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Extensive Reading

Book · August 2014

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Tamar Mikeladze
Iakob Gogebashvili Telavi State University
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 Extensive
READING

Tamar Mikeladze

Tbilisi
2014
Editor: Prof. Dr. Natela Dogonadze
Reviewer: Dr. Eka Katsiashvili

Tamar Mikeladze
PhD, English language teaching methodology
Contents
ექსტენსიური კითხვა

Introduction

1. Theoretical background of extensive reading

Understanding reading in a foreign language
Reading approaches
Definition of extensive reading
Hypotheses and input models supporting extensive reading
The characteristics of extensive reading
The benefits of extensive reading
Reading material for extensive reading programs
Extensive reading through the Internet
Reading in Georgian and Russian foreign language teaching
methodology

2. Proposed model of extensive reading program for Georgian

universities
The characteristics of the program
A teaching model of an extensive reading program
The role of motivation
Reading requirements, activities and testing in an extensive reading
program
Selecting reading material
Obstacles in teaching extensive reading
Conclusion

References
 ექსტენსიური კითხვა
მოცემული მონოგრაფია წარმოადგენს დეტალურ კვლევას
კითხვის და კონკრეტულად, ექსტენსიური კითხვის შესახებ.
ექსტენსიური კითხვის დანერგვა დადებითად მოქმედებს
უცხოური ენის ათვისებაზე შემსწავლელთა შორის. ნაშრომში
წარმოდგენილია დასავლეთის გამოყენებითი ლიგვისტიკის
წამყვანი ექსპერტების (ს. ქრეშენი, ვ. გრაბე, რ.დეი, ჯ. ბამფორდი, ქ.
ნათალი, ფ. სმითი და სხვა).
პირველ თავში წარმოდგენილია ექსტენსიური კითხვის
განმარტება და მისი მახასიათებლები, ექსტენსიური კითხვის
დადებითი მხარეები და უცხოური ენის სწავლების მეთოდიკაში
ექსტენსიური კითხვის გარშემო არსებული ლიტერატურა ქართულ
ენაზე, ამასთანავე, ბოლო წლებში კითხვის განმავითარებელ
პროგრამებთან დაკავშირებულ კვლევებს. ქრეშენი (1982)
განასხვავებს ენის დაუფლებას (acquisition) და შესწავლას (learning),
ამ ორ, ბუნებით განსხვავებულ პროცესებს. ენის დაუფლება არის
ქვეცნობიერი პროცესი, იმ პროცესის მსგავსი, რომელიც
მიმდინარეობს ბავშვში მშობლიური ენის ათვისებისას. ათვისება
მოითხოვს აზრობრივ, ანუ ბუნებრივ კომუნიკაციას შესასწავლ
ენაზე, რომლის დროსაც მოსაუბრე ფოკუსირებას ახდენს არა
სათქმელის ფორმაზე, არამედ თვით კომუნიკაციაზე. ქრეშენის
მიხედვით უცხო ენის სწავლების პროგრამას ექნება ორი
შემადგენელი კომპონენტი – ათვისება/დაუფლება და შესწავლა.
ათვისების ერთ-ერთი შემადგენელი ნაწილია ექსტენსიური (დიდი
რაოდენობით) კითხვა. ქრეშენი ასკვნის, რომ ენის ათვისება უფრო
მთავარია, ვიდრე ენის სწავლება მეორე ენის შესწავლისას, ხოლო
ენის ათვისებას განაპირობებს ინფორმაციული ნაკადი (intake),
რომლის მიწოდება უნდა იყოს ბუნებრივი პროცესი. ექსეტენსიური
კითხვა მისი აზრით არის ინფორმაციული ნაკადის მიწოდების
ბუნებრივის ხერხი. მეორე ჰიპოთეზა, რომელიც ასევე მხარს უჭერს
ექსტენსიურ კითხვას, არის ქრეშენის (1993) სიამოვნების მიღების
ჰიპოთეზა (Pleasure hypothesis). ქრეშენის თანახმად, როდესაც
ბავშვები კითხულობენ სიამოვნებისათვის, ენის ათვისება
შეგნებული ძალისხმევის გარეშე ხორციელდება. ის კითხვის
პროგრამები, სადაც სიამოვნების ფაქტორი მაღალია, ისინი
გაცილებით ეფექტურ საშუალებას წარმოადგენენ ენის
სწავლებისას, ვიდრე სხვა დანარჩენი პროგრამები პროგრამები.
უცხოური ენის სწავლებაში განასხვავებენ ორი სახის
კითხვის სწავლების მიდგომას: ინტენსიურს და ექსტენსიურს.
ინტენსიური კითხვა გულისხმობს მცირე ზომის ტექსტის კითხვას
და შინაარსის დეტალურ წვდომას მასწავლებლის მითითებებით.
ექსტენსიური კითხვა მოიცავს ვრცელი ტექსტების კითხვას. ამ
ტიპის კითხვის მიზანია სიამოვნების და ინფორმაციის მიღება და
ზოგადი შინაარსის გაგება, რაც გულისხმობს შინაარსის 100% -ზე
ნაკლებ შინაარსის გაგებას. წასაკითხი მასალის სირთულე უნდა
შეესაბამებოდეს შემდეგ მოდელს: i – 1, სადაც i შემსწავლელში
უცხოური ენის დონის გამომხატველი ცვლადია, ხოლო „-1“
ნიშნავს რომ უცხო ლექსიკური ერთეულები და ენობრივი
სტრუქტურა თითქმის არ არის მოცემული წასაკითხ მასალაში.
კითხვის სიჩქარე მნიშვნელოვნად სწრაფია ექსტენსიურ კითხვაში,
თუმცა იგი გაცილებით სასიამოვნო და კომფორტული უნდა იყოს
მკითხველისათვის. როგორც უკვე აღვნიშნეთ, ექსტენსიური
კითხვა გულისხმობს დიდი მოცულობის წასაკითხი მასალის
კითხვას, მაგალითად, წიგნი. წასაკითხი მასალა
