University of Maryland, ECE

ENEE 692 – Introduction to Photonics – Spring 2024

Instructor: Yanne K. Chembo

Homework Part IV (Lectures 13–16):

Optical fibers and resonators

I. Fabry-Perot cavity of an EE laser −20 ps2 /km, and Kerr nonlinearity γ = 1 W−1 /km at
Consider an edge-emitter (EE) semiconductor laser the telecom wavelength λ0 = 1550 nm. We consider a
fabricated with crystal with two exit faces cleaved along propagating pulse with envelope A(z, T ), normalized in
crystal planes. These two surfaces act as (imperfect) mir- such a way that the pulse power P (z, T ) = |A(z, T )|2 is in
rors of a Fabry-Perot resonator with reflectance R and units of watts. The pulse obeys the nonlinear Schodinger
transmittance T . The crystal (index nc = 3.5 and linear equation (NLSE)
loss αc = 1.2 cm−1 ) is placed in air (na = 1), and par-
tially reflects between the two parallel surfaces separated ∂A β2 ∂ 2 A
= −αA − i + iγ|A|2 A . (3)
by a surface d = 0.3 mm. ∂z 2 ∂T 2
(i) Assuming that the free-space wavelength of the gen- (i) We first neglect dispersion and nonlinearity. Show
erated light is 1.55 µm, estimate the longitudinal mode that the amplitude of A(z, T ) decays exponentially.
number q. (ii) Show that the power of P (z, T ) decays exponen-
(ii) Determine the loss coefficient αr , finesse F, spec- tially as well. Calculate at which distances 50, 90 and
tral linewidth δν, quality factor Q, free-spectral range νF 99% of the initial power is lost as the light propagates
and photon lifetime τp . along the fiber.
(iii) In how much time T1/2 does the resonator lose (iii) Find the value of α in units of km−1 .
half its stored energy? (iv) We now neglect losses and nonlinearity. Show that
(iv) We admit that the complex-valued envelope A(t)
the Fourier transform of Ã(z, ω) of A(z, T ) satisfies
of the field inside that resonance obeys an equation of
the kind equation
dà β2
= i ω 2 Ã. (4)
dA dz 2
= −κA . (1)
dt (v) Deduce that
Show that if this field has an initial amplitude A0 ≡ A(0), i 2
it decays exponentially with time. Ã(z, ω) = Ã(0, ω) e 2 β2 ω z
. (5)
(v) The power inside that resonance is P (t) = |A(t)|2 .
Find the differential equation obeyed by P (t) and deduce (vi) We consider that we have a Gaussian pulse
that it also decays exponentially with time. A(0, T ) = A0 exp(−T 2 /2T02 ), where T0 characterizes the
(vi) In order to counter-balance this decay and replen- temporal width of the pulse. Knowing that the Fourier
ish the mode,√the resonance is now pumped buy an ex- transform can be explicitly written as
ternal source Pin ξ(t), so that the amplitude now obeys Z +∞
1
A(z, T ) = Ã(z, ω)e−iωT dω . (6)
dA p p 2π −∞
= −κA + 2κη Pin ξ(t) . (2)
dt
show that
where η is a dimensionless real-valued number that
−T 2
 
weights the coupling efficiency, and ξ(t) is a white noise T0
A(z, T ) = A0 exp , (7)
with autocorrelation hξ(t)ξ(t0 )i = δ(t−t0 ) (i.e., its Fourier T1 (z) 2T12 (z)
transform Ẽ(ω) is such that |Ẽ(ω)|2 = 1). Find the con- p
tinuous Fourier transform Ã(ω) of A(t), and show that where T1 (z) = T02 − iβ2 z is a complex-valued function
the resonance |Ã(ω)|2 has a Lorentzian profile. of z. You can use the formula
(vii) Deduce the relationship between κ, the spectral Z +∞ r
2 π b2
linewidth δν, and the photon lifetime τp . e−ax −bx dx = e 4a . (8)
−∞ a
II. Pulse propagation in an optical fiber (vii) What is the physical meaning of |T1 (z)|? Describe
We consider a typical SMF28 optical fiber with lin- qualitatively what happens as the pulse propagates. Does
ear losses α = 0.2 dB/km, second-order dispersion β2 = it lose any energy? Why?
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(viii) The dispersion length is defined as LD =

T02 /|β2 |? What is the meaning of this length? What
is the broadening factor (i.e., how much has the pulse
broadened) when the pulse has propagated for a distance
z = LD ?
(ix) We now neglect loss and dispersion. Explain the
meaning of the nonlinear length LNL = 1/γP0 , where P0
of the peak power of a propagating pulse.
(x) With the fiber parameters indicated above, what
should be peak power of a soliton of temporal width T0 =
1 ps?

