Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221

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Future Foods
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo

Physicochemical, rheological and microstructural properties of chicken

meat emulsion with the addition of Chinese yam (Dioscorea polystachya)
and arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) as meat substitutes
Wong Ming-Min, Mohammad Rashedi Ismail-Fitry∗
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This study aimed to produce emulsions formulated with Chinese yam (CY) (Dioscorea polystachya) and arrowroot
Meat alternatives (AR) (Maranta arundinacea) as potential chicken breast (CB) meat substitutes. Emulsions with 100% CB (control);
Meat analogue 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25); 100% CY
Meat products
(CY100); and 100% AR (AR100) were formulated. The emulsion stability, water holding capacity, pH, cooking
Meat replacers
loss, proximate composition, colour, texture, gel strength, and rheological and microstructural characteristics of
Plant-based meat
Vegetarian products different formulations were analysed. The emulsion with 50% arrowroot (AR50) was more stable with lower
total fluid released (1.99%), lower fat (2.66%), high protein (8.82%) and fibre (0.62%) contents, and similar
moisture (66.17%) content to the control 100% chicken. It had an acceptable texture profile (hardness, 7.38 kg),
with a similar colour profile (L∗ , 70.22; a∗ , 3.47 b∗ , 17.41) and a similar appearance to the cooked control
image. Furthermore, the rheological and microstructural properties of AR50 were comparable to the control.
In conclusion, 50% arrowroot was the best chicken meat substitute and has the potential to be developed into
plant-based meat products.

1. Introduction
Recently, there has been a growing demand for plant-based diets
(Graça et al., 2019), as consumers are becoming more aware not only of
the nutritional value related to health concerns but also of the origin of
the food, questioning whether the product is good in ethical and envi-
ronmental terms (Jones, 2020). Meat production and consumption are
reported to have severe negative consequences on the environment, pub-
lic health, and animal welfare (Clonan et al., 2015; Sanchez-Sabate and
Sabaté, 2019; Wang et al., 2016). The emission of greenhouse gases from
animal farming activities has contributed to climate change (Bhatt and
Abbassi, 2021). Furthermore, a high intake of processed meat products
also enhances the risk of chronic illnesses, such as cardiovascular dis-
ease and diabetes (Wolk, 2017). Therefore, consumers are motivated to
reduce their meat intake and replace meat products with plant-based
food.
However, only limited meat-substituted food products are available,
and they are often deemed to have unpleasant characteristics compared
to the original meat-based products. For example, partially substituting
beef with unripe jackfruit in the production of patties reduced fat con-
tent and increased fibre content, but suitable meat extenders or meat
binders are required to maintain the desired quality (Abdullah, 2017).
Another example shows that the moisture content and cooking yield of
patties produced by substituting the pork with white jelly mushrooms
were significantly higher than the control, but the mushroom flavour
reduced consumer acceptance of the patties (Cha et al., 2014).
Chinese yam (Dioscorea polystachya) originated in China and
has comparable characteristics to meat (Cheng et al., 2014).
Wei (2000) demonstrated that by adding 7% Chinese yam, the softness
and elasticity texture of the fish meat products could be retained with-
out affecting the sensory attributes. Recently, Jiang et al. (2020) devel-
oped semi-liquid space food using Chinese yam and chicken. The end
product with 40% Chinese yam had a fine texture, sweet flavour and
creamy colour and was thickened by the addition of 2 g/kg chitosan.
Niu et al. (2013) reported that the addition of 50% Chinese yam gave
the optimum organoleptic quality of fast-food sausages.
Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) is a long, fleshy, thick and cylin-
drical rhizome native to Mexico, Central and South America (Rana and
Villas, 2017). As arrowroot consists of smooth and viscous high-quality
digestible starch, it is often processed into flour and used as a thickening
agent, stabiliser, or even fat replacer (Rana and Villas, 2017; Silva Costa
et al., 2020). For example, Kalyan et al. (2009) found that the melt-
ing time of ice cream was significantly decreased by replacing the milk
solids-not-fat (SNF) with up to 15% of arrowroot powder without im-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ismailfitry@upm.edu.my (M.R. Ismail-Fitry).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100221
Received 7 July 2022; Received in revised form 10 March 2023; Accepted 11 March 2023
2666-8335/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221

Table 1
Formulations of meat emulsions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam and arrowroot com-
pared to the control with chicken breast.

Ingredients Control (%) CY50 (%) AR50 (%) CY25+AR25 (%) CY100 (%) AR100 (%)

Chicken breast (CB) 70.0 35.0 35.0 35.0 – –

Chinese Yam (CY) – 35.0 – 17.5 70.0 –
Arrowroot (AR) – – 35.0 17.5 – 70.0
Fat/Skin 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
Salt 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Sugar 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
STPP 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Cornstarch 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Garlic powder 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Ice water (5 °C) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

100% CB (Control); 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR
(CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).