ინდივიდუალურია თითოეული სტუდენტისათვის. სტუდენტები
თავად ირჩევენ უცხოური ენის ფლობის დონის შესაბამის
წასაკითხ მასალას და კითხვას მოიაზრებენ, როგორც ერთგვარ
ჯილდოს. კითხვა წარმოადგენს ძირითად დავალებას ექსტენსიურ
კითხვაში. მასწავლებელი ხელს უწყობს ენის შემსწავლელებს
საკითხავი მასალის შერჩევაში და თავად აჩვენებს კითხვის
მაგალითს მათ.
ექსტენსიურ კითხვა დადებით გავლენას ახდენს ენის
შემსწავლელებზე, ვინაიდან იგი ავითარებს როგორც აქტიურ,
ასევე პასიურ ლექსიკას, წერის უნარ-ჩვევას, მართლწერას, კითხვის
მიმართ დადებით დამოკიდებულებას (Day & Bamford, 2004).
ნათალი (2000:128) საკმაოდ შთამბეჭდავად აღწერს ექსტენსიური
კითხვის როლს: „უცხოური ენის გასაუმჯობესებლად პირველი
საუკეთესო საშუალებაა წახვიდე და იცხოვრო ამ ენაზე
მოლაპარაკეთა შორის, ხოლო მეორე საშუალებას წარმოადგენს
ექსტენსიურად კითხვა ამ ენაზე.“
 ექსტენსიური კითხვა არის ეფექტური და სასიამოვნო
საშუალება ინგლისურ ენაზე კითხვის სწავლებისათვის, როგორც
დანარჩენი უცხო ენის შესასწავლი პროგრამების ალტერნატიული
გზა, სადაც სტუდენტებს არ აქვთ თავისუფლება შეარჩიონ
მათთვის საინტერესო საკითხავი მასალა. ექსტენსიური კითხვა
ავითარებს სტუდენტების მოტივაციას იკითხონ უფრო მეტი და
მიიღონ სიამოვნება მათ მიერ შესრულებული საშინაო
დავალებიდან, ვინაიდან ის ავითარებს თავდაჯერებულობას
სტუდენტებში კითხვის უნარ-ჩვევების განვითარების პროცესში,
და რაც მთავარია, ხელს უწყობს უცხოური ენის ათვისებას.
ექსტენსიური კითხვა აფართოებს მასწავლებლის ცოდნას
კითვხის ახალი მიდგომის მიმართ. იგი შესაძლებლობებს აძლევს
პედაგოგს გადაუხვიოს კითხვის სწავლების ტრადიციული გზებს.
ნაშრომში ასევე განხილულია ექსტენსიური კითხვის
სწავლება ინტერნეტის საშუალებით, რაც საკმაოდ ეფექტური
საშუალებაა თანამედროვე ტექნოლოგიების სწრაფი განვითარების
ხანაში. უცხოური ენის მასწავლებლებისათვის ექსტენსიური
კითხვის პროგრამა წარმოადგენს იმპულსს, რათა თავად იკითხონ
მეტი უცხოურ ენაზე, რაც მეტად მნიშვნელოვანია მათში უცხო
ენის უნარ-ჩვევების განმტკიცებისათვის.
მეორე თავში წარმოდგენილია ექსტენსიური კითხვის
სწავლების მეთოდიკა. ექსტენსიური კითხვის სწავლების
მეთოდიკა შედგება შემდეგი პრინციპებისგან: სწავლების
პრინციპები, თანამიმდევრობის, მისაწვდომობის და პრაგმატიზმის
პრინციპები. მოცემული მეთოდიკა მოიცავს ექსტენსიური კითხვის
პრაქტიკულ პრინციპებს:
 ადვილად საკითხავი მასალა;
 შემსწავლელების მხრიდან საკითხავი მასალის არჩევის
სრული დამოუკიდებლობა;
 შემსწავლელების მხრიდან მასალის დიდი ოდენობით
კითხვა;
 წაკითხულის გაგება როგორც მკითხველის გამოცდილება;
 კითხვის, როგორც ჯილდოდ მოაზრების პრინციპი;
 ინდივიდუალურად და ჩუმად კითხვის პრინციპი;
 მასწავლებელი, როგორც მიმართულების მიმცემი;
  მასწავლებლის მხრიდან ენის შემსწავლელებისათვის
კითხვის მაგალითის მიცემის პრინციპი.
ექსტენსიური კითხვისას კიდევ ერთი მნიშვნელოვანი
პირობაა - ლექსიკონის ნაკლებად გამოყენება. მკითხველისათვის
საკითხავი მასალის ლექსიკა ნაცნობია, ვინაიდან მკითხველის
უცხოური ენის დონეს შეესაბამება. ამას გარდა, ექსტენსიური
კითხვისას შემსწავლელს უვითარდება ახალი ლექსიკური
ერთეულის მნიშვნელობის გამოცნობის უნარი.
მეორე თავში აგრეთვე განხილულია ექსტენსიური
კითხვის სწავლების სასწავლო მოდელი (ავტონომიური სწავლების
მოდელი), და მოტივაცია, სადაც ყურადღება გამახვილებულია
როგორც მასწავლებლის, ასევე ენის შემსწავლელის მოტივაციაზე.
ცალკეულ ქვეთავებში განხილულია სწავლების პრაქტიკული
მხარეები: პროგრამის ფარგლებში წასაკითხი გვერდების
რაოდენობა, სავარჯიშოების ტიპები, შერჩევითი დავალებები,
რომლებიც შეიძლება გამოყენებულ იქნეს საუბრის ან დისკუსიის
დასაწყებად, წასაკითხი მასალის შერჩევა და ტესტირება.
პრაქტიკულ რეკომენდაციებში წარმოდგენილია ჩვენს მიერ
შემუშავებული კითხვის შემდგომი დავალებების კითხვარი ( PRW
- Post Reading Worksheet), რომელიც შევსებულ უნდა იქნეს ყოველი
წიგნის წაკითხვის შემდეგ. კითხვარი შედგება შემდეგი
საკითხებისაგან: ავტორი, წიგნის სათაური, გვერდების
რაოდენობა, წიგნის წასაკითხად დახარჯული დრო, მოკლე
ინფორმაცია პერსონაჟების შესახებ, ახალი ლექსიკური
ერთეულები და ფრაზები, რა ვისწავლე/გავიგე მოცემული
წიგნიდან, მოკლე შეჯამება, რამდენად რთული იყო წიგნი
წასაკითხად და წიგნის შეფასება. ექსტენსიური კითხვის
სწავლებისას მნიშვნელოვანი როლი უკავია კითხვის პროგრამის
დასაწყისში წიგნის შერჩევის ორიენტაციას/ ხელმძღვანელობას.
მასწავლებელი აწვდის რეკომენდაციებს, თუ როგორ შეარჩიონ
სტუდენტებმა მათი ენის დონის შესაფერისი წიგნები, რაც მეტად
მნიშვნელოვანია ექსტენსიური კითხვისათვის.
 INTRODUCTION

