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Chapter1 Gology
Chapter1 Gology
Chapter1 Gology
1.1General Introduction
What is Geology?
Geology (from Greek, Geo = Earth, Logos =science) is the science that deals with the study of
earth as a whole. Thus, it is the science, which deals with the origin, age, and structure of the
earth. Further more it studies the evolution, modification and extinction of surface and
subsurface features. Similarly Geology also includes the study of various natural dynamic and
physiochemical processes operating on and in the earth, and the agents, forces involved and
evolved in such processes.
What is Engineering Geology?
Engineering geology is branch of science, which deals with the study of construction sites, and
construction material. It has great importance in safe, economic and stable designs of
engineering projects.
i) Direct method
ii) Indirect method.
i) Direct method: is the method in which the investigation of the internal structure of the earth is
carried by direct drilling. But with our present scientific skills we can hardly penetrate more
than a few kilometers below the surface.
ii) Indirect method: is the method in which the investigation of the internal structure of the
earth is done by seismic refraction and reflection. Much of Our knowledge of the internal
constitution of the earth has come from the study of the seismic waves generated by
earthquakes. On the basis of these studies, a three-fold shell like structure has been suggested
for the earth and this has almost been universally accepted. Fig 1.1 shows the internal division
of the earth.
(a) Body waves: are seismic waves, which are penetrating the interior of the earth. These waves
creat little damage because of their low amplitude. These waves further divide into primary (p)
waves and secondary (s) waves.
(i) Primary (P) waves: are longitudinal or compressional waves that involve back and forth
vibrations of particles of matter in the same direction in which waves travel. So the
disturbances proceed as series of compressions and rarefaction.
M is rigidity
is density of medium.
Because the rigidity of the fluid is zero, Vp decreases when P wave transmitted by such
medium.
(ii) Secondary (S) waves: are shearing waves or transverse waves that involve vibration of the
particles of the matter perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel. The velocity of
secondary wave is given by
Vs=
Because the rigidity of a fluid is zero, S waves cannot be transmitted by such a medium.
(b)Surface (L) waves: are analogous to water waves, which involve orbital motions of
particles of matter and are limited to the vicinity of a free surface. These waves are destructive
because they have high amplitude.
The three kinds of seismic waves travel with different velocities. Hence they arrive geophone
at different time after an earthquake. P waves arrive first, next S waves and finally L waves.
The velocities of P and S waves increase with depth, so refraction causes them to travel along
curved paths through the earth. In addition, both refraction and reflection occur at boundaries
between regions with different physical properties.
The analysis of seismic waves received at different observatories around the world has led to
the identification of 3 principal regions with in the earth. These regions are crust, mantle and
core.
The interpretation of the internal structure is based on the detection of abrupt changes in the
velocity of P and S waves during their travel from the focus (the point of origin of the shock
below the surface) to various stations on the surface of the earth. These waves reach the
stations after being reflected and refracted at various depths below. The major change in the
velocity of waves at some depth below the surface can be taken to mean that there is a change
in the nature of the medium at particular depth. Such particular depth where there is a major
change in velocities of seismic waves is called seismic discontinuity.
(ii) The Gutenberg discontinuity: is the mantle-core discontinuity. Some of the seismic waves
that cross the Mohorovicic discontinuity continue to travel towards the central part of the earth
with almost a uniform increase in their velocities. But at 2898 km below the surface there is
sharp change in Vp from 13.64km/sec to 8.1km/sec and Vs from 7.3km/sec to 0.
(a) Crust
Crust is the upper most shell of earth, which extends to an average depth of 35 km below
continents and 5km below oceans. The Mohorovicic discontinuity marks its lower boundary.
Crust has two layers or regions separated by minor discontinuity called Conrad discontinuity.
These are A layer and B- layer.
A-layer is the upper zone, which has granitic composition. The granitic layer of the crust is
discontinuous below oceans. It is made up of mostly light density, light colored silicates of Al
and K. There for this layer is refered SIAL in composition.
B-layer is the lower zone, which has basaltic composition. The basaltic layer of crust is
continuous forming the base of the ocean. It is also continuous where the granitic layer rests
upon it. It is made up predominantly of basic minerals, which are rich in magnesium silicates.
They are also referred as SlMA. These silicates are dark coloured and have high density.
(b) Mantle
This is the zone, which constitutes the largest internal subdivision of earth by mass and volume.
It lies below the crust everywhere. This zone continues up to a depth of 2898km. The most
appropriate rocks that make up the mantle would be similar to peridotite, dunite, and eclogite. It
is generally agreed that at least 90% of the mantle by mass can be presented in terms of oxides
Feo, MgO and SiO2 and 5-10% oxides CaO, Al2O3 and Na2O.
(c) Core
It is the inner subdivision of earth that begins at 2898km below the surface and extends up to
6370km that is the center of the earth. Core has two zones. These are the outer and inner zones.
The outer part of core is fluid like in its nature. Because of this it does not transmit S-waves and
retards P- waves.
The inner core is believed to start at 5121 km and extends up to the center. This part is believed
to be more near to solid substances in its nature.
In all types of heavy construction jobs which include buildings, towers, dams, reserviors, high
ways and bridges, traffic and hydropower tunnels, embankments and retaining structure,
geological information about the site of construction and construction material is important.
In the matter of planning of an engineering project, geology serves the engineer in the
following ways.
(i) It provides the engineer with a general guidance about the suitability of
site for a proposed project.
(ii) It enables him to appreciate the limiting factors imposed upon his
planning by topography, geomorphology, and ground water conditions of
the area.
(iii) It gives him a general idea about the availability of different types of
construction materials.
(iv) It guides him in limiting the exploratory operations (drilling etc) for
selecting the final site.
Some of the geological characters that have a direct or indirect impact on the design of a
proposed project are:
(i) The existence of hard bed rocks and their depth and inclination from the ground
surface
(ii) Mechanical properties of rocks along the proposed site, especially their bearing
strength, shear strength, modulus of elasticity, permeability and resistance to
decay and disintegration.
(iii) Presence of structurally weak planes (joints, faults, and fractures) and work
zones (peat deposit, glacial deposit and sheared beds), especially at critical
regions of the site selected for the project.
The engineer, who is responsible for the quality control of the construction materials, will be
greatly benefited by his geological background of the natural materials as sands, gravels,
crushed rocks etc.
Similarly for construction in geologically sensitive areas like in coastal belts and seismic
regions geological information is important. In coastal regions the behavior of rocks towards the
sea should be studied before planning and designing of the project in these areas. In the
seismic zones, which are frequently visited by earth quakes; the past seismic history of the area
will enable the engineer to assess nature and magnitude of danger to a proposed civil structure
from seismic shocks.
2.1 Crystal
A Crystal is a natural solid body bounded by smooth and plain surfaces (i.e. faces) arranged in
an orderly (i.e. geometrical) pattern which is an out ward expression of a regular, internal
atomic structure.
Occurrence of complete and independent crystals is rare in nature. However, most of the solid
substances possess a crystalline character though an out ward crystal shape is missing. Good
crystals develop only under favorable condition such as
Crystallography is science, which studies internal structure and external features of crystal.
1. Faces: The crystals are bounded by flat surfaces, which are known as faces.
2. Edge: The line of intersection formed by any two adjacent faces in a crystal is called
an edge.