pairing the sensory properties. Due to its excellent shear thinning prop-
erties and high digestibility (Jyothi et al., 2011; Madineni et al., 2012),
it can be used to produce low-fat products. Park et al. (2020) used mod-
ified arrowroot starch as a fat replacer in low-fat mayonnaise which
resulted in improved viscoelasticity and emulsion stability. Neverthe-
less, to date, the use of raw arrowroot as a meat substitute has still not
yet been comprehensively studied.
Meat emulsion also known as meat batter is a multiphasic and mul-
ticomponent 3-D matrix consisting of finely chopped meat (salt soluble
myofibrillar protein), fat and various non-meat ingredients. Although
the term "meat emulsion" does not typically represent the definition
of a common emulsion, it has been widely used to refer to the un-
cooked comminuted meat mixture to produce products such as sausages
(Owusu-Apenten, 2004; Xiong, 2014). Both Chinese yam and arrowroot
could be used as meat substitutes for an emulsion but substituting all the
meat with either Chinese yam or arrowroot may drastically change the
properties of the emulsion. Therefore, this study evaluated the physic-
ochemical, microstructural, and rheological properties of the emulsions
formulated with 100% chicken meat, 100% Chinese yam or arrowroot,
50% Chinese yam or arrowroot with 50% chicken meat, and 50% (25%
Chinese yam and 25% arrowroot) with 50% chicken meat. The findings
provide a basis for further research and development of plant-based re-
placements for meat products.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Material and formulations
The raw materials obtained from Sungai Chua Kajang Wet Mar-
ket, Selangor, Malaysia were chicken breast, chicken skin, Chinese yam
and arrowroot. Dry ingredients such as cornstarch, sugar, salt and gar-
lic powder were acquired from AEON Mall Cheras Selatan, Selangor,
Malaysia, while sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) was purchased from
GSM Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia in a 100 g package. The chicken breast
and skin were stored in a freezer at −18 °C while Chinese yam and ar-
rowroot were chilled in a refrigerator below 5 °C. The other ingredients
were stored at room temperature in a cool dry cupboard.
with the percentage according to Table 1 with a total weight of 200 g,
except for salt, STPP and ice water and mixed for 1 min in a food
processor YM-102 (Gourmet Cuisine, Malaysia). Salt and STPP were
then added and mixed for 30 s. Ice water was added and mixed for
another 30 s to prevent overheating while homogenizing the emulsion.
The emulsion produced was transferred to 5 centrifuge tubes (40 g
each) and centrifuged (Kubota 3740, Japan) at 2500 rpm at 3 °C for
1 min to eliminate air bubbles. The uncooked samples were stored in
a freezer at −18 °C until used for physicochemical, microstructural,
and rheological analyses. The samples were labelled as Control for
100% CB; CY50 for 50% CB + 50% CY; AR50 for 50% CB + 50% AR;
CY25+AR25 for 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR; CY100 for 100% CY;
and AR100 for 100% AR. For analyses that required cooked samples,
the samples were heated in a water bath for 15 min at 90 °C before
proceeding further. The experiments were performed in triplicate.
2.3. Physicochemical analysis
2.3.1. Emulsion stability (ES)
The ES of the raw samples was identified following a method by
Ismail et al. (2021b). A centrifuge tube was stuffed with 15 g of raw
sample and sealed with a cap. The tube was then centrifuged (Kubota
3740, Japan) at 3000 RPM at 4 °C for 15 min for thorough mixing and
elimination of air bubbles. After centrifugation, the sample was heat-
treated in a water bath at 75 °C for 30 min. The cap was opened, and
the tube was turned upside down and left to stand for 60 min to drip
the expressible fluid on a pre-weighed crucible. The pellet that remained
in the tube was weighed and the percentage of total fluid released was
calculated using Eq. (1). Next, the fluid released in the crucible was
oven-dried at 105 °C for 16 h. The remaining fluid left in the crucible
after drying was determined as the fat released and was measured by
the formula in Eq. (2). The percentage of water released was calculated
by the difference between total fluid release and fat release.
Total f luid released (%) =
(initial weight of sample − weight of pellet )
× 100 (1)
the initial weight of the sample

2.2. Sample preparation Fat released (%) =

The sample preparation was adopted from
Serdaroğlu et al. (2016) with several modifications. Chicken breast
(CB) and chicken skin were trimmed of bones and blood and then
separately minced by using a meat mincer machine (H.L TJ12-A,
Henglian, China). Chinese yam (CY) and arrowroot (AR) were cleaned,
deskinned, and blanched for 3 min to deactivate the oxidation. CY was
chopped for 20 s while AR was chopped for 1 min into a paste using
a 3-in-1 hand blender (BH600M, Khind). All ingredients were added
(weight of crucible + dried supernatant ) − weight of empty crucible
total f luid release
× 100 (2)
2.3.2. Water holding capacity (WHC)
The WHC analysis was adapted from Köhn et al. (2015). A 5 g raw
sample was mixed with 32 mL distilled water manually for 1 min in
a pre-weighed centrifuge tube. The mixture was left for 10 min before