In the process of teaching foreign languages reading is both

a teaching means and a teaching goal. Reading in a foreign
language as a source of information is one of the main goals of
teaching a foreign language in general. Reading skill had been
emphasized in teaching foreign languages through Grammar-
Translation method for centuries. Learning a foreign language by
reading the target language literature was viewed as the only way to
learn the about the target language culture. In the 21st century
reading in a foreign language, especially in English is the most
demanding skill as it has become global community language. Also
English is the most available nowadays through the ample internet
resources and libraries. Therefore the goals of reading development
programs should be developing reading skill, promoting reading as a
lifelong activity, providing with an enjoyable reading experience.
These reading development programs undergo changes to serve the
goals better.
In the epoch when English has become global community
language, in the developing countries such as Georgia, where
Grammar-Translation method was mainly practised over a decade
ago, one of the most important issues remains teaching English
efficiently. The monograph gives the description of the reading
development programs; shapes their teaching methodologies;
reveals their problems and strong points; confronts these programs
to an extensive reading program; gives the basis for the
implementation of an extensive reading program at Georgian
universities; presents extensive reading teaching methodology
adopted on the basis of the results of the reading development
program surveys. Extensive reading will contribute to better results in
developing general language competence among Georgian students
more than other reading development programs; it will encourage
positive attitude toward reading and formation of reading as lifelong
habit among Georgian learners.
For decades Georgian methodology of teaching foreign
languages was influenced by the theoretical framework of Russian
methodologists. Later, from the 1990s Georgian methodologists
introduced the experience and gains of the western researchers.
Nowadays in the foreign language teaching methodology by
Georgian authors the definition of extensive reading is adopted in
general. Nevertheless, there is a gap; they do not deal with where,
how and why to use extensive reading. This area has not been
studied yet and there is even no clear picture how to introduce
extensive reading as a program at Georgian universities
The first chapter presents different views on reading,
characteristics of a reader, and defines extensive reading with its
characteristics. The separate sections are devoted to the benefits of
extensive reading and the review of Georgian and Russian
methodology.
The second chapter describes Extensive reading
methodology. This methodology is adopted from other authors who
work in the field of extensive reading. The methodology consists of
several sections on teaching extensive reading: teaching principles,
basic principles, teaching model, and motivational framework.
Separate sections discuss in more practical terms reading
requirements, activities in an extensive reading program and
selection of reading materials.
 1
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF EXTENSIVE
READING