III. LP modes in a cylindrical waveguide

We consider a micropillar cylindrical waveguide, which
is a Fabry-Perot resonator along its axis z. It has a ra- FIG. 1: Illustration of the transverse modes supported by a
dius a = 3.2 µm, height h = 5 µm, and refraction index cylindrical waveguide (here a VCSEL, or vertical surface emit-
n1 = 3.3. It is surrounded by a medium of slightly lower ting laser). The active region in this laser is a flat cylinder
refraction index n2 = 3.29 [i.e., n(r) = n1 for r < a, and as shown in the figure, which can support several transverse
n(r) = n2 for r > a]. We aim at finding the eigenmodes modes. Here the VCSEL simultaneously emits three trans-
of this resonator. verse modes, namely the fundamental mode (LP01 ) and two
higher-order modes (LP11 and LP21 ). All the modes are lin-
(i) This micropillar is expected to operate with a sin-
early polarized along the x-axis. c J. Mulet.
gle longitudinal mode at the nominal wavelength λ0 =
850 nm (in vacuum). Characterize the type of electro-
magnetic radiation for this wavelength and estimate the K` are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind,
longitudinal mode number q. respectively. Verify that this solution fulfills Eq. (10),
(ii) We want to determine the transverse modes of this and that u is continuous at the boundary r = a.
resonator, which are known as LP (for linearly polar- (vi) The parameter V is already known [see (ii)], while
ized) modes. Two key dimensionless parameters to define the parameter W remains unknown (because β is also
these transverse modes are the fractional index change unknown at this stage). In order to find W , we impose
∆ = (n21 − n22 )/2np
2
1 , and the so-called “V -parameter” de- that du/dr should be continuous as well at the boundary
fined as V = k0 a n21 − n22 , where k0 is the wavenumber r = a. Show that this condition leads to following the
corresponding to the nominal laser wavelength. √ Show algebraic equation for W :
that ∆ ' (n1 − n2 )/n1  1 and V = k0 an1 2∆. Calcu- √
late the numerical value of both parameters. p J`+1 [ V 2 − W 2 ] K`+1 [W ]
2
V −W 2 √ =W . (12)
(iii) We assume that the emitted electromagnetic field 2
J` [ V − W ] 2 K` [W ]
propagating in the z-direction has a wavenumber k, and
is linearly polarized in a direction perpendicular to z. (vii) A typical eigenmode LP`m has a power spatial
Show that the phasor Es of the electric field obeys the distribution proportional to u2`m (r) cos2 `φ, which is such
Helmholtz equation that there are m − 1 zeros in the radial direction, while
there are 2` zeros in the azimuthal direction. The al-
∇2 Es + k 2 Es = 0 . (9)
gebraic equation (12) has to be solved to find the dis-
2
with k = k0 n(r) and ∇ being the Laplacian. crete set of values for W , which correspond to the LP
(iv) We seek for a solution of the kind Es (r, φ, z) = modes. For each azimuthal index `, Eq. (12) has mul-
u(r)e−j`φ e−jβz , where (r, φ) are the polar coordinates in tiple solutions [consecutively labeled as W`1 , W`2 , W`3 ,
the plane perpendicular to the z-axis, u(r) is a function etc], thereby yielding discrete eigenmodes W`m . From
to be determined, and ` is an integer. Show that u(r) there, each solution u`m (r) uses W ≡ W`m in Eq. (11)
obeys to yield the guided mode LP`m .
d2 u 1 du

`2
 - We first set ` = 0. Use a graphical method to find the
2 2 2
+ + n (r)k 0 − β − u = 0. (10) two roots W01 and W02 of Eq. (12) [Hint: plot the right-
dr2 r dr r2 hand side and the left-hand side of Eq. (12) as a function
(v) We admit that a suitable solution to Eq. (10) is of W from 0 to V , and then graphically determine the
( J [√V 2 −W 2 (r/a)] intersection points].
`
√
2 2
for r < a - Set ` = 1 and show that there are only two roots W11
u(r) = A × K`J[W ` [ V −W ] , (11)
(r/a)] and W12 .
K` [W ] for r > a
- Set ` = 2 and show that there is only one root W21 .
where A is an arbitrary constant
p (standing for the am- - Set ` = 3 and show that there is only one root W31 .
plitude of the mode), W = a β 2 − n22 k02 is a positive di- - Graphically verify that for ` = 4 and ` = 5 there are no
mensionless constant such that 0 < W < V , while J` and roots, and conjecture why our resonator does not allow
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transverses mode with ` ≥ 4. as the integer number O = ` + 2m − 1. The theory

(viii) The theory predicts the angular eigenfrequencies predicts that different transverse modes with same order
of the transverse modes are redshifted as should be quasi-degenerate in frequency. Is it the case
2 here?
c2

W`m
ω`m ' ω0 − . (13) (x) For the six LP`m mode solutions found in (v), write
2ω0 n21 a
a Matlab program that displays their 2D power spatial
where c is the velocity of light in vacuum, and ω0 is the distribution [see for example the three LP modes dis-
nominal angular frequency of the laser. Find the wave- played in Fig. 1; note that the spatial distribution of a
lengths λ`m (in vacuum) of the six eigenmodes supported LP mode power is ∝ u2`m (r) cos2 `φ]. Only plot the mode
by the laser (v). spatial profile for r < a, and use the color-coding scheme
(ix) The order of a transverse LP mode can be defined of your choice.