3. Solid angle: The points of intersection formed by 3 or more adjacent faces in crystal
are called solid angles.
4. Distortion: In spite of perfect internal atomic arrangement, sometimes crystals develop
faces of different sizes and shapes. This kind of geometrical irregularity in the shape of
crystals is called distortion. This is may be due to some restraint on the growth of the
crystal in certain directions or to a greater supply of material being available in one
direction as compared with another.
5. Interfacial angle is the angle formed in between the normal of adjacent crystal faces.
6. Simple form and combination: If a crystal is bounded by all similar or like faces it is
called a simple form. If a crystal is bounded by dissimilar or unlike faces it is called a
combination (i.e. combination of different simple forms)
7. Crystallographic axes: These are the imaginary lines (or directions), which intersect at
the center (or origin) of the crystal. The growth or development of the crystal is
considered to take place along these axes.
8. Crystal systems: The six possible crystal systems are cubic system, tetragonal system,
hexagonal system, orthorhombic system, monoclinic system and triclinic system.
2.2 Minerals
A mineral is natural, inorganic, homogeneous, solid substance having a definite chemical
composition and regular atomic structure. But there are a few exceptions to the mineral
definition (1) precious gemstones like diamond can be synthetically produced under controlled
laboratory condition. (2) Coal, petroleum etc typical organic substances that are considered as
Since rocks that make up the earth are simply natural aggregate of minerals, a study of minerals
is of fundamental importance.
Most rock forming minerals such as feldspars, Quartz, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas,
felspathoids and olivine are formed out of magma during different stages of solidification.
Oxides %
Si O2 59.26
Al2O3 15.35
Fe2O3 3.14
FeO 3.74
MgO 3.46
CaO 5.08
Na2O 3.81
K2O 3.12
H2O 1.26
P2O5 0.28
TiO2 0.73
Rest 0.77
Total 100.0
Eight elements in their order of abundance in crustal rocks are given below and out of these
Silicon and Oxygen together make up nearly 75% of crustal rocks. Since Silicon and Oxygen
predominate in the rocks, the chief rock forming minerals are silicates.
Oxides - are compounds made by chemical Reaction of elements with Oxygen. Examples Iron
Oxides like hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe304)
Carbonates
Example- Calcite (CaCo3) in marble.
- Dolomite CaMg (Co3) 2
2.2.2 Physical Properties of mineral
The following physical properties are studied for identification of a mineral.
1. Colour 2. Luster 3. Streak 4. Hardness 5. Structure
6. Cleavage 7. Fracture
1. Colour: -the colour shown by a mineral depends up on the degree of absorption and
reflection of light rays
3. Streak: is the colour of powder of a mineral obtained by rubbing the mineral on rough
surface.
6. Cleavage: - is the tendency of crystallized mineral to break along certain definite planes
yielding more or less smooth surfaces or smooth planes. The terms used in
cleavage description are
- Perfect, good cleavage – split up in to smooth planes.
- Poor, imperfect cleavage– does not split up into smooth planes.
7. Fracture: - refers any nature of break. Common terms used to describe fracture are
Even fracture – smooth and flat surfaces.
Uneven fracture – irregular surface
Concoidal fracture – shows concentric rings
Hackly fracture - irregular with sharp pricing projections.
2.3 Rocks
- Rock is a natural aggregate of one or more minerals, which form the earth’s crust.
- Petrology (from Greek, petro = Rock, logos = study) is branch of geology, which studies
mode of formation, composition, and uses of rocks. Rocks may be classified in to 3
groups on the basis of their mode of origin.
The 3 groups of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, which occur in nature,
give birth one to each other due to different geological process acting on them. This
phenomenon is called rock cycle. Fig. 3.1 shows rock cycle.
Igneous rocks are the first formed rocks, which made up the original earth’s crust. Hence
they are called primary rocks. They are the most abundant rocks in the earth crust.
The temperature of the materials of the earth increases with depth. This may become so high
at certain depth below the surface that materials may acquire molten state where the effect of
temperature is greater than the effect of pressure due to over burden. This molten material,
which exists below the earth’s surface, is called magma. But when the same material forced to
flow out (erupted) on the earth’s surface, it is called Lava. The process of solidification of lava
or magma gives birth to igneous rocks.
Among different oxides, silica (Silica dioxide, Si0 2) is most abundant in igneous rocks. Hence
this makes them as a suitable basis for the classification of igneous rocks. Four groups have
been defined in terms of silica %. These are:
Generally igneous rocks, which are rich in silica and Potassium, are often called SIALIC, which
are light in colour and lighter in density. Example. Granite. Where as those igneous rocks rich in
Fe and Mg are often called MAFIC, which are dark in colour and denser. Examples Gabbro and
basalt.
2. Hypabyssal rocks: are igneous rocks, which have been formed at shallow depth under
moderate temperature and pressure. Such rocks are medium grained. Example: Dolerite.
3. Volcanic rocks: are those igneous rocks, which have been formed on the surface at rapid
rate of cooling. Such rocks are fine grained or glassy matter. Example – Basalt, obsidian.
Generally those igneous rocks formed below the earth’s surface are called Intrusive rocks,
which include both plutonic and hypabyssal rocks. Where as those igneous rocks which are
formed on the surface of earth by out pouring of magma are termed as extrusive igneous rocks
and also called volcanic rocks, which include both lava flows and pyroclastic rocks.
Examples of igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks: Granite Tonalite, Syenite, Diorite, and Gabbro
Extrusive igneous rocks: Rhyolite, Dacite, Trachyte, Andesite, and Basalt
The term ‘Texture’ refers the size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. In the
study of texture four points are considered.
1. Degree of crystallization
2. Size of grains
3. Shape of crystals
4. Mutual relations of constituent mineral grains.
3. Shape of crystals
Based on the grain shape texture is grouped in to 3
a. Euhedral – If the grains of igneous rocks show well developed crystal faces.
b. Subhedral – If the crystal faces are partly developed.
c. Anhedral – If crystal faces are absent.
a. Equigranualr texture: igneous rocks having more or less equal size of grains, their
texture is described as Equigranular. This texture further classified into the following
types:
Pandiomorphic texture- is texture in which most of the grains are euhedral. E.g.
aplites
Hypidiomorphic texture- is the texture in which most of the grains are sub hedral.
E.g. Granite and Syenite.
Allotriomorphic texture- is the texture in which most of the grains are anhedral in
shape. E.g. Lamprophyres
Porphyritic texture: When an igneous rock contains few large sized grains of some
minerals set in a matrix, which is finer grained mass or even glassy material, the
texture is called porphyritic texture. The large crystals are called Phenocrysts and the
finer grained mineral is called ground mass or Matrix. This texture is a common
feature in volcanic and hypabyssal rocks. Igneous rocks showing porphyritic texture
are known as Porphyries. E.g. Granite porphyries, Rhyolite porphyries.
Poikilitic texture: When in the rock smaller crystals are enclosed with in the larger
crystals without common orientation, and then the texture is known as poikilitic
texture. This texture is common in Syenite and Monzonite rocks.