Understanding Reading in a foreign language

Reading is always a meaningful activity. Readers always
read something for a purpose. This process always involves feelings
as well as knowledge and experience. It can never be separated
from the intentions and interests of readers or from the
consequences that it has on them (Smith, 1994b). Reading is
transfer of meaning from mind to mind. The reader gets the meaning
by reading. In this process the reader, the writer and the text are
involved. Wood (1996, p. 36) recognizes that ―no meaning is created
without the active participation of the reader.‖ She stresses that
meaning is achieved through an interaction between the reader and
those words. According to Smith (1994b, p. 20) ―Reading … might be
defined as thought that is stimulated and directed by written
language.‖ There are two main reasons why people read: for
pleasure and for information. Reading is an important skill to be
taught from the early ages. Vonte & Balichi (2005, p. 71) list several
reasons why children should be introduced to books: ― to inculcate
and consolidate attachment to books; to implement and bring up
reading habit; to develop and enrich speech, thinking, imagination
and creativity; to develop and enrich emotions (the ability to
recognize one‘s own emotions as well as others‘); to develop a skill
of using print environment; to develop and encourage one‘s self-
expression, freedom of choice, and independence; to allow formation
of relations and encourage its development; to develop literacy; to
prepare a child for school life and future life in general‖.
Through reading one learns and gets pleasure. The reader
gets the knowledge about the world. As a learner progresses in
reading, her enjoyment can increase. Reading requires considerable
knowledge and skill. One must recognize letters and words of the
language, have adequate vocabulary and grammatical/ discourse
knowledge.
Reading is usually recognized as a necessary part of foreign
language learning (Nuttall, 2000). Second language reading differs
from first language reading in that the former involves two
languages. Continual interaction between languages and continual
change to language demands imply the dual-language involvement.
For this reason, L2 reading is crosslinguistic and, thus, inherently
more complex than L1 reading (Koda, 2007, p. 1).
As we mentioned before, L2 reading combines L1 and L2
reading resources into a dual-language system. The dual-language
involvement implies continual interactions between two languages as
well as incessant adjustment in accommodating the demands each
language imposes. For this reason, Koda (2005, p. 1) relates L2
reading to crosslinguistic and argues that it is more complex than L1
reading.
L2 reading is an ability that combines L2 reading and L1
reading resources into a dual-language processing system (Grabe,
2009, p, 129). Cook (1997, as cited in Grabe 2009, p. 129) describes
this interaction of L1 and L2 systems as multi-competence.
Commenting on the differences between L1 and L2 reading,
Grabe and Stoller (2002, p. 63) outlined 14 broad differences, which
they placed into three categories:(a) linguistic and processing
differences, (b) individual and experiential differences, and (c) social,
cultural, and institutional differences. In his latest publication Grabe
(2009, p. 130) distinguishes three major sets of differences between
L1 and L2 reading:
1) Linguistic and processing differences
2) Developmental and educational differences
3) Sociocultural and institutional differences
L2 readers differ from L1 readers in terms of linguistic
resources that support comprehension such as lexical, grammatical,
and discourse knowledge. L1 readers start to learn to read much
earlier than L2 readers do. Consequently the abilities of L2 readers,
when they are just beginning to read, do not match their L1 beginner
counterparts. L2 readers are constrained in time, because they do
not have several years to build their language knowledge like L1
readers do. L2 readers develop their reading comprehension skills
and linguistic knowledge at the same time (Grabe, 2009). While
reading in the L2, L2 readers are involved in different metalinguistic
processing. These processes may include: a) metalignuistic
analyses processes (knowledge about language systems and
structures), b) metalinguistic control process (ability to use
metalinguistic knowledge to carry out tasks), c) metalinguistic
awareness (explicitly recognizing the need and directing attention to
act on that need) (Bialystok, 2001, p. 131).
Two of the main sets of differences between L1 agnd L2
reading refer to practice in reading and visual information in the
orthography of the L2. For these reasons, L2 readers will be slower
in word recognition and less accurate in word-recognition processing
(Bialystok, 2001). L2 reader will be slower for these following
reasons: a) less practice in the L2 reading b) a new L2 orthography
c) differing patterns of morphology in the L2 orthography. L2 learners
will probably need to be re-oriented to, not only the significant letter
features of the new scriptal system, but that more strategic control
processes, such as the size of the unit and the salient letter will also
need to be changed (Randall, 2007, p. 85).
The next set of differences is developmental/ cognitive and
educational distinctions between L1 and L2 reading. First, L1 readers
transfer all types of reading strategies and experiences to their L2
reading efforts. These academic skills usually develop through L2
reading practice. Second, there is a big difference in amount of
exposure to print that L1 readers have in comparison to L2 readers,
who usually have very limited exposure to L2 print; it mostly comes
from the classroom contexts. Third, the motivation to read in L1 and
L2 readers is diverse. Motivation in reading is strongly connected to
goals and purposes. Reading L1 and L2 varies in terms of goals and
purposes. L1 readers are willing to read to develop some skills or
their expertise, entertain and/or to get information. L2 readers usually
have to read to carry out language-learning assignments rather than
to build new academic skills. Fourth, the reading material of L1 and
L2 readers often varies. L2 readers often encounter different kinds of
texts in L2 settings than in their L1 settings, particularly in EFL
contexts. Fifth, L2 reading involves a range of supporting resources
that are unique to the L2 learning situation. These resources, which
are uncommon for L1 settings, include cognates, bilingual
dictionaries, word glosses, text translations and learner-based
textbooks; they facilitate L2 reading development and therefore it is
faster than L1 reading development. Sixth, L2 readers with academic
orientation are at higher level of metalinguistic awareness than
monolingual L1 readers (Koda, 2007). For example, L2 readers can
translate meaning form L2 to L1, L2 readers call for the synonyms,
etc. Bailystok (2001) suggests that L2 readers would have a greater
awareness of how a text, and the language in the text, is organized.
 Another set of differences is societal and cultural contexts in
which a learner is socialized. It also influences L1- L2 differences. L1
readers, while learning to read, have certain expectations about
reading on the basis of their sociocultural backgrounds. For L2
readers the role of a text can be very different form their L1 literacy
experiences. Cultural influence of texts is emphasized by educational
and informational purposes. More specific to advanced educational
settings, L2 learners may be asked to do more reading in the L2 than
they had ever done in the L1 context. The difference between L1 and
L2 reading is also based on texts‘ different organization in diverse
cultures.
There are three major theories suggesting transfer of L1
effects on L2 reading development. These theories are: the
Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis, the language threshold
hypothesis and the concept of L2 reading as the product of a dual-
language system (Grabe, 2009, p. 140).
The Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis argues that
reading is a shared (if not identical) ability, no matter what first and
second languages are involved. When L1 reading abilities reach a
certain level of proficiency, involving some degree of automaticity
and fluency, those underlying skills will transfer to L2 reading.
According to this hypothesis, L2 students can have weak L2
language proficiency, but use all of their L1 academic reading skills
to carry out L2 academic reading tasks successfully. Cummins
(2000, p. 173) posits that ―academic proficiency transfers across
language such that students who have developed literacy in their first
language will tend to make stronger progress in acquiring literacy in
their second language‖ (Genessee et al, 2006, as cited in Grabe,
2009, p. 141).
In the language threshold hypothesis, second language is
more important than first language reading abilities. There exists a
linguistic threshold, which must be crossed before first language
reading ability can be transferred to second-language reading
contexts (Alderson, 2000, p. 39). Although the transfer of reading
attitude is generally supported, there are different degrees of
transferability among different attitude variables: what learners value
is more likely to transfer from L1 to L2 than what they feel, for
example, comfort, anxiety, self-perception (Yamashita, 2004).
The dual-language processing system that emerges will be
dynamic changing, and shifting in response to the reader, task, topic,
goal, training, context, etc.
 In order to provide L2 readers with large amount of exposure
to print and help them to improve different metalinguistic processing
a reading development program is utilized. One of the implications
for instruction L2 reading according to Grabe (2004, p. 46, 48) is
implementing some form of extensive reading in reading curricula in
order to increase exposure to L2 print.
Reading is an active process. It is an active skill which
requires from the reader to go through various processes to get at
meaning, interpret and extract information. According to Davies
(1995, p.1) reading is private activity involving cognitive and
metacognitive processes in a reader to follow and respond to a
message from a writer who is distent in time and space.
Reading is the powerful means of foreign language
acquisition. According to Smith (1994a, p. 178) ―we learn to read by
reading‖. Krashen (1993, p. 23) goes further and states that ―reading
is the only way, the only way we become good readers.‖ Then why