2
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
proceeding to centrifugation (Kubota 3740, Japan) at 2900 g for 25 min.
After that, the weight of the supernatant along with the centrifuge tube
was weighed. The supernatant was discarded and the pellet was dried
in the oven at 50 °C for 20 min with the centrifuge tube turned upside
down at 10–20° downwards. The dried pellet was weighed and WHC
was calculated using Eq. (3).
(𝑏 − 𝑎) − (𝑐 − 𝑎)
𝑊 𝐻𝐶 = × 100% (3)
(𝑏 − 𝑎)
where,
a = weight of empty centrifuge
b = weight of centrifuge with supernatant
c = weight of dried centrifuge
2.3.3. pH
The pH values of raw and cooked samples were determined following
a method by Ismail et al. (2021b) with slight modifications. A sample
of 5 g was measured and added to 45 mL of distilled water. The mix-
ture was homogenized for 30 s using an MX-898 M blender (Panasonic,
Japan). The pH value of the homogenized mixture was measured using
the 3505 pH metre (Jenway, U.K.).
2.3.4. Cooking loss
The cooking loss was calculated based on the difference in the weight
of the sample before and after cooking following Eq. (4) according to
a method by Mejia et al. (2019) and Faridah et al. (2023) with slight
modifications. Approximately, 40 g of sample were placed inside the
uncapped centrifuge tube and heated in a water bath at 90 °C for 15 min,
then, the liquid expressed on top was poured out. The initial weight of
the sample was measured before cooking and the final weight of the
cooked sample was measured after cooling to room temperature.
Cooking loss (%) =
Sample weight before cooking − Sample weight af ter cooking
× 100
Sample weight before cooking
(4)
2.3.5. Proximate analysis
The moisture, ash, fat, protein and fibre contents of the cooked sam-
ples were determined following the standard procedures as stated in
AOAC (2012).
2.3.6. Colour measurement
Chromameter CR-410 (Konica Minolta Inc., Japan) was used to
measure the colour of the samples before and after cooking in terms
of L∗ (lightness-darkness), a∗ (redness-greenness), and b∗ (yellowness-
blueness) (Aslinah et al., 2018). The raw samples were thawed in the
capped centrifuge tubes under running water for 30 min at room tem-
perature before proceeding to colour measurement to ensure a thorough
defrost. After cooking, the samples were cooled at room temperature for
30 min before assessing the colour.
2.3.7. Texture profile analysis (TPA)
TPA was conducted on cooked samples following a method by
Ismail et al. (2021b) with slight alterations. Texture analyser TA-XT2i
(Stable Micro Systems, U.K.) was used to analyse the parameters — hard-
ness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness and resilience. A
P/75 probe with a 75 mm diameter and 30 kg load was used to com-
press the cut samples (2 cm length x 1 cm diameter) twice to a pushing
height of 75%. The pre-test speed, test speed and post-test speed were
set at 1.0 mm/s, 1.5 mm/s and 1.5 mm/s, respectively.
3
Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221
2.3.8. Gel strength (GS)
The GS of the cooked samples was identified based on the method by
Ismail et al. (2021a). Texture analyser TA-XT2i (Stable Micro Systems,
U.K.) with a 25 kg load was used to determine the maximum shear force
(N) and work of shearing (N.sec). A 1 mm thick Warner-Bratzler shear
blade was used to cut the sample of 2.5 cm in length x 1.5 diameters at
the speed of 1.5 mm/s with a 100% cutting percentage.
2.4. Microstructural analysis
The microstructure of cooked samples was analysed through
scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) adapted from methods by
Ismail et al. (2021a) and Lee (1985). The cooked sample with a thickness
of 5 mm was primarily fixed in 0.1 mol/L phosphate buffer at pH 7.0
containing 2.5% glutaraldehyde for 24 h at 4 °C. Then, the sample was
post-fixed for lipid in 2% aqueous osmium tetroxide for another 4 h, fol-
lowed by dehydration in an incremental concentration of ethanol (50%,
70%, 90%, 95%, and three times with 100%) for 10 min per solution.
The dehydrated specimen was cryofractured with a razor blade after be-
ing frozen in acetone that was previously cooled in liquid nitrogen and
then dried in tert‑butyl alcohol. Following that, the dried specimen was
mounted over the stubs using a double-sided carbon conductivity tape
and sputter-coated with gold (JOEL JFC-1600) for 3 min prior to SEM
examination (JOEL-JSM 5600) at 1000 × magnification.
2.5. Dynamic rheological properties (Frequency sweep)
Rheological analysis of meat emulsion was performed following the
method by Kurt and Gençcelep (2018). The rheometer Rheostress RS600
(Thermo Scientific, U.S.A.) fitted with a cone and plate configuration
(diameter: 35 mm, gap: 0.1 mm and cone angle: 2°) was used. The
raw sample was gently placed on the plate and equilibrated for 5 min
at 25 °C before proceeding further. The frequency sweeps were con-
ducted at 1 Pa between the frequency range of 0.1–10 Hz (0.628–
62.83 rad/s). The changes in storage modulus (G′) and loss modu-
lus (G″) were measured to analyse the viscoelastic behaviour of the
emulsions.
2.6. Statistical analysis
Each parameter was performed in triplicate to statistically evalu-
ate the properties of the mixed meat emulsion. Minitab 19 (MiniTab
Inc., U.S.A.) was used to conduct the one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) with Tukey’s multiple comparison tests at the 95% confi-
dence level (p < 0.05) to determine the significant differences be-
tween the data collected. The data were presented as mean ± standard
deviation.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Emulsion stability (ES)
Table 2 shows the emulsion stability (ES) of the meat emulsions com-
prising different ratios of CB, CY and AR and is usually expressed as
percentage total fluid release (% TFR), fat release (% FR) and water re-
lease (% WR) whereby a higher percentage indicates a less stable emul-
sion (Serdaroğlu et al., 2016). AR100 showed no release of fluid and
AR50 and CY25+AR25 showed no significant difference in ES (p < 0.05)
compared to the control. AR contains polysaccharides in the form of
starch which consists of mainly amylose and amylopectin (Hakim et al.,
2013), which when heated will lead to starch gelatinization, a process
where the starch molecules break down and swell and absorb water
(Donmez et al., 2021).
Meanwhile, CY100 had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher% TFR com-
pared to the control, while samples incorporated with CY (CY50 and
CY25+AR25) were not significantly different (p > 0.05) compared to
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
Table 2
The emulsion stability, water holding capacity, pH level and cooking loss of the meat emulsions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam and arrowroot
compared to the control with chicken breast.
Emulsion stability
Samples
Total fluid release (%) Fat release (%) Water release (%)
Control 4.89 ± 2.69b 15.61 ± 4.12a 84.39 ± 4.12a
CY50 11.76 ± 3.70ab 12.23 ± 1.25a 87.77 ± 1.25a
AR50 1.99 ± 3.32b 12.20 ± 32.80a 87.80 ± 32.8a
CY25+AR25 7.32 ± 1.75ab 19.07 ± 1.95a 80.93 ± 1.95a
CY100 18.78 ± 9.80a 14.51 ± 6.47a 85.49 ± 6.47a
AR100 0.00 ± 0.00b 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00b
The values above are expressed in mean ± SD. Different small alphabet represents significantly different value (p < 0.05) in the same column with n = 3. 100% CB