Ophitic texture is a special case of poikilitic texture in which plates of augite enclose
numerous thin laths of plagioclase. E.g. common in Dolerite.
d. Inter growth texture: During the formation rocks sometimes two or more minerals
may crystallize out simultaneously and the resulting crystals are mixed up or inter
grown in the space available and giving rise to an intergrowth texture. This
intergrowth frequently produces graphic textures in which quartz crystal present in
smaller quantity embedded in the orthoclase. The two ingredient minerals have the
same optical orientation over large areas.
e. Inter granular or inter sertal texture: In many basaltic rocks, plagioclase lathes occur in
such away that they form a net works with triangular or polygonal inter spaces. These inter
spaces are filled with minute grains of augite, olivine and iron oxides. Such a texture is
called Inter granular texture. But, when glassy and fine-grained materials like chlorite or
serpentine occur in the interspaces, then this type of texture is called Inter sertal.
f. Inter locking texture: As the name indicates in this texture the different minerals are
closely interlinked or mutually locked with one another. It develops when a melt solidifies.
It can be best observed in very coarse-grained rocks such as pegmatite and some granite. Fig
2.2 shows the different types of textures in igneous rocks
2. Pillow structure: These are structures in which volcanic igneous body appears as a pile of
numerous overlying pillows or sacks. The pillows are generally interconnected and have
vesicular and glassy tops. As the lava flows its upper surface gets solidified while the
interior remains hot and fluid. Such a situation may result in the rupturing of the earlier
formed thin crust and the draining out of unconsolidated lava. This process, when repeated,
produces a pillow structure usually under submarine conditions. It is typical structure of
basaltic lavas that are comparatively mobile.
3. Vesicular and Amygdaloidal structure Most lava contains large amounts of gas and
volatiles. These gases and volatiles escape into the atmosphere when they solidify on the
earth’s surface. As a result of this numerous gas cavities are formed near tops of lava flow.
These gas cavities are called Vesicles and the volcanic rock that contains vesicles is said to
have a vesicular structure. It is common in Pumice, Scoria and Basalt. But sometimes the
vesicles of volcanic rocks may subsequently be filled by secondary minerals that are called
Amygdaloids e.g. calcite. Such filled vesicles are called Amygdales and the rock is said to
have Amygdaloidal structure. Fig. 2.4 shows vesicular and amygdaloidal structure.
4. Columnar structure: In this structure the volcanic igneous rock appear to be made up
numerous parallel polygonal prismatic columns bundled together. This is the result of the
contraction of lava during cooling. Fig 2.5 shows columnar jointing in basalts.
5. Sheet structure: In this structure the rocks appear to be made of a number of sheets. This
is because of the development of nearly horizontal cracks. This is the effect of erosion over
rocks formed at a depth. When erosion takes place the overlying strata gradually disappear,
ultimately exposing plutonic rocks on the surface. In this process, the earlier pressure no
longer exist and this release of pressure results in the development of joints or cracks,
roughly parallel to the surface. Fig. 2.6 shows sheet jointing in granite.
Generally structures and textures are physical features associate with rocks. They are
generally primary in nature that is they occur along with the formation of rocks and are
important because:
a. Serves they contribute to the strength or weakness of rocks
b. They are distinguishing features of the rock groups
c. They reveal the mode of origin of rocks
The term structure used in this context is different from the secondary geological
structures like fold, faults formed due to tectonic activity
Granite, Syenite and Dolerite that are plutonic igneous rocks characterized by very high
compressive strength and can be easily trusted in most construction works.
Examples:
Granite: It is massive, dense, competent, and has inter locked texture. It is
impermeable and non porous. These properties give strength to this rock.
The constituent minerals are very hard. This makes the rock tough and
resistant to abrasion.
Granites offer reasonable fire and frost resistant because of uniform nature of
minerals.
Due to its high crushing strength, good polishing, resistant to fire, frost and
abrasion granite becomes suitable as foundation rock, building stone, road
stone, rail way ballast or for flooring. Being non-porous and impermeable
granites do not pose ground water problem during tunneling. Furthermore
rock tunneling through granite does not require any lining because of its
competence.
Basalt: Basalts like other dark colored igneous rocks are preferable only as road
stones and concrete aggregate. This is because of their dark color they are not
pleasant to be used as building stone in face work. Because of its highest load
bearing capacity or crushing strength massive basalt is used as good
foundation rock.
Generally igneous rocks, which are crystalline, compact and impervious in nature, are safe
to be used as a foundation rocks, abutment, wall and roof in tunnels.
Erosion is the process of breaking down of rocks by natural agencies such as wind,
running water (river), and glaciers (moving ice) and accompanied by transportation of
disintegrated product for considerable distance.
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of their mode of formation. These
are: 1. Clastic (detrital) rocks
2. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks
1. Clastic rocks: These are rocks formed from accumulation of broken rock or fragments.
These rocks are further subdivided into 3 classes on the basis of average grain size of
sediments. These are:
a. Rudacious rocks
b. Arenaceous rocks
c. Argillaceous rocks
a. Rudacious rocks: are Clastic sedimentary rocks formed from sediments having more
than 2mm in grain size. These rocks may be composed of boulders (>200mm), cobbles
(200-60mm), pebbles (60-4mm) and gravels (4-2mm) that are generally held together by
cementing material.
Examples: - Breccias: the constituent grains are angular in shape.
Conglomerate: the constituent grains are rounded in shape.
Texture is the term, which describes the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grain.
Texture of sedimentary rocks are defined by the following factors:
Clastic texture - If rocks rich in Clastic grains of any size, shape and
composition, then their texture is termed as clastic.
Non-clastic texture- If rocks are formed from chemically or organically
evolved grains, then the texture is termed as non-clastic.
3. Sorting
If layers are greater than one cm in thickness, then they are called Strata. Layering of
these strata is called stratification. E.g. stratification in sandstone.
2. Lamination: If the layers are less than one cm in thickness, then they are called
lamella. The process of layering of this lamella is called lamination. E.g.
lamination in shale.
4. Current bedding: If beds or layers lie oblique to the major bedding, such type
of bedding is called current bedding or oblique bedding or cross bedding or false
bedding. This is formed due to frequent changes in velocity and direction of the
flow of steam or shallow water and wind.
Fig 2.7 (a) symmetrical ripple marks (b) asymmetric ripple marks
Sandstone:
Limestone: massive ones used as building stone and as railway ballast but may not be
durable. Mostly limestone not used as foundation rock because of its soluble nature.
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been formed by metamorphism of pre-existing
igneous and sedimentary rocks. The terms orthometamorphic and Para metamorphic rocks
are applied to those rocks that have been originated from igneous and sedimentary rocks
respectively. Sometimes, metamorphic rocks may also undergo metamorphism again.
e.g. Orthometamorphic rock-Gneiss
Metamorphism is the process that refers change of form (in Greek meta=change;
morph=form). It indicates the effect of temperature, pressure and chemical active fluids
over the texture, minerals and composition of the parent rocks. The parent rocks are in
equilibrium with their surrounding if the temperature, pressure and chemically active
fluids remain unchanged. If any of these factors changes significantly, then the
equilibrium gets upset and necessary metamorphism takes place to create a new
equilibrium or more stable conditions.
There are 3 types of agents responsible for metamorphism. These are temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids.