do many people fail to develop this skill? A variety of cognitive

processes are involved the reading process, which are different for
fast, skilled reader and slow for novice readers such as children and
people reading in a language they are not fully literate in.
Nuttall (2000, p. 127) finds the answer in the following explanation.
She explains that most of the students who cannot develop reading
skill are trapped in vicious cycle (Fig.1.1.). The vicious cycle of the
weak reader consists of the following stages: Any of these factors
produce the same result. Slow readers rarely develop much interest
in what they read, consequently they do not enjoy what they read
and they remain slow readers. Nuttall also presents the opposite
concept of vicious circle. It is virtuous circle of the good reader (Fig.
1.2.). This circle consists of the following steps. Reading speed,
enjoyment, and comprehension are closely connected. Each of these
steps can be a key to deviate from vicious circle to virtuous one.
Enjoyment is the major factor followed by quantity. Thus, students,
who read a lot, progress at increasing speed.
According to Nuttall (2000, p. 48) one of the principle
characteristics of a good reader is flexibility. He varies his speed and
his whole manner of reading, according to the text and his purpose in
reading it:
1) Text/ purpose → speed
Nuttall (2000, p. 54) sets a question: do people read quickly
because they understand easily or do they understand easily
because of the speed at which they read? The relationship of cause
and effect in this question is vague:
2) Speed ↔ understanding (cause and effect relationship is
not clear)
In the same way, there is a strong correlation between
speed and interest or enjoyment. Nuttall (2000, p. 131) explains this
with the motivation that ―spurs us to get to the end of the story as
quickly as we can.‖
3) Interest/enjoyment → speed
Nuttall (2000) defines a good reader as one who always
interprets a text as the writer intended- except when he chooses not
to do so. Wallace (1992) describes efficient reading in the real world
as flexible and appropriate response to the material in hand guided
by the reader‘s purpose, which means that readers have options,
including the option to give up. Berhardt (1991, p. 37) states ―what
makes one ‗good‘ or ‗poor‘ reader or give a ‗good‘ or ‗ poor‘
performance is bound to the context or the text and situation…‖
According to Alderson (2000, p. 41) poor readers do not
possess knowledge of strategies and are often not aware of how or
when to apply the knowledge they do have. They often can not infer
meaning from surface level information, have poorly developed
knowledge about how the reading system works, and find it difficult
to evaluate text for clarity, consistency and plausibility. Instead they
often believe that the purpose of reading is errorless word
pronunciation, and that reading includes nothing more than verbatim
recall.
 Cooper (1984) contrasted what he calls ―practised‖ readers
with ―unpractised‖ readers. Unpracticed readers were disadvantaged
by a poor knowledge of vocabulary and a weak understanding of
semantic relationships between words, as well as the meaning of
common sentences connectors.
Pang (2008, p. 2) labels as ‗good‘ and ‗bad‘ the reading
behaviors which depend on various factors like time of reading, the
complexity and the topic of a text. Consequently, the same reader
demonstrates good or bad characteristics at different times and to
varying degrees on different dimensions. In another words ―good‖
and ―bad‖ reading characteristics can be regarded as desirable and
undesirable reading behavior.
Pang (2008) limits readers‘ abilities in terms of three
dimensions: linguistic, cognitive, and metacognitive. Linguistic
knowledge in a second/foreign language reading includes the
following components: word recognition, phonological aspects,
lexical knowledge and morphosyntactic knowledge (Bernhardt, 2008;
Pang, 2008). In a good reader word recognition is rapid, accurate
and automatic; automatic syntactic parsing and semantic proposition
is formed; reasonable size of vocabulary ranging from 10,000 to
100,000 is obtained; there is awareness of text type and discourse
organization.
Cognitive ability is concerned with readers‘ use of prior
knowledge and various strategies in their efforts to construct
meaning in the comprehension process: a) good store of cognitive
strategies, b) ready access to variety of purposeful strategies, c)
higher and proficient use of strategies, d) effective use of prior
knowledge, e) supportive use of mother tongue in L2.
Metacognitive strategic competence reflects readers‘
monitoring and control of reading strategies: good knowledge of
cognition, competence in monitoring comprehension process,
competence in evaluating and regulating strategy use to achieve
maximum comprehension.
Pang (2008) distinguishes 4 characteristics that differentiate
good from poor readers. They are (a) integration; (b) recognition of
aspects of text structure; (c) use of general knowledge, personal
experiences, and associations; and (d) response in extensive versus
reflexive modes.
In a reflexive mode readers‘ attention is shifted from the text
information towards themselves in an affective and personal way.
Extensive mode is the opposite of reflexive mode. In extensive mode
the readers‘ attention is fixed on the author‘s ideas in the text instead
of relating the text to themselves personally and affectively. Good L2
readers respond to the text in an extensive mode. They integrate
information in the text and monitor their understanding consistently
and effectively.
Beebe (1988, p. 32) concludes ―Implicit in all this work is the
assumption that if we learn the characteristics of the good language
learner, perhaps through external manipulation (e.g. modification of
materials and method), we can somehow convert poor language
learners into good ones. The implication therefore is that external
manipulation orientation can somehow change these personality
variables in order to produce a better language learner.‖
Mechanical and Psychological Differences - According to
Wainwright (2007, p. 25) research into reading in the United States
has identified several significant characteristics of 'the mature
reader'. Wainwright‘s works deal with the slow and fast readers
although the characteristics identified and described by him matches
those of good and poor readers. The same characteristics of a slow
reader can be found among bad readers and the features of fast
readers are those of the good readers. Mechanical differences found
among readers are the following: a) regressing, which is the biggest
problem of an inefficient or slow reader has is that he or she
regresses, that is, goes back to read things again. It is believed that
regressions are necessary because one does not understand the
first time what one is being told. The evidence is, however, that this
is normally not the case. There are several reasons of going back.
First, regression is a way of checking the information if it is
necessary. Second, regression is a sign of lack of confidence. Third,
regression is out of habit. Yet the evidence is that, if readers are put
in a position in which they cannot regress, the loss of comprehension
is on average no more than 3% to 7%; b) vocalising and inner
speech- Many readers vocalise or subvocalise as they read.
Vocalising is simply a technical term for reading aloud. Some are
unable to read silently. More subvocalise, that is, they read aloud
silently. It is often called inner speech and is most noticeable if one is
reading something written by someone one knows well or by a well-
known personality; c) fixation time - speed of perception or fixation
time is a difference between slow and fast readers; d) eye span - is
an ability of an eye to take in information in terms of groups of words
rather than single words. The good and faster reader has wider eye
span and do not fix on separate words; e) rhythm - the slow reader, if
much regression is taking place, lacks rhythm in reading. The faster
reader has rhythmic, confident eye movements; f) flexible speeds -
the slow reader has no choice but to read slowly all the time, no
matter what he or she is reading. The faster reader has a choice and
can be flexible, reading easy materials quickly and demanding
material relatively slowly, after skimming first.
Psychological differences described by Wainwright (2007, p.
26) are the following: a) tension - many slow readers experience
tension when reading under pressure because of time limit; b)
anticipating - slow readers often have difficulty in anticipating the
nature of subsequent material and they forget what they have read at
the top of a page before they get to the bottom. It happens due to the
fact that they are going so slowly that the impression made by earlier
information fades before it can be related to what follows. Faster
readers use anticipatory scanning techniques to predict the nature of
material they have not yet read; c) concentration - slow readers often
lack concentration except for short periods. Efficient readers exclude
distractions, they tend to read at times of day when they know from
experience they can concentrate better and reading in environments
conducive to good concentration, thus they concentrate well; d)
retention - inefficient readers are frequently unable to retain
information for very long after reading. Retention of information is
better over longer periods in faster readers; e) purpose - slow
readers are not sure about their purposes in reading which means
they have no clear goals to aim for when they read. Faster readers
have a clear knowledge of their purpose and expectations before
they begin to read something.