(Control); 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).
CY100. These results are likely to be related to the protein content.
The CY100 formulation with no chicken meat had a lower protein con-
tent, thus the least emulsion stability was observed. Lipid droplets are
held in place by strong protein-protein interactions that reinforce the
protein matrix, thus increasing the emulsion stability and preventing
it from falling apart (Jung et al., 2022). Myosin is the major adhesive
protein in meat that acts as a natural emulsifying agent, thereby provid-
ing a stable meat emulsion (Álvarez et al., 2007). Similarly, Zorba and
Kurt (2006) reported that increasing the amount of chicken meat in the
emulsion effectively increased ES. This finding is also consistent with
that of Kamani et al. (2019) who found that partial replacement of meat
using a soy-based ingredient that contains a high protein level improved
the ES of chicken sausage. However, CY has less functionality in stabi-
lizing the meat emulsion.
3.2. Water holding capacity (WHC)
There were significant reductions (p < 0.05) in the WHC of the AR50,
CY25+AR25 and AR100 samples compared to the control (Table 2).
CY50 had the highest WHC whereas AR100 had the lowest amongst
the six formulations. The WHC in this context refers to the ability of
the emulsion matrix to retain water which gives the meat produce its
juiciness, a key eating quality attribute (Cheng and Sun, 2008). These
results suggest that the addition of AR significantly decreased the WHC.
Although the WHC is normally affected by protein content due to the
abundance of myosin that holds water within the 3-dimensional ma-
trix, this was not the case for the CY samples as the WHC was as good
as that of the control. Bowker and Zhuang (2015) also stated that pro-
tein is not the only factor influencing the WHC. The decrease in WHC
for the formulation containing AR could be due to the state of the AR
used in this experiment. As mentioned earlier, AR is rich in starch that
will induce gel formation when heated, however, these samples were
not cooked and thus, starch gelatinisation did not occur. This is in line
with the observations by Hakim et al. (2013), which showed that AR
processed into flour contained a large amount of available amylose and
amylopectin, thereby enhancing the WHC of rabbit nuggets. Therefore,
the lower WHC of the meat emulsions with added AR could be explained
due to the analysis of WHC, which was carried out with raw samples
where no gelatinisation of starch took place. The samples substituted
with CY with a similar WHC to the control could be attributed to the rich
dietary fibre content of CY (Nishimura et al., 2011; Zou et al., 2020). Di-
etary fibres possess superior water- and fat-binding characteristics due
to the hydrophilic nature of the saccharide residues, thereby increas-
ing the WHC (Cofrades et al., 2000; Yamazaki et al., 2005). According
to Talukder (2015), meat products fortified with dietary fibre exhib-
ited an enhanced WHC, which is also consistent with his earlier study
which showed that the inclusion of dietary-fibre-rich bran significantly
increased the water retained in chicken meat patties (Talukder and
Sharma, 2010).
4
Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221
Water holding pH
capacity (%) Cooking loss (%)
Before cooking After cooking
89.78 ± 1.10a 5.71 ± 0.24a 5.77 ± 0.14a 1.87 ± 1.42a
91.41 ± 0.72a 5.36 ± 0.28a 5.26 ± 0.07a 2.08 ± 1.41a
87.20 ± 0.69b 5.35 ± 0.48a 5.49 ± 0.45a 2.02 ± 1.37a
86.50 ± 0.55b 5.40 ± 0.33a 5.55 ± 0.38a 1.94 ± 1.28a
90.44 ± 0.71a 6.07 ± 0.09a 5.93 ± 0.11a 2.14 ± 1.46a
83.96 ± 0.64c 5.70 ± 0.48a 5.51 ± 0.28a 1.04 ± 1.27a
3.3. pH values and cooking loss
Determination of pH is crucial in evaluating the eating quality of
meat as the WHC is greatly influenced by the pH which further affects
the tenderness and microstructure. In this study, there was no difference
in pH before and after cooking the emulsion samples, probably because
CY and AR are not acidic and thus, do not affect the pH (Jiang et al.,
2020; USDA, 2019). The cooking loss is determined by the amount
of fat added to meat products (Asyrul-Izhar et al., 2022). According
to Table 2, the different proportions of CY and AR in the emulsions
did not influence the cooking loss of the meat emulsions because the
amount of fat was the same in each formulation. These results agree with
Webb (2014) who claimed that lipid accounts for up to 80% of the meat
sample mass decrease. Gujral et al. (2002) also found that raising the fat
input percentage from 0 to 15% led to a substantial increase in cooking
loss.
3.4. Proximate composition
Table 3 illustrates the proximate composition of the cooked emul-
sions containing CY and AR as meat substitutes compared to the con-
trol, showing that CY100 had the highest moisture content while AR100
recorded the lowest. This is because CY originally contains more water
than AR and has a reported moisture content of 76–82% (Li et al., 2020b;
Song et al., 2018), whereas the moisture content of raw AR is between
70 and 73% (Indrasari et al., 2021). Another reason for this might be the
correlation to WHC as demonstrated in Table 2, which shows that CY100
had a stronger WHC than AR100. According to Ramle et al. (2021),
there is always a profound relationship between WHC and moisture
content in meat, whereby a higher WHC often results in higher mois-
ture levels. These results are also in line with the observations by
Serdaroğlu et al. (2017) who reported that the sample with the low-
est WHC had the lowest moisture content, whereas the sample with the
highest WHC recorded the highest moisture level.
The ash content of CY50, CY25+AR25 and CY100 did not vary signif-
icantly (p > 0.05) from the control while AR50 and AR100 were signifi-
cantly lower (p < 0.05) compared to the control. The observed decrease
in the ash content of samples with added AR could be attributed to the
native composition of AR in which the ash content is indigenously lower
than the CY. This statement is further supported by the data obtained
from USDA (2019) and Nishimura et al. (2011) where the ash content
of raw AR was recorded at 1.42% whereas raw CY had an ash content
of 4.7%.
Regarding fat content, CY50 and AR50 had significantly lower (p <
0.05) fat compared to the control. CY25+AR25, CY100, and AR100 sam-
ples had a higher per cent fat content than CY50 and AR50 but lower
than the control. As mentioned previously, the lipid is held in place
by myosin (Álvarez et al., 2007), thus explaining why the control had
the highest fat content. This finding is also in line with Talukder and
Sharma (2010) who found that baked chicken patties incorporated with
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
Table 3
Proximate composition of the cooked meat emulsions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam and arrowroot compared to the control with
chicken breast.
Samples Moisture Content (%) Ash Content (%) Crude Fat Content (%)
Control 66.08 ± 1.78ab 2.74 ± 0.03a 7.81 ± 2.23a
CY50 71.22 ± 1.68ab 2.34 ± 0.04ab 2.32 ± 0.83b
AR50 66.17 ± 3.61ab 2.22 ± 0.21b 2.66 ± 1.48b
CY25+AR25 69.21 ± 1.95ab 2.45 ± 0.17ab 5.01 ± 2.72ab
CY100 73.46 ± 6.08a 2.31 ± 0.02ab 5.57 ± 1.35ab
AR100 62.55 ± 0.75b 2.14 ± 0.28b 5.97 ± 0.14ab