Generally different kinds of metamorphism are defined based on the metamorphic agents
that have been the most dominant during the process. The following are the common types
of metamorphism:
2. Dynamic metamorphism: pressure due to overburden plays a great role with low
temperature. A new rock is made partly by the mechanical effect of flow due to the
overburden. E.g. Slate has flow cleavage
Although there are different parameters of metamorphic rock classification, the common
way of classifying these rocks is based on the presence or absence of foliation. The term
‘foliation’ refers the parallelism of inequidimensional (i.e. platy and prismatic) minerals
that develop under the influence of pressure. That is the series of parallel layers.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two on the basis of foliation. These are: 1. Foliated
metamorphic rocks.
2. None-foliated metamorphic rocks.
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks show foliation with in them. The common
types of foliated rocks in the order of increasing the degree of metamorphism and grain
size are Slate, Phyllite, Schist and Gneiss.
2. Visible crystallinity:
- Phaneritic: if the individual crystals are identified by naked aye.
- Aphanitic: if the individual crystals cannot be distinguished by naked eye.
3. Crystal size
I. Coarse: if the grain size >2 mm
II. Medium: if the grain size 2-0.06 mm
III. Fine: if the grains size <0.06 mm
4. Origin
- Crystalloblastic texture: This the texture formed during the process of
metamorphism.
- Palimpsest or relict texture: This the texture that the remnant texture of the parent
rock found preserved in the metamorphic rock.
1. Cataclastic structure: are produced under the influence of shearing and crushing effect
due to direct pressure in the upper zone of the earth’s crust. This structure is common in
mylonite and fault breccias.
2. Maculose structure: It is the spotted appearance of the rock may be due to the
development of few large sized crystals (Porphyroblasts) with in the fine-grained mass.
This is due to incomplete recrystallization of the rock.
3. Slaty structure or Slaty cleavage: is the structure formed due to the parallel
orientation of flaky minerals mainly mica and chlorite which are microscopic. This
structure is formed in shale which undergone slight metamorphism.
E.g. Slaty structure in slate.
4. Schistose structure: is the structure in which the rock consists of parallel bands or
layers of flaky, platy or rod like mineral. This structure is commonly found in schist,
which is coarse grained and largely composed of platy and flaky minerals. The
foliation in schist is known as schistocity.
5. Gneissose structure: is the structure in which bands or layers of platy or flaky mineral
alternate with those of equidimensional and granular minerals. The bands of minerals are
generally contrasting color, composition, texture etc.
Light color bands-represent quartz and feldspars
Dark color bands- represent ferromagnesiam minerals like mica
6. Granulose structure: is the structure in which the component grains are
equidimensional, irregular in outline and mutually interlocked.
E.g. Granulose structure in marble and quartzite.
Gneiss: It is the general name given to any metamorphic rock that shows a gneissose
structure. Gneiss is used as foundation rock, as building stone, as aggregate for
making concrete, as road stone, as railway ballast, as load bearing beams or
pillars etc. It is also used for tunneling work. This is because gneiss is durable,
has pleasing color and good polishing appearance, impermeable and non-porous.
Schist: It is the general name given to all metamorphic rocks bearing schistose structure.
Schist is not used as foundation rock, as building stone, as aggregate for concrete
making, as road stone, as railway ballast. It is also unsuitable for tunneling since
it is permeable and creates ground water problem. Generally schist is unsuitable
because of its incompetent, permeable and unpleasant color.
Quartzite: is Para metamorphic rock which is strong, hard durable and has pleasant color.
Because of this reasons it is highly suitable as road railway ballast, concrete
aggregate, paving blocks etc. They are also used in the manufacturing of silica
bricks. Quartzites are suitable as foundation rock. Being impervious they are
desirable at the reservoir sites. Being competent they are suitable in tunneling
work. But it is not used as building stone because it is not workable.
(b) Chemical weathering: is essentially the process of chemical reactions between the gases of
the atmosphere and the surface of rocks under the presence of water. Typical weathering
reactions are:
1. Oxidation
2. Carbonation
3. Hydration
Rivers, wind, moving ice and sea waves are described as agents of erosion since they are
capable of loosening, dislodging and carrying of particles.
3.2.1 Erosion
Erosion is the disintegration of the rock by a natural agent through mechanical, chemical
processes accompanied by removal of disintegrated product from its original place. Streams or
rivers cause erosion in 4 ways:
1. by abrasion
2. by attrition
3. by hydraulic action
4. by chemical action (corrosion)
(1) Abrasion - The flowing water uses rock fragments such as pebbles, gravels, and sands as a
tool for rubbing, grinding and bumping the sides and the floor of the river valley. This type of
erosion is called abrasion.
(2) Attrition- it is the breaking of the transported materials themselves due to mutual collision.
Attrition causes the rock fragments to become more rounded and smaller in size.
(3) Hydraulic action is erosion in which the inherent kinetic energy of running river water only
takes part in causing the physical break down of rocks. This process is effective in uneven faces
of the jointed rocks exposed along the river channel.
(4) Chemical action-The slow but steady chemical action of stream water on the rocks with
which it comes into contact. It depends much on the character of the rock and the composition
of the stream water.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.1 (a) Ox-bow lake development (b) meandering river development
The separation of materials takes place automatically as the larger and heavier particles settle
quickly while the smaller and the lighter ones continue their journey farther a head. The
material that a stream deposits as sediment is called Alluvial or Alluvium deposits. The term
alluvium means sediment deposited by a stream. It contains fine material such as silt, clay,
coarse sand and gravel.
River deposition takes place in 4 ways. Deposits taking place
(1) in the river channel during periods of normal flow.
(2) by spreading over the plains on either side of the river during periods of flood.
(3) Across the Estuary and interbedded with the sediments carried into the Estuary by the sea.
Estuary is wide river mouth into which the tide flows.
(4) In deltas
(1) Alluvial fans: The alluvial materials that flow down from mountains accumulate at the
foot of hills where the stream enters a plain. The deposition occurs due to the abrupt
change in the gradient of a river valley. Such deposits spread in the shape of FLATE
FANS in which the apex points uphill and such deposits are called Alluvial fans.
Usually the coarser material is dropped near the base of the slope while the finer
material is carried farther out on the plain. Fig (3.2) shows alluvial fans.
(2) Flood plains deposits: During flooding a river over flows its banks and submerges the
adjacent low-lying area where deposition of alluvial material takes place. A wide belt of alluvial
plain formed in this way on either side of the stream is called FLOOD PLAIN. Flood plain gets
Fig. 3.3
(3) Natural levees: These are low ridges that are formed on both sides of a river channel by the
accumulation of sediments along the banks. This is because river water suffers first check in
velocity on the banks while over flowing them. Development of such levees by flooding causes
raising of the banks. So that these sometimes become helpful in preventing floods of previous
intensity. As result, most of the coarse sediment is deposited along the area bordering the river
channel and the finer sediments are deposited more widely over the flood plain.
(4) Point bars - In the meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur at the inside bends of a river.
They are crescent shaped and are called point bars. Fig (3.4) shows point bars
Fig. 3.4 Point bars. The shaded parts indicated by D are point bars.
(5) Deltas: are alluvial deposits, which are roughly triangular in shape with their apex pointing
upstream, that are laid down by the streams at the points where they enter into lake or seas i.e.
mouth. When a stream enters an ocean or a lake, the currents of the flowing water dissipate
The apparent calm seawater is affected by periodic disturbances (rise and fall) called tides and
irregular disturbances grouped as waves.
The land area adjoining the sea commonly referred as coast. Seashore is a term given to that
part of the land adjoining to the sea, which lies between high water level and low water level.