Reading approaches
In foreign language teaching two approaches of reading is
recognized: intensive reading and extensive reading. Intensive
reading approach deals with short texts under a teacher‘s guidance
for detailed understanding. The Intensive reading technique is
reading for a high degree of comprehension and retention over a
long period of time. Sometimes this approach is also called as sub-
skills approach, which divides reading skill into several sub-skills.
Munby (1978) suggests nineteen detailed skills to develop reading
skills, such as recognizing the script language, deducing the
meaning, use of unfamiliar lexical items, etc. However, dividing
language skill into too many details, unlike reading in the moterh
tongue, will destroy the nature of language. Extensive reading deals
with relatively long texts. Pleasure, information and general
understanding are a purpose of extensive reading. Having a
balanced approach between these two is the most essential element
in any foreign language reading program. What are differences
between intensive and extensive reading? According to Schörhbuker
(2008, p. 2) list, there are several differences between these two
reading approaches. Waring (2006) proposes the difference between
intensive and extensive reading approaches in a visual way based
on Welch‘s model (1998) (Table 1.1.).
First of all, let me explore the peculiarities of intensive
reading and then examine those of extensive reading.

Table 1.1.Intensive and Extensive reading approaches

Intensive reading requires from a reader 100% of

understanding of the material. The level of the reading material
should be at i + 1; the texts used in intensive reading are at a
relatively high level of difficulty. It forces the reader to apply the
strategy of translating the target text. The reading speed is usually
slow; the reader may pause to look up words in a dictionary, which
slows the reading rate. The reader may even translate a word/
sentence into the L1 by writing down translation or by speaking
aloud. The length of texts are small, approximately half a page. In
intensive reading teachers offer students texts of different genres.
The reader has no choice of reading material which has been the
custom in teacher-centered pedagogical culture. An advantage of a
teacher-selected text is that it can be read together by everyone in
the class and common points of difficulty are addressed
economically. These texts are for class work and they are the same
for each student. These texts are always followed by exercises on
comprehension and language development. The teacher‘s role is
active. The teacher acts as a facilitator, who leads classroom
activities and reads. In intensive reading both, silent and aloud
reading are practised. The text is examined intensively for linguistic
purposes such as word recognition, grammatical/syntactical content,
lexical content, etc. Reading materials are modeled on test formats
and the purpose of reading is to answer the test questions.
Vocabulary building is often regarded as the most important element
within an intensive approach. Classroom activities are discussions,
reading and different kinds of exercises. All these characteristics of
intensive reading makes readers‘ experience frustrating, unpleasant
and unproductive. As a result, students dislike reading.
Certain reading skills are associated with intensive reading
such as scanning a text for specific information. Scanning also
involves other sub-skills – the ability to deal with
anaphoric/cataphoric (Cataphoric refers to a word which will be used
later in a text and you need to look forward to understand.
Anaphoric means a word, that refers back to another word or phrase
which was used earlier in the text or conversation, Richards et al.,
2002).
Extensive reading is for general understanding which means
comprehension of the reading material less than 100%.
Comprehensible input should happen at the i – 1 model. Extensive
reading employs strategies that a highly literate reader uses in L1.
The reading speed in extensive reading is relatively fast, but it should
be comfortable for a reader. Reading speeds for extensive reading
are below 100 to 150 words per minute, which is slower than a
speed that a literate native may read at, however, it is faster than the
pace of translation-like intensive reading. Extensive reading implies
reading of a large amount of reading, for example, about 100 000
and even more words. This can greatly change the cognitive process
of reading. The reading material presents usually fiction. The reading
material is individual for each student. The main assignment which is
given to students is reading. The teacher supports the students and
gives a role model for reading. In extensive reading students mainly
apply silent reading. The main classroom activity is reading.
Extensive reading tends to take place outside class. Effective
extensive reading develops the following subskills: predicting,
skimming, chunking, etc. When one reads fluently, the written text is
perceived as ‗chuncks‘ rather than isolated words. The eyes ‗bounce‘
from phrase to phrase, for that reason a students must have
absorbed particular rules of syntax/word order.
Susser&Robb (1990) describe intensive reading approach in
Japan. For example, English instruction at the university level is
usually the ―intensive reading procedure‖, which implies close study
of short passages, including syntactic, semantic, and lexical
analyses and translation into the L1 to study meaning. Nuttall (2000,