The values above are expressed in mean ± SD. Different small alphabet represents significantly different value (p < 0.05) in the same column with n = 3.
100% CB (Control); 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR
(AR100).
an increasing proportion of wheat bran (5–15%) had a lower fat content
(4.7–5.4%) than the control (5.7%). However, the samples CY100 and
AR100 both substituted with 100% plant ingredients contained more
fat than samples CY50 and AR50 which were substituted with only 50%
plant ingredients, which may be due to the higher fibre content in CY100
and AR100 as shown in Table 3. Cofrades et al. (2000) reported that the
presence of fibre in meat products could enhance fat retention as evi-
denced by the improved fat-binding properties of bologna sausage upon
the addition of soy fibre. The findings of this study further corroborate
prior observations in which the addition of fibre to meat products pro-
moted fat absorption (Ktari et al., 2014). The role of fat in meat prod-
ucts is of great importance in providing quality mouthfeel, texture and
flavour (Asyrul-Izhar et al., 2022).
All samples with meat substitutes showed significantly lower (p <
0.05) protein content compared to the control and the protein content
was inversely proportional to the proportion of CY and AR in the emul-
sion. CY50, AR50 and CY25+AR25 substituted with 50% plant ingre-
dients had a lower protein content than the control while CY100 and
AR100 with 100% plant ingredients had the lowest protein content. A
similar trend was reported by Özünlü and Ergezer (2021) whereby the
protein content of beef salami substituted with oyster mushroom was
lower (18.25–18.93%) than that of the control (19.28%). Raw chicken
meat has a higher protein content (27–31%) than CY (3.59–8.53%) and
AR (10.8–21.1%) (Erdman and Erdman, 1984; USDA, 2019; Zhang et al.,
2013).
There was a positive correlation between the fibre content in the
meat emulsions and the percentage of plant ingredients added. CY50,
CY25+AR25, CY100 and AR100 all exhibited a significantly higher (p
< 0.05) fibre content than the control while AR50 was higher but not
statistically different (p > 0.05) from the control. Therefore, the more
CY or AR in the emulsions, the higher the fibre content. Like the protein
content, these results are due to the native composition of the ingredi-
ents, whereby chicken meat contains a negligible amount of fibre while
the plants CY and AR contain much more fibre. Based on USDA (2019),
the percentage of fibre in chicken meat is 0% while AR contains 1.3%.
Erdman and Erdman (1984) reported a much higher fibre content of ar-
rowroot (11.1–30.2%) depending on the size. The crude fibre content of
raw CY was reported to be 1.37% (Hu and Hu, 2012). The fibre content
is particularly crucial in determining the textural properties of plant-
based meat as well as promoting gastrointestinal health and reducing
cholesterol levels in consumers (Talukder, 2015; Singh et al., 2021).
The carbohydrate content of AR50 and AR100 were significantly
higher (p < 0.05) than in the control due to the abundance of polysac-
charides in AR, which is reported to contain up to 29.4% amylose and
32.8% amylopectin (Aprianita et al., 2014). USDA (2019) reported a to-
tal carbohydrate content of AR at 13.4%. The main constituent in the AR
is starch, which makes up 20% of the biomass on average (Amante et al.,
2020). Moorthy (2002) also stated that AR has high amylose content,
ranging from 16 to 27%. Although CY50, CY25+AR25 and CY100 were
not significantly different, they still contained more carbohydrates than
the control. It has been reported that raw CY contains 20.51% carbohy-
5
Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221
Protein Content (%) Crude fiber Content (%) Carbohydrate Content (%)
17.18 ± 0.59a 0.03 ± 0.05b 6.17 ± 4.23c
8.85 ± 1.02b 0.68 ± 0.08a 14.60 ± 0.20bc
8.82 ± 1.16b 0.62 ± 0.29ab 19.51 ± 2.90ab
7.17 ± 0.55b 0.84 ± 0.47a 15.33 ± 1.02bc
1.85 ± 0.43c 0.88 ± 0.06a 15.94 ± 7.07abc
2.67 ± 1.47c 0.87 ± 0.11a 25.80 ± 1.83a
drates (Hu and Hu, 2012) and up to 60% of starch per whole biomass
(Shujun et al., 2006).
3.5. Colour measurement
Table 4 displays the colour measurements of the meat emulsions sub-
stituted with CY and AR compared to the control before and after cook-
ing, while Fig. 1 shows the appearance of the cooked samples. Colour
is the first quality perception of the meat products that influence cus-
tomers’ decision whether to purchase the product. CY100 before cook-
ing had the highest (p < 0.05) L∗ (lightness) value compared to the
other formulations. CY50, CY25+AR25 and AR100 recorded a higher
L∗ value (p < 0.05) than the control but lower than CY100. The great-
est lightness detected in the uncooked emulsion substituted with 100%
CY was related to the original colour of the raw CY which appeared as
translucent white. This was confirmed by Zhao et al. (2021) who re-
vealed that the L∗ value of freshly cut CY was above 80. In terms of
a∗ (redness) value, all samples substituted with plant materials were
lower (p < 0.05) than the control due to the red-coloured myoglobin
in chicken meat, which its composition was reduced. Only CY100 was
found to be significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the b∗ (yellowness) value
than the control. After cooking, the L∗ values of CY100 and AR100 were
significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the samples containing chicken. The
whiter colour of samples with chicken is attributed to the breakdown
of myoglobin during cooking. The cooked sample CY100 displayed a
significantly lower (p < 0.05) a∗ value compared to the other samples
and cooked AR100 recorded a significantly higher (p < 0.05) b∗ value
than the control. The yellowness of AR100 is due to the cream colour of
the AR flesh. Overall, there were no significant colour changes in AR50
between the raw and cooked emulsions compared to the control except
for the L∗ value of the raw emulsion. In addition, most of the cooked
samples possessed visually similar colours to the control (Fig. 1). Thus,
substituting chicken meat with either CY or AR might not be an issue in
terms of colour emulation, especially for 50% AR.
3.6. Texture profile and gel strength
The textural properties and gel strength of the cooked meat emul-
sions are summarized in Table 5. Texture profile analysis (TPA) is nec-
essary for evaluating the qualities of a plant-based meat product regard-
ing texture so that it mimics the eating experience of a real-meat prod-
uct. The samples substituted with 100% plant ingredients (CY100 and
AR100) recorded the lowest values in all aspects of TPA as well as gel
strength. For the hardness, all samples inclusive of CY and AR had signif-
icantly lower (p < 0.05) values than the control, with CY100 being the
lowest, probably due to the high moisture content and WHC of CY100, as
shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. According to Nurul et al. (2010),
the force required to break the food material during chewing is ex-
pressed by the hardness. These results corroborated the conclusion of
Lin et al. (2002) who suggested that a higher moisture content induces
inadequate texturization, leading to a considerable decline in textural
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221