Seawater will normally transgress beyond seashore and such a demarcation between land and
sea makes the shoreline of the area.
All the geological works such as erosion, transportation, deposition performed by sea are due to
wave, tide, and current action of sea water.
Sea waves are described as undulatory disturbances on the surface seawater caused by strong
rushing wind, earthquake where water particles are moving in a circular pattern before coming
to rest again.
Currents - These are layers or strips of seawater that are actually pushed forward in a particular
direction. They are the result of disposal of the extra volume of water thrust on the shore by
advancing waves.
Tide- is the periodic rise and fall of sea due to the pull exerted by the sun and moon on the earth.
The bulge of water thus produced moves round the earth as the moon rotates.
(2) Sea cliff is seaward facing steep front of a moderately high shoreline. It is the first stage of
the work of waves on the shore rocks. Fig (3.6) shows sea cliff and a wave cut terrace
(3) A wave cut terrace is a shallow water shelf slopes gently seaward and carved out of the
shore rocks by advancing waves. These waves first cut a notch where they strike against the
cliff rocks. The notch is gradually deepened so much that a part of the over hanging cliff
becomes unsupported from below and falls. A plat form is thus created and which is also called
a wave-cut terrace.
sea cliff
Fig (3.6) sea cliff and wave-cut terrace. H.T.L = Higher tide level and L.T.L = lower tide
level. P = Plat form or wave cut terrace
3.3.2 Transportation
The eroded rock particles are carried by the sea in 2 ways. These are (1) In solution form
(2) In suspension form.
(1) Sallow water or Neritic deposits eg. Beach - is the deposit near the shore made by sea from
eroded material. Spit is ridge shaped deposit of sand often extended incompletely across the
embayment. If it is complete and closes the bay it is called bar.
(2) Abrasion- during dust storms the wind carries minute grains of sand in suspension. They
scoure, abrad and collide against the exposed rock masses and cause erosion. This process in
which sand grains are used as tools for eroding rock is called abrasion.
(3) Attrition-The particles that travel with wind collide against one another. This mutual
collisions lead to their further break down and the process is called attrition.
(2) Pedestal or mush room rocks are flat-topped rock bodies, which have very thin supporting
lower regions. They are generally a few meters high. Fig (3.9) shows mushroom rocks
W=
Fig. 3.9 mushroom rock
(1) Dunes: These are wind deposits made up of sand grade particles. A dune is defined as any
mound or ridge of sand with a crest. A normal type of dune is generally developed when
velocity of sand-ladden wind is checked partially by some obstruction. A normal dune is
characterized by a gentle windward side and a steeper leeward side. Their outline and
orientation are controlled by the wind velocity, duration, and variation in the wind direction.
The sand deposits may acquire a regular or irregular shape. Fig (3.10) shows dunes
Fig. (3.10) Normal dunes. W= wind direction, WW= wind ward, LW= Lee ward and
C=crest
(b) Transverse dunes: They have longer axis at right angles to the direction of the prevailing
wind. They are formed in the areas where strong winds prevail and more sand is available. eg.
Seashore areas
(c) The barchans- are crescent shaped dunes where the convex side faces the wind direction.
The horns and wings of the crescent point in the direction of the wind. Barchans are formed
where the wind is nearly unidirectional. They occur in groups where sand is available in plenty.
They have a gentle windward slope and much steeper leeward slope. Fig (3.12)
Methods commonly used at present for combating the advancing sand and thus protecting the
towns, agricultural lands and high ways passing through dune area include:
(1) Establishing sand tolerant vegetation. E.g. grass, conifers
(2) Construction of the wind breaks or walls around the areas to be protected.
(3) Treating the sand with crude oil where transport by the wind is considerably
reduced.
In the case of loess it has been observed that upon construction loads are exerted and as the
result this makes the loess to settle down when the loess is wetted. This forms dangerous
foundation condition especially for dams.
Types of glaciers- There are 3 kinds of glaciers. These are: (1) Valley glaciers
(2) Piedmont glaciers
(3) Ice sheet
(1) Valley glaciers: The glaciers, which originate near the crests of high mountains and
move along the valleys just like rivers, are called valley glaciers. Also they are termed
mountain glaciers. E.g. Alpine glaciers
(2) Piedmont glaciers: At the end of hilly region, a number of valley glaciers may unit to
form a comparatively thick sheet of ice. Such a compound glacier is called Piedmont
glacier.
(3) Ice sheets: These are massive accumulation of ice covering extensive areas. They are
often very thick that all surface features except the high peaks stand buried under them.
The two well-known ice sheets of our earth are the Antarctic ice sheet and Green land
ice sheet.
4.1. Introduction
Structural Geology is the study of the origin, occurrence, classification and effects of various
secondary structures like folds, faults and joints.
Primary structures are those structures, which are developed in a body of a rock during its
formation. E.g. bedding for sedimentary rocks, flow structure for lava.
Secondary structures- The modification of the original shape, arrangement and development
of new forms in the rock body subsequent to its formation are termed secondary structures.
The forces most commonly responsible for development of secondary structures are tectonic in
nature eg. Faulting, folding N-Tectonic causes also responsible for some secondary structures
eg. Intrusion of magma, loading due to over burden.
Out crop- is the exposure of solid rock on the surface of the earth. It is also used as a general
term to refer to exposed folds, faults, joints etc.
Dip- is the maximum angle of slope of bed of rock with the horizontal. It is expressed both in
terms of degree of inclination and direction of inclination.
Strike- is direction of intersection of bedding plane with a horizontal plane. True dip is
measured in a direction at right angle to strike of bedding plane.
Diastrophism- refers to movements of the solid rock of the earth’s crust. An example is the
relative displacement of the rocks on both sides of a fracture along which slippage has occurred
is called a fault. Some times a crustal segment subjected to a stress may flow instead of faulting;
thus folds in rock strata result from gradual horizontal compression..
4.3 Folds
Folds are bends or curvature or undulations developed in the horizontal rocks of the earth’s
crust a result of compressive stresses.
1. Limbs- are the layers which form the sides of fold after buckling
2. Axial plane- is the imaginary plane, which divides folds as symmetrically as possible. It
may be vertical, inclined or horizontal.
(2) Folds that are recognized on the basis of position of axial plane. These include:
(i) Symmetrical fold: is the fold in which the vertical axial plane divides it into two
equal halves. Fig (4.2)
(ii) Asymmetrical fold is the fold in which the axial plane divides the fold into two unequal
parts. Fig (4.3)
(iii) Recumbent folds: these are folds in which the axial plane acquires almost horizontal
attitude. In such folds limbs are more or less horizontal. Fig (4.4)
(iv) Over turned folds: A fold in which the axial plane is inclined with the horizontal and
the limbs dip out at unequal angles in the same direction, is called over turned fold. Fig
(4.4)
(v) Isoclinal fold: A fold, in which the axial plane is inclined with the horizontal and the
limbs dip essentially at equal angles in the same direction is called an Isoclinal fold.
Fig. (4.5)
2. Shattering due to folding makes the rocks permeable. This causes a great trouble in tunnels
and in dams.
3. Folded rocks are generally under considerable strain. Excavation through them may become
risky. Because this will result in the release of pressure that may be accompanied by slips of
blocks causing rock burst.