p. 38) also states that a text at a language development lesson is a
means to present vocabulary and structure, which is usually a focus
of this kind of lesson. The meaning of the text is not focus of the
language development lesson. Nevertheless, in a reading lesson the
meaning of a text is important; students use the language to respond
to the messages in a text, and learning happens incidentally.
Alderson and Urguhart (1984) have argued that is not a reading but
a language lesson: Such pedagogic practice of focusing on the
language of a text- may be justified as a language lesson, but it may
very well be counterproductive as a reading lesson.
By comparing these two approaches we do not say that one
of them is ideal or better, but they are complements to each other. In
intensive reading, it is important to remember that in a class, where
the size may vary from 15+, reading agendas of students may differ.
Reading for information, entertainment, professional translation or to
pass concrete examination may be the examples of this different
reading agenda. Some students may have no reading agenda at all.
In intensive reading all students study the same text that causes
another problem which the suitability of level, particularly if there a
big difference between the more able and less able students. In
addition, intensive reading prevents students from developing of
fluent eye movements as the text is too difficult, so balanced
program is necessary that allows development of such skills in a
extensive reading approach. Palmer (1927, as cited in Smith, 2003,
p. 111) emphasized that the benefits of doing large quantities of
enjoyable, level-appropriate reading could most effectively be
realized through integration with other more language-focused
activities. A ―multiple line of approach‖ was one of Palmer‘s nine
principles of language study, and he elucidated the importance of
both approaches by adopting them concurrently ―… but not in one
and the same operation. At times read intensively; at others read
extensively.‖
 Definition of extensive reading
Palmer (1927, as sited in Smith, 2003, p. 454) who is the
originator of the term defines that extensive reading means ‗rapid
reading‘. Those, who obtained some amount of foreign language, are
able to read texts written in the foreign language with understanding
and without that process of mental translation, referring to the
dictionary frequently. Palmer called frequent use of a dictionary a
vicious linguistic tendency. West (1955, p. 189), while creating
supplementary readers, referred to the aim of reading extensively,
―to confer greater facility in the use of the vocabulary already gained,
to give the child a sense of achievement and a taste of the pleasure
to be derived from his accomplishment.‖ Longman Dictionary of
Language teaching and Applied Linguistics defines extensive
reading as a skill that is ―intended to develop good reading habits, to
build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a
liking for reading‖ (Richards, Platt, &Platt, 1992, p. 133). Williams
(1984, p. 10) defines extensive reading as ―The relatively rapid
reading of long texts…‖ Susser and Robb (1990) give the definition
to extensive reading using criteria. Extensive reading is reading ―(a)
of a large quantities of material or long texts; (b) for global or general
understanding; (c) with intention of obtaining pleasure from the text.‖
which is important for language learning. Davis (1995, p. 329)
summed up the notion of extensive reading: ―pupils are given the
time, encouragement and materials to read pleasurably, at their own
level, as many books as they can, without the pressures of testing or
marks.‖ Extensive reading exposes learners to "large quantities of
material within their linguistic competence" (Grabe and Stoller, 2002,
p. 259), which is, at the same time, pleasurable. Hedge (2000: 202)
defines extensive reading with the peculiar characteristics:
 reading large quantities of material such as short stories and
novel, newspaper and magazine articles, or professional
reading
 reading consistently over time on a frequent and regular
basis
 reading longer texts (more than a few paragraphs in length)
of the types listed in the first point above
 reading for general meaning, primarily for pleasure, curiosity,
or professional interest
 reading longer texts during class time but also engaging in
individual, independent reading at home, ideally of self-
selected material
 In language teaching terms, extensive reading is considered
by some writers as just another reading subskill along with skimming,
scanning and intensive reading (Grellet, 1981; Calfoglou & Sifakis,
2004). Extensive reading is regarded as a teaching/learning
procedure, not a reading subskill by Day & Bamford (2005), Susser
& Robb (1990), Krashen (1993), Nuttall (2000).
According to Rodrigo, V., Greenberg, D., Burke, V., Hall, R.,
Berry, A., Brinck, T., Joseph, H., Oby, M. (2007) extensive reading is
reading of great amounts for a general understanding of the text or
for the enjoyment of the reading experience.
Other terms used for extensive reading are USSR
(uninterrupted sustained silent reading), SSR (Sustained Silent
Reading), FVR (free voluntary reading), DEAR (Drop Everything And
Read) supplementary reading, free reading time, reading lab and
pleasure reading. According to Krashen (1993) free voluntary
reading, or FVR, is a system for encouraging silent, self-selected
reading of enjoyable books written at the students‘ independent
level.