Table 4
The colour measurements (L∗ , a∗ , b∗ ) of the meat emulsions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam
and arrowroot compared to the control with chicken breast.

Before cooking After cooking

Samples
L∗ a∗ b∗ L∗ a∗ b∗
c a abc a a
Control 63.22 ± 0.76 5.00 ± 0.46 16.96 ± 0.07 71.46 ± 1.51 4.31 ± 0.18 16.19 ± 0.34bc
CY50 67.20 ± 1.26b 2.55 ± 0.27bc 14.88 ± 0.71cd 73.57 ± 1.08a 4.07 ± 0.44a 15.43 ± 0.18bc
AR50 62.51 ± 0.50c 3.11 ± 0.29b 17.35 ± 0.97ab 70.22 ± 0.79ab 3.47 ± 0.59a 17.41 ± 1.44b
CY25+AR25 67.45 ± 0.65b 2.36 ± 0.43bc 15.43 ± 0.59bcd 72.81 ± 0.23a 4.20 ± 0.23a 17.27 ± 0.48bc
CY100 71.03 ± 2.12a 2.02 ± 0.43c 13.73 ± 0.98d 67.27 ± 1.53bc 2.15 ± 0.60b 14.74 ± 0.34c
AR100 67.44 ± 0.92b 2.47 ± 0.34bc 18.40 ± 0.95a 65.55 ± 2.59c 4.25 ± 0.16a 21.38 ± 1.68a

The values above are expressed in mean ± SD. Different small alphabet represents significantly different value (p <
0.05) in the same column with n = 3. 100% CB (Control); 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50);
50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).

Fig. 1. Cooked chicken meat emulsion sam-

ples substituted with different percentages
of Chinese yam (CY) and arrowroot (AR).
100% CB (Control); 50% CB + 50% CY
(CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50%
CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25); 100%
CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).

Table 5
The texture profiles and gel strength of the meat emulsions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam and arrowroot compared
to the control with chicken breast.

Samples Hardness (kg) Springiness (mm) Cohesiveness Gumminess Chewiness (kg.mm) Resilience Gel strength (N)
a a a a a a
Control 12.21 ± 1.08 0.86 ± 0.05 0.36 ± 0.07 4.44 ± 1.02 3.87 ± 1.12 0.12 ± 0.01 14.29 ± 2.37a
CY50 4.96 ± 0.72b 0.77 ± 0.08a 0.34 ± 0.02a 1.70 ± 0.35bc 1.33 ± 0.38bc 0.09 ± 0.01ab 7.45 ± 1.02bc
AR50 7.38 ± 0.94b 0.66 ± 0.10ab 0.34 ± 0.03a 2.51 ± 0.47b 1.69 ± 0.52b 0.11 ± 0.02a 7.88 ± 2.86bc
CY25+AR25 6.63 ± 0.66b 0.74 ± 0.03a 0.38 ± 0.03a 2.52 ± 0.26b 1.87 ± 0.17b 0.11 ± 0.01a 10.07 ± 2.22ab
CY100 1.61 ± 0.26c 0.48 ± 0.03b 0.20 ± 0.02b 0.33 ± 0.03c 0.15 ± 0.01c 0.04 ± 0.00c 2.06 ± 0.29c
AR100 4.59 ± 2.26bc 0.47 ± 0.17b 0.18 ± 0.00b 0.81 ± 0.41c 0.39 ± 0.24bc 0.07 ± 0.02bc 4.12 ± 2.72c