4. Folding induces change in the altitude of the rocks and this may lead to the repetition of
same beds or encounter of some unexpected rocks in any given alignment.
4.4 Faults
Faults are fractures along which the movement of one block with respect to the other has taken
place.
Fault plane: the plane along which rupture has actually taken place and one block has move d
with respect to the other.
Fault trace or out crop: is the line of intersection of the fault plane with the ground surface.
Hanging wall: is the block above the fault plane.
Foot wall: is the block below the fault plane.
Dip of fault plane: is the inclination of fault plane with the horizontal and it has amount in
angles and direction.
The hade of fault plane: is the inclination of the fault plane with the vertical.
Throw: is the vertical displacement between the hanging wall and the footwall.
Heave: is the horizontal displacement between the hanging wall and the footwall.
(Fig. 4.6)
(i) Normal faults: are faults in which hanging wall has apparently moved down with respect to
the footwall. Fig (4.7)
(ii) Reverse faults: are faults in which the hanging wall has apparently gone up relative to the
footwall. Fig (4.8)
(iii) Transcurrent faults: are faults in which blocks have moved relative to each other
essentially in horizontal direction. Fig (4.9)
(iv) Vertical faults: are faults in which the adjacent blocks have moved relative to each
upward or down ward. Fig (4.10)
1. Faults cause considerable fracturing and shattering of rock along fault zones. This will
reduce the bearing capacity of rocks at foundation site.
2. The shear zones and fault zones serves as easy pathways for water. These can cause
leakage.
3. Since faults bring totally different rocks together, hence such areas cannot have any
homogeneity or uniformity of physical character. Foundations across these areas are
undesirable.
4. In some cases where the dip direction of the fault plane and the surface slope occur in
the same direction, landslides may occur.
4.5 Joints
Joints are divisional planes or fractures in the body of rocks along which there has been no
relative movement.
Joints may be opened or closed. Open joints are those in which the blocks are separ- ated or
opened up for small widths in a direction at right angle to the fracture surface. In close
joints, there is no separation (i.e. filled with secondary materials)
Joints may have either smooth or rough surface. And also they are may be straight or curved
in out line.
Joints may extend through the whole or a portion of the rock, hence it is termed continuous.
It may disappear at shallow depth and hence termed as discontinuous joints.
Joint set is a number of joints having the same orientation. Joint system is a system in which
two or more joint sets intersect at constant angle.
If a few sets of joints appear for a considerable length in a rock, such joints are called major
joints or master joints.
(1) Strike joints- are joints in which the joint sets strike in the same direction as the
bedding planes of the rock.
(2) Dip joints- are joints that strike parallel to the dip of the bedding planes of the
rock.
(3) Oblique joints- are those joints where the strike of the joints makes an oblique
angle with the strike of the bedding planes of the rock.
1. Since joints are a set of cracks they act as planes of complete breakage. Hence this
reduces the bearing capacity of the rocks. Heavily jointed rocks areas are not used as
foundation site.
2. Joints can percolate water down to the ground. Hence they are source of leakage through
rocks. If heavily jointed rocks forming the foundation for dam or reservoir in the
shallow water table area, then leakage from the reservoir and from the dam may become
so heavy. Also this leakage may cause decay of rocks.
3. When the dip direction of joint planes and the surface slope occur in the same direction
in association with argillaceous rocks, joints may cause sever landslides along hill
slopes.
4.6 Land Slides
Solifluction
Earth flows Creep
Rapid flows
Earth flow is the land mass movement, which is distributed through the displaced mass.
There are 3 types of earth flows, namely, solifluction, creep and rapid flows.
Solifluction: refers to the downward movement of wet soil along the slopes under the influence
of gravity.
Creep: refers to the extremely slow downward movement of dry surfacial matter. It is always
limited to the surface.
Subsidence
This essentially represents vertically the down ward movement of the surface. Subsidence may
take place due to plastic out flow of underlying strata, or due to the compaction of underlying
material or due to collapse.
Landslide: is the down ward movement of landmass along the slope under the influence of
gravity confined to definite shearing plane. There are 3 types of landslides. These are debris
slides, rock slides and rock falls.
Debris slides are the failures of unconsolidated material on a surface of rupture. They are
common along the steep sides of rivers, lakes, etc. Debris slides of small magnitude are called
slumps. Slump is often accompanied by complementary bulges at the toe.
Rockslides are the movements of essentially consolidated material, which mainly consists of
recently detached bedrock.
Rock falls refer to the blocks of rocks of varying sizes suddenly crashing down ward (from
cliff) along steep slopes. These are common along steep shorelines and in the higher mountain
regions, during the rainy season.
The inherent or internal causes of landslides are associated with influence of slope, water,
constituent lithology, geological structure, and human factors.
Effect of slope
Steeper slopes are prone to land slides of loose over burdens, due to gravity influence; where as
gentle slopes are not prone to land slides.
However, it should be remembered that hard consolidated and fresh rocks remain stable even
against any slope.
Effect of water
Water adversely affects the stability of the loose ground in different ways as follows:
1. Its presence greatly reduces the intergranular cohesion of the particles of loose ground.
2. A film or thin sheet of water above the under lying hard rocks acts as a lubricating
medium between the soft and hard strata, and induces down ward movement in the
overlying loose material along its own direction of flow.
3. A thin band of clayey matter at the interface of loose overlying material and underlying
hard rock becomes very plastic in the presence of water, and may form a slippery base.
This further enhances the chance of loose over burden to slip down wards.
Effect of lithology
1. Rocks, which are highly fractured, porous and permeable, are prone to land slides
occurrence.
2. Rocks, which are rich in clay, mica, calcite glauconite, gypsum, rock salt and calcareous
cementing materials, are more prone to landslide occurrence.
3. Thinner strata are more susceptible to sliding than thicker strata.
4. A sequence of strata having thin, soft and weak beds lying in between hard and thick
beds provide a chance for land slides occurrence.
Planes of weakness such as inclined bedding planes, joints, fault it their dip direction coincides
with that of the surface slope they can create good conditions for landslide.
From engineering practice point of view, if land slides occur at vulnerable places, they may
cause
4- To counter the loose nature of over burden: Growing vegetation, plants and shrubs on loose
ground helps in keeping the loose soil together.
- The place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earthquake is known as focus
or hypocenter.
- The place on the earth’s surface, which lies exactly above the focus of the earthquake is
known as the epicenter. The point on the earth’s surface diametrically opposite to the
epicenter is called the anticentre.
- The imaginary line, which joins the center (focus) and the epicenter is called the
seismic vertical. This represents the minimum distance, which the earthquake has to
travel to reach the surface of the earth.
- An imaginary line joining the points of the same intensity of the earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
- An imaginary line which joins the points at which the earth quake waves have arrived
at the earth’s surface at the same time is called a “ coseismal”.
Based on the depth of their origin earth quakes can be classified into 3 groups. These are
- Shallow earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus less than 60 km.
- Intermediate earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus between 60km and 300
km.
- Deep earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus greater than 300 km.
Earthquakes with a depth of focus greater than 700 km are extremely rare.
Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence, earthquakes are described as tectonic
or non-tectonic.
Seismic belts are those places where earthquakes occur frequently and shields areas are
those places where earthquakes occur rarely. Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an
indication of under ground instability there.