Hypotheses and input models supporting extensive

reading
The framework that supports extensive reading is Krashen‘s
several hypotheses – the second language acquisition hypothesis,
the comprehensible input hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis,
the monitor hypothesis and pleasure hypothesis (1982, 1989, 1993).
In Krashen‘s theoretical model of the language teaching
program there are two major components: acquisition and learning.
 Fig. 1.3. A second language teaching program by Krashen

Krashen argues that language acquisition is more central

than language learning in second language performance. Therefore,
the most important part of the entire program is the ―intake‖ node
under the "acquisition" node. The subset of linguistic input that helps
the acquirer acquire language is considered to be ―intake‖. Language
acquisition comes from ―intake‖.
Extensive reading is the part of this ―intake‖ under the
―acquisition‖ node. Krashen formulates the major function of the
second language classroom as providing intake for acquisition.
Intake is first of all input that is understood; comprehension is the
basis of the language acquisition process: Krashen states that ―we
acquire by understanding language that is "a little beyond" our
current level of competence.‖ According to Krashen‘s Input
Hypothesis if a learner is at ‗i‘ linguistic competence then the
acquisition happens ‗i + 1’. The +1 represents new knowledge or
language structures that the learner should be ready to acquire, and
which are not beyond his linguistic competences. Self-selected free
reading provides that kind of intake that is understood by a reader,
which is easily comprehensible and within the language competence
of a reader.
Krashen argues that language acquisition happens by
understanding messages or obtaining ―comprehenible input‖ in low-
anxiety situations. His hypothesis - the affective filter hypothesis -
states that the acquisition process, to be successful should take
place in a stress free environment. It is suggested that many learners
have an effective filter which militates against acquisition. One of the
main causes of this filter derives from the over-monitoring of output
which itself comes from learning language rules. The monitor
hypothesis involves two processes of learning and acquisition which
act differently. Acquisition allows the learner to ―pick up‖ a language
and is responsible for fluency, while learning acts as an ―edit‖
correcting and re-shaping the spontaneous response. This process
is controlled by a monitor.
According to him, free voluntary (another name for extensive
reading) reading provides the message in a low-anxiety situation.
This is the base of his another hypothesis called the pleasure
hypothesis. Krashen (2006) states ―If an activity is good for language
and literacy development, then the activity is pleasurable.‖ There are
following evidences that reading is pleasant. These facts are based
on the research of adults, children and EFL students‘ attitudes
towards reading: 1) reading is so pleasant that the readers often are
reported to be addicted to it 2) reading is relaxing, especially bedtime
reading 3) students prefer free reading to traditional language arts
instruction. Krashen goes on talking about ―correlational‖ studies that
confirm, a person who reads more shows more literacy development,
although it does not mean that self-selected reading is the guarantee
of a student‘s accomplishment of high level of competence in a
foreign language. Krashen concludes that the time spent in free
reading surpasses the time spent in traditional instruction in terms of
language development with its efficiency.
Another model of extensive reading comprehensible input is
described by Day & Bamford (2005). According to this model sight
vocabulary or automaticity training must be at ―i minus 1‖ where ―i‖ is
the student‘s current level of acquisition. Day & Bamford (2005, p.
13) define sight vocabulary as the ―words that readers are able to
recognize automatically.‖ Day & Bamford‘s (2005, p. 16, 17) argue
that ―This i minus 1 is in contrast to Krashen‘s comprehensible input
hypothesis, in which, for further acquisition to take place, the
comprehensible input has to contain elements that are slightly
beyond ‗i‘- that is, ‗i + 1’. The reason for i minus 1 is that the goal of
the automaticity training is developing a large sight vocabulary rather
than the learning of new linguistic elements.‖ In this case the material
at i minus 1 includes vocabulary and syntactic structures of the
readers‘ level of language competence and some elements that the
reader has not acquired yet. Schörkhuber (2008, p. 3) goes further
by offering ―i – 2‖ comprehensible input which will be appropriate at
the initial stage of the reading program.
A further hypothesis that supports extensive reading is about
incidental vocabulary acquisition. It is the part of implicit learning.
Implicit learning involves the incremental growth of the associative
knowledge, learning of skills and language knowledge without being
aware of it relying on an extensive amount of input. Input that
supports implicit learning includes frequency of repetition, co-
occurrence of items that build associations, sequences that are
repeated and gradually imprinted as larger units (chunking), and
gradual generalization of similar exemplar forms and features to
produce categories and prototypes (Grabe, 2009). In incidental
vocabulary acquisition, the learner‘s attention is focused primarily on
communicative meaning, not on form. Krashen‘s Input Hypothesis
makes a stronger claim—namely, that acquisition occurs only when
the learner‘s attention is focused on meaning. Comparison studies
involving the benefits of extensive reading on vocabulary growth
have also indicated that students learn 5–15% of new words from
incidental exposure to these words while reading, and this
percentage increases with increasing numbers of repeated
exposures to words (Schmitt, 2008; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Grabe,
2010).
Krashen‘s hypotheses stimulated the revision of extensive
reading programs as well as other reading programs in various
universities of different countries. For example, Japanese, Korean,
Chinese and Thai universities actively use extensive reading
programs in foreign language teaching and most of the research
done in extensive reading are reported by these countries‘
educational institutions.

The characteristics of extensive reading

The main goal of a reading development program is to enable
students to enjoy (for