The values above are expressed in mean ± SD. Different small alphabet represents significantly different value (p < 0.05) in the same column
with n = 3. 100% CB (Control); 50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR (CY25+AR25);
100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).

attributes. Ismail et al. (2021a) also reported that a gain in moisture
retention led to a decrease in the hardness of patties. Another reason
for the prominent reduction in the hardness of samples substituted with
plant materials might be the high fibre content which softens the meat
texture by distorting the protein-gelling fibres (Han et al., 2018). For
example, Wan Rosli et al. (2015) examined the texture profile of oyster-
mushroom-powder-substituted frankfurters and discovered it was sig-
nificantly softer than the control. Kamani et al. (2019) also revealed
that meat-free sausages exhibited a much softer texture than that meat-
filled sausages.
The springiness and cohesiveness of the meat emulsions portrayed a
similar trend. Samples CY50, AR50 and CY25+AR25 which contained
50% chicken meat were not significantly different to the control while
samples CY100 and AR100 which contained no chicken meat showed
significantly lower (p < 0.05) values. Springiness is defined as the abil-
ity of the cooked meat emulsion to return to its initial size or shape af-
ter being deformed during compression while cohesiveness refers to the
extent the product endures a second deformation in comparison to its
resistance under the first deformation, both of which imitate the chew-
ing action during eating (Nishinari et al., 2013). Fat and protein have
a synergistic effect on the springiness of meat products as the protein
matrix can grasp the lipid and water droplets which may occupy the air
gaps within the emulsion matrix and lessen springiness when the fat con-
tent is increased (Ismail et al., 2021b; Youssef and Barbut, 2011). This
finding is in line with other studies linking the texture of meat with the
inclusion of plant fibre. Song et al. (2016) reported that the springiness
of meat products decreased as the proportion of citrus fibre increased.
Similarly, introducing sea spaghetti and sugarcane dietary fibre to meat
emulsion systems reduced the cohesiveness (Fernández-Martín et al.,
2009; Zhuang et al., 2016).
Gumminess and chewiness are the derived textural parameters from
hardness and their behaviour is influenced by the primary parameters
they are dependant on. Therefore, a similar trend with hardness was
noted in the gumminess and chewiness of the formulations whereby all
samples were significantly different from the control. The lower chewi-
ness and gumminess of meat emulsions substituted with CY and AR
might be due to the reduced content of insoluble muscle fibres and con-
nective tissue (Ismail et al., 2021a). This is because myofibril proteins in
chicken possess a stronger network than the fibre in plants, which conse-
quently increases the product’s resistance to compression. The starches
in AR that gelled up upon cooking also contributed to the reduced hard-
ness and further resulted in decreased gumminess and chewiness. The
resilience values of CY100 and AR100 were significantly lower (p <
0.05) than the control. CY25+AR25 possessed a similar gel strength as