Earth quakes occur frequently in the principal seismic belts on the earth’s surface-these are
1. Circum – pacific belt: the belt that encircles the Pacific Ocean that accounts about
68% of earthquake occurrence.
2. Alpine – Himalayan belt: This belt starts from the east India and passes through the
Himalayan foothill region to the alpine mountain arcs of Europe. This belt accounts
for 25% of earthquake occurrences.
The modified Mercalli scale of earthquake intensities has 12 divisions. This scale takes into
account the factor of acceleration produced during earthquake.
i.e log
E
10 4.4 2.14M 0.054M 2 . In this equation E is obtained from the formula
E C ( a / h) (D h )
2 2
Earthquakes may have Richter magnitude from 3 to 9 (the maximum known is 8.9 only), but
no shock smaller than 5 causes severe damage. Magnitude 2 is the smallest tremor that can
be felt.
6.1 Introduction
Exploration is the scientific investigation of the site to find out the properties of the material in
the ground as engineering parameters in designing the engineering structure.
The site investigations are usually carried out by two methods. These are
(i) Field or in site exploration
(ii) Laboratory investigation
In this chapter we are more interested in dealing with field exploration than laboratory
examination.
The objectives of field explorations are
- Identification and determination of depth, thickness, extent and composition of each soil
stratum.
- Identification and location of rock formation.
- Identification of geological structural features like faults, joints, bedding planes, folds,
solution channels etc, in the rock beds.
- Locating of ground water table.
- In-situ measurement of strength and other engineering properties of strata
There are two common types of hand augers. These are (i) Post-hole auger, which has up to 200
mm diameter, and (ii) The small helical or spiral auger, which has 50 mm diameter. The auger
is rotated and pressed down into the soil by means of T-handle on the upper rod. When the
blades are loaded with all the soil that can be held, the auger is withdrawn and the soil is
removed. As the hole progresses down wards, extension rods are added to the auger.
For deeper explorations, power (mechanical) operated augers may be used. There are two
common types of power-operated augers. These are the short flight screw auger and continuous
flight screw augers. Small portable power augers are suitable for making 10-15m deep bore
holes ranging from 75mm to 300 mm in diameter. Continuous flight augers can be used to
auger up to depths of 30m.
2) Washing boring
In wash boring, water is pumped through a string of hollow drill rods called the ‘wash pipe’.
Water issued and jetted under pressure through narrow holes in a chisel attached to the lower
end of the wash pipe. The wash pipe is moved up and down or rotated by hand. The soil is
loosened and broken up by the water jets and the up-and-down movement and rotation of the
chisel. The water carries the soil up through the annular space between the wash pipe and the
side of the borehole. The washing fluid is allowed to settle in a pond or tank at the ground level
A soil sample is taken at every change of soil formation by tube sampler attached to the drill
rod.
3) Percussion (cable tool) drilling machine drilled hole: This drilling method is done by
breaking up of formation by repeated blows a tool bit or chisel bit. Water should be added to
the hole at the time of drilling and the debris should be bailed out at intervals by means of a
bailer or sand pipe. The bit may be suspended by means of cable or rods from a walking beam.
It possible to take samples at suitable intervals in ground by employing sampling equipment.
But in soft ground the samples may not be reliable since the percussion action disturbs them.
4) Rotary drilling machine drilled holes: Rotary drilling methods are suitable for drilling in rocks
and soils. This method is used to drill holes from 2-5 cm to more than a meter diameter depth.
There are two types this method. These are:
I. Mud rotary drilling (uncased hole): In this system, drilling is done by the cutting action
of a rotary bit, which is kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. The bit is
attached to the end of a hollow, jointed drill string (drill rods), which is rotated by a
suitable check (prime mover). A mixture of water and bentonite clay or cement-water is
pumped continuously down the hollow drill rods and the fluid returns to the surface
through the annular space between the rods and side of the hole. This fluid makes mud
cake on the side of the hole and there fore the protective casing may not be necessary.
The return (out) flow brings the cutting to the surface
If a diamond bit is used, it is called Diamond core drilling. If a steel bit is used, it is
called chilled shot core drilling (calyx drilling)
A Dam is a solid barrier, which is constructed across a river to store water. A dam is
built mainly
1) To store water for irrigation
2) To generate hydro electric power
3) To supply water to industries
4) To supply water for domestic use
5) To Control flood
Heel: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the up stream side.
Toe: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the down stream side.
Abutments: These are the sloping sides of the valley on which the dam structure rests.
Galleries: These are small rooms or openings with in the dam for draining water
seeping through the face or the foundation, act as openings to drill grout and
drainage holes. They provide access to equipment with in the dam. They are also
used for observing dams performance.
Spillway: It is a structure constructed to discharge the surplus water from storage or
reservoir into the river on the down stream side of the dam.
Axis of the dam: An imaginary line that passes along the length of a crest of a dam
through its center. Fig (1)
Concrete or masonry dams are classified into 4 types based on the method of their
design.
(1) Gravity dam (2) Arch dam (3) Buttress dam (4) Coffer dams
1. Gravity dam: This dam has heavy and massive wall like concrete or masonry
structure in which the whole weight acts vertically down ward and it stands by its
own weight. The entire force acting on the dam wall is transmitted to small area of
the foundation. Therefore a sound foundation rock is required for the construction of
gravity dam. Fig (2)
2. Arch dam: This dam has an arch shape, which is always convex in the upstream
side. The shape or design of an arch dam transmits the water pressure to the
abutments by the arching action. Hence, very strong rocks are required in the
abutments for the construction of the arch dam. Fig (3)
3. Buttress dam: This is concrete structure in which there is a deck sloping upstream.
This deck, which takes the entire load, supported from behind by walls called
buttresses, extending perpendicular to the axis of the dam from down stream side.
Fig (4)
4. Coffer dam: these are small wall like structure made for diverting of the river water
before construction of the main dam.
(a) Vertical Static forces: These are forces, which act vertically down ward due to the
weight of the dam, the water in reservoir, and sediments settled from the water.
(b) Horizontal forces: These are forces acting on the dam due to the lateral pressure of
water and silt deposited in the reservoir behind the dam in the upstream side.
(ii) Dam on soluble rocks. The soluble rocks include limestone, dolomite, and
marble. These rocks are generally strong to support the weight of the dam. But
they may contain underground openings.
The best foundation condition is when only one type of uniform rock is present along
the entire length and width of the dam.
If a dam is aligned across the strike of the strata, then its foundation will be on different
rock types of varying properties. This situation leads to unequal settlements of the dam
foundation. As the bedding planes of the strata lie across the axis of the dam there is
possibility of series leakage of water, not only through the porous beds, but through the
bedding planes also. Fig (7)
When fissured, fractured and jointed rocks exist in the foundations may cause leakage of
water through them and uplift pressure takes place. Uplift pressure may cause sliding of
the dam. This is because up lift pressure acts opposite to the weight of the structure.
There fore such rocks are to be consolidated by grouting. Grouting is a method by
which suitable mixture of cement and water or cement-calcium chloride, is injected into
the rocks to seal the openings. Grouting is done to consolidate the rock and to stop
seepage of water through them.
If the bedding planes are dipping toward to the sides of the valley slope, then this
condition is very prone for landslide occurrence.
Reservoirs are artificial lakes formed along the course of a river by impounding of the natural
flow of river water by constructing dam across the river.
2. Silting of reservoirs
The reservoirs built on rivers, which carry large amount of sediments, may silt up very soon
and its water storage capacity may be reduced considerably. The amount of silt produced
and supplied to the rivers depends mainly upon lithological character and topography of the
catchment’s area. The rivers flowing over the soft rocks and high gradient areas carry
greater amounts of silt. On such rivers silt traps may be constructed up stream in order to
check the rate of silting in the reservoir. Provisions should also be made for washing out the
silt through the passage of the dam.
3) Permeable rocks
During the geological investigations it is necessary to locate the highly permeable rocks that
are present in the reservoir area. The rocks, which are highly porous, are likely to cause
series leakage from the reservoir.
Generally the leakage of water from the strata that have down stream dip, will be more than
those which have upstream dip. Fig (9)
The following methods used to seal permeable zones:
a) Natural silting
b) Grouting
c) Covering weak zones with concrete slabs.
The geological investigation, which is one of the investigation methods, is done to detect
geological defects and to select suitable site for dam and reservoir construction.
The objectives of the geological investigations are.
a) To study the physioographic features of the area.
b) To determine the depth and inclination of bedrock in the river channel at proposed
site.
c) To determine the lithological composition and the structure of the rocks present in
the proposed site.
d) To locate the secondary structural defects such as fault, joints, fractures, and solution
channels etc in the proposed site.
e) To evaluate the rate of silting in the reservoir.
f) To locate the construction materials in the vicinity of selected site.
Geological Survey
The first stage or the preliminary surveying in geological investigation of dam and reservoir
site is called Reconnaissance survey. This is done by collection information about the site
Generally geological investigation normally starts with the interpretation of the Air photos,
Geological maps etc, followed by field work and laboratory testing, and ends with the
preparation of field report. The geological investigations include the study of
I) Physiography
II) Lithology (nature of rock)
III) Geological structures
I. Study of physiography
1) A site where the strata dip upstream is preferable to the site where the strata
dip down stream.
2) If rocks exposed in the foundation and abutments of dam are highly jointed,
the spacing and intensity of jointing are to be recorded. This will help in
assessing the grouting problem and grouting pattern.
Tunnels are under ground passages or routes used for different purposes. They
are made by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills or
mountains, or sides of valley.
6.6.1 Purpose of tunnel
1) To reduce distance between places of interest across natural obstacles like
hills to save time i.e. to lay roads or railway tracks.
2) To divert the normal flow of river water to facilitate the work of dam
foundation i.e. dug along the valley sides.
3) For power generation i.e. tunnels allow water to pass through them under
force.
4) For supplying drinking water or for laying cable.
For placing the abutment of a bridge, the valley walls are thoroughly examined. The valley
walls, where the strata dip into the river channel, form unstable slope, because they have a
tendency to slide in to the river channel. Such unstable valley slopes should be avoided.
A fault, if it is running across the bridge alignments, is a source of many troubles. The
highly crushed and watered zones of rocks, which exist in the fault zones, make the
foundation treatment extremely expensive. It is therefore a advised that the possibility of
avoiding the fault by shifting the bridge alignment upstream or down stream.
(III) Types of river channel: In alluvial channels the thickness of loose sands and gravel’s
may be so great that it is not economical to reach the bed rock for placing the piers. In such
cases pile foundation is used. The piles are generally driven through the alluvial material to
the bedrock. Friction piles are used where the bedrock is not available up to a great depth.
Fig (16)
There are two types of quarries: Open and under ground quarries. Open quarries may be
shelf quarries, where the rock is extracted from hillside, or pit quarries, where the rock is
extracted from a certain depth in the ground. Fig (1)
Quarry products are dimension stone, crushed stone, and broken stone (riprap).
The search of rock material for building stone, crushed rock, or riprap is controlled by
factors (1) quality (2) supply of the material (quantity) and (3) economics of production
and delivery.
1) Quality
Rock for dimension stone must be free of cracks, uniform texture, attractive color, and in
some cases capable of taking a polish. Crushed stone and riprap must have satisfactory
strength, soundness, and low water sorption. Particularly rock selected for riprap should
be roughly squared and reasonably flat faced. Values of specific gravity of 2.6 and
higher are preferred because the rock has to be resistant for wave action etc.
2) Supply
The rock supply of a quarry generally is estimated in tones. For dimension and crushed
stone operations, the supply should be sufficient for about 20 years if initial expense and
costs are to be justified. For riprap quarries economically feasible operations usually is
possible even if the supply is only sufficient for the immediate use on the structure.
3) Economic factor
One of the most important factors, which may make the operation economically
prohibitive, is the cost of transportation of the product to the place of consumption. This
is provided that populated areas should be at safe distance.
Quarrying is done by one of the following 4 methods after investigation of its quality,
quantity and economic benefit.
ii) Wedging: This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. The operation
is started near a vertical face. In this method steel wedge is hammered in to the rock to
create cracks into which steel bars are inserted and the stone blocks are separated.
If vertical face is absent, cutting or boring channel or drilled holes create a vertical face
by power drilling machines. To separate big blocks of proper dimensions, lifting crane,
plugs, steel hammers (sledgehammers) are used in drilled holes.
iii) Heating: This method is suitable where only small blocks of more or less regular
shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal layers, which have not much
thickness to be quarried.
This method consists of filing a heap of fuel on small area of the exposed rock face and
burning a steady fire for some hours. Because of uneven heating to top and bottom
layers, the rock masses separate themselves along the joint with some sound.
iv) Blasting: It is the quarrying of stones using explosives. The purpose of blasting for
the quarrying is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blowup the whole
rock mass into pieces. Quarrying by blasting requires the following steps:
a) Drilling of blast holes of calculated dimensions at predetermined places in the rock.
b) These drilled holes are charged with the explosives of suitable quality in a carefully
selected manner.
c) Igniting or firing of charge or shot, which explode with in the body of the rock and
thus rocks, break in to parts and thrown into at distances that depend upon the
quantity and quality of the explosives used in the shot.
The two basic kinds of explosives are black blasting powder and high explosives.
1) Black blasting powder: is used in dimension stone quarries. Black blasting powder may be
either “A” blasting powder of “B” blasting powder type.
“A” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate, and sulfur in proportion
of about 15:75:10 respectively.
“B” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, sodium nitrate, and sulfur in proportion of
about 16:72:12 respectively. “B” blasting powder is slower and less expensive than “A”
2) High explosives: are used in crushed stone quarries and in most civil engineering
excavation operations. High explosive may be:
a. Those containing mainly Nitroglycerin and Nitroglycol both are designated by symbol
NG. These are the main types used in civil engineering. They commonly referred as
Building materials (stones) are products of rocks that are used in construction of
buildings, dams, bridges etc. The rock materials used for construction include:
i) Building stones in the form of masonry blocks.
ii) Rubble-in the form of small irregular fragments.
iii) Crushed stones-to make concrete
iv) Limestone-to make lime and cement.
Grain size is also important in this context because, in Aphanitic rocks, the minerals being very
small in size, each grain will not exert any significant volume change by itself and therefore the
rock as a whole undergoes expansion or contraction uniformly. Generally stones which are free
from calcium carbonate and oxides of iron resistance to fire.
7.8 Rocks used as building and industrial materials
i) Granites
iv) Sandstones