural slabs as soil retainment.

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3.5 Self-supporting (circular walls )

This method has been used recently for construction of circular walls, that self-support themselves,
since they work as a continuous arch. In spite of these walls not needing bracing, the downside is
that they are strictly circular, which makes installation difficult, mostly if the project includes other
geometries. They have been done mainly with cast in place slurry walls, but walls made with
shotcrete had been used as well, Figure 33.

Fig. 33 Circular walls; left, with cast in place slurry wall; right, with shotcrete wall.

4. FINAL COMMENTS

The demand for increasingly taller buildings, that pose heavier challenges to engineering, has
highlighted the importance of designing projects with safer and more appropriate retaining and
bracing methods for excavation, as well as recommendations on construction procedures to
implement those methods properly, and thus protect the interior and exterior of the excavation.

Table 1 shows a qualitative comparison between the retaining systems treated in this paper. Also,
Table 2 shows a qualitative comparison of the bracing systems.

TABLE 1. Retaining systems qualitative comparison

System Rigidity Impermeability Relative Installation Soils
cost
Cast-in-place Very Yes High Difficult All
slurry wall good
Precast slurry wall Good Yes Very Difficult All
high
Concrete sheet pile Medium Yes High Medium Soft cohesive
Loose granular
Steel sheet pile Good No High Easy Cohesive N < 15
Granular N < 40

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Secant piles Good Yes High Difficult All

Tangent piles Medium No Medium Easy All

Separate piles Low No Low Easy Cohesive

Granular F > 12%
Shotcrete Low No Medium Easy Cohesive
Granular F > 12%
Soldier pile + Low No Low Easy Cohesive
lagging Granular F > 12%
Soil mixing Low Yes Medium Difficult Cohesive
Granular F > 12%

TABLE 2. Bracing systems qualitative comparison

Systems Project Advantages Disadvantages Relative Installation Soils
conditions cost
Anchors Free Open pit core Damage to Medium Medium Granular
underground excavation boundaries Rock
boundaries F < 40%
Struts Narrow Horizontal Few uses High Medium All
excavation displacements Horizontal/
width vertical
buckling
Berms Broad ground Low cost Flexible Low Easy Cohesive
plan Slow
dimensions excavation at
the end
Top- Broad Horizontal Core Medium Difficult All
down dimensions displacements excavation
Anchors not Schedule slow and
possible reduction costly
Self- Circular Does not Perimeter Low Difficult All
supporting structure require bracing does not
geometry admit other
geometry

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