6
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
the control, with CY100 and AR100 being the lowest. This discrepancy
could be related to the inability of dietary fibres in plant ingredients to
establish a firm and coherent 3-dimension network as in protein when
heat-treated, thereby disturbing the protein-water and protein-protein
interactions leading to reduced gel strength (Li et al., 2020a). Similarly,
Kamini et al. (2019) found that meat-free sausages had the lowest gel
strength, implying that less energy is required to breach the outer layer
of the sample in the absence of meat.
Texture profile analysis has important implications for the develop-
ment of plant-based meat products as it is regarded as the most chal-
lenging aspect in mimicking the textural traits of commercial chicken
sausages. Meat emulsions with 100% substitution of plant ingredients
may not give a desirable end product based on the textural parameters
and they are outside the range of commercial chicken sausages in terms
of average hardness (3.84–7.25 kg), springiness (12.79–15.65 mm), co-
hesiveness (0.25–0.41), gumminess (1.28–2.58) and chewiness (16.81–
33.01 kg.mm) (Huda et al., 2010). However, most of the parameters
(springiness, cohesiveness and resilience) did not change significantly
when only 50% of the meat was substituted as in samples CY50, AR50
and CY25+AR25 and the significant difference (p < 0.05) observed in
hardness and gumminess were still within the range value of commer-
cial chicken sausages. Therefore, the replacement of meat with up to
50% plant ingredients in chicken sausages without compromising the
texture attributes is feasible.
3.7. Frequency sweep
Fig. 2 illustrates the storage modulus (G’) and loss modulus (G”) of
the meat emulsions substituted with different proportions of Chinese
yam and arrowroot compared to the control. The G’ and G” were anal-
7
Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221
Fig. 2. The storage modulus (G’) and loss modulus (G”) of the meat emul-
sions substituted with different percentages of Chinese yam and arrow-
root compared to the control with chicken breast. 100% CB (Control); 50%
CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50% AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25%
AR (CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100% AR (AR100).
ysed to determine the viscoelastic behaviour of the meat emulsions upon
frequency oscillation as this is crucial during meat product formulation
or development to anticipate the processing behaviour and performance
of the newly added or modified materials (Franck and Germany, 1993).
The G’ implies the amount of elastic structure existing in a material
by measuring the energy stored. In contrast, the viscous portion of the
emulsion is denoted as G" and is assessed in the amount of energy lost
through deformation. A sample that has a greater G’ value than the G"
value is said to be predominantly elastic (Tadros, 1994). In addition,
the frequency sweep also provides another principle of texture based
on resembling the meat product’s textural changing behaviour during
chewing (Kurt and Gençcelep, 2018).
All six formulations showed higher G’ values and lower G” values, in-
dicating that the samples exhibited more elasticity than viscosity. These
results support previous research by Kumar et al. (2017) in which the
meat emulsion samples constituting aloe gel all portrayed higher G′ val-
ues than G″ values with a minimal frequency dependency. Samples with
an increasing amount of AR demonstrated increasing G’ values, with
AR100 being the highest, followed by AR50 and CY25+AR25. CY50
and CY100 both showed a lower G’ than the control, indicating a less
elastic structure. A similar trend was found for the G” value, where all
samples except CY50 and CY100 possessed a higher G” value than the
control, with AR100 displaying the highest G”, followed by AR50 and
CY25+AR25. This suggests that sample AR100 is the most rigid and
firm amongst the samples. A study that evaluated the effects of car-
boxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) on
emulsified sausages yielded similar results, that is, increasing the con-
centration of MCC in the meat batter increased both storage and loss
moduli but increasing the concentration of CMC resulted in the oppo-
site effect (Schuh et al., 2013).
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
The discrepancy between samples with added CY and AR could be
attributed to their nature, in which CY has much softer plant tissues
while AR is a starch-rich plant with an extended stronger internal struc-
ture (Wu et al., 2013). The hardness also correlates with the dynamic
rheological parameters of these samples. The low G’ and G” values of CY-
added meat emulsions indicated a loose structure, which corresponds to
the textural qualities. CY100 had the lowest hardness value compared
to the other samples in Table 5. The viscoelastic behaviour of the sam-
ples could also be associated with the WHC, and moisture content as
claimed by Kumar et al. (2017), who observed that the reduction in
G’ and G’’ values with the increase of aloe gel addition were due to
the increased WHC and moisture content. As shown in Tables 2 and 3,
samples CY50 and CY100 depicted the two strongest WHC and high-
est moisture content, respectively, which further support the factors ex-
plaining their lowest G’ and G” values. In comparison to the CY samples,
AR-substituted samples had the greater G’ and G" values, signifying the
establishment of the three-dimensional network with more solid-like
characteristics, which tends to be a benefit in the eating experience.
Nevertheless, these results contradicted the control’s, where the hard-
ness and gel strength of the control sample were the highest (Table 5)
but its G’ and G’’ were lower compared to the AR-substituted samples.
This could be due to the fibrous structure of the meat and the content
of the myosin in the control samples that influence the hardness and
gelling properties, respectively
8
Future Foods 7 (2023) 100221
Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs (SEM)
at 1000 × magnification of the meat emulsions
substituted with different percentages of Chi-
nese yam and arrowroot compared to the con-
trol with chicken breast. 100% CB (Control);
50% CB + 50% CY (CY50); 50% CB + 50%
AR (AR50); 50% CB + 25% CY + 25% AR
(CY25+AR25); 100% CY (CY100); and 100%
AR (AR100).
3.8. Microstructural properties
Fig. 3 demonstrates the microstructures of the chicken meat emul-
sions substituted with CY and AR. The control has a homogenous protein
matrix and cohesive structure with almost no pores. The spheres in the
matrix are fat globules which were small and evenly distributed across
the matrix (Felisberto et al., 2015). AR50 exhibited slightly less homo-
geneity than the control with a more porous microstructure, whereas
CY50 portrayed much lower homogeneity than AR50 with larger pores,
indicating lower emulsion stability. CY25+AR25 also had an irregular
and rough surface, with unevenly distributed large pores and fat glob-
ules compared to CY50 and AR50. CY100 had a less compact and dense
microstructure with many empty spaces, which indicates the presence
of water before cryofracturing which was most probably caused by the
high WHC and moisture level due to the high fibre content (Felisberto
et al., 2015; Nishimura et al., 2011; Talukder, 2015). However, AR100
with 100% plant material had fewer empty spaces compared to CY100
and demonstrated a higher degree of porosity and much smoother sur-
face than CY50 and AR50. These results are in accordance with the
rheological properties of the samples as displayed in Fig. 2, whereby
samples substituted with AR exhibited a more rigid and firm texture
whereas samples substituted with CY had the lowest G’ and G” val-
ues. The larger pores as observed in the samples with 100% substitution
(CY100 and AR100) were probably due to the reduced protein content
W. Ming-Min and M.R. Ismail-Fitry
that destabilizes the emulsion matrix (Álvarez et al., 2007; Jung et al.,
2022). Therefore, CY50 and AR50 had a more homogenous emulsion
matrix compared to CY100 and AR100 as CY50 and AR50 contained
50% chicken meat but AR50 had a more similar microstructure to the
control.
4. Conclusions
Emulsions containing arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) were more
stable (total fluid released, 0.00–1.99%) than the emulsions containing
Chinese yam (Dioscorea polystachya), however, the latter had a better
WHC (90.44–91.41%) and moisture contents (71.22–73.46%). Substi-
tuting all chicken meat with plant material reduced the protein (1.85–
2.67%) and increased the fibre (0.87–0.88%) contents but the low tex-
ture profile values (1.61–4.59 kg) and gel strength (2.06–4.12 N) are not
desirable for meat products. The best formulation contained 50% arrow-
root and provided a stable emulsion (total fluid released, 1.99%), similar
moisture (66.17%) content to the control, lower fat (2.66%) and high
protein (8.82%) and fibre (0.62%) contents. The appearance, colour pro-
files (L∗ , 70.22; a∗ , 3.47 b∗ , 17.41), and rheological and microstructural
properties were comparable to the chicken meat control, and it had an
acceptable texture profile (hardness, 7.38 kg), therefore 50% arrowroot
was the most appropriate substitute for chicken meat. These findings
provide valuable insights and the basis for further research on these
plant materials as a plant-based replacement for meat products.
Ethical statement - Studies in humans and animals
The authors declare that no live animal or human study objects were
involved in this study, and no ethical approval was needed.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS/1/2019/STG04/UPM/02/7) by the Ministry of Higher Education
of Malaysia and the Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti
Putra Malaysia for the support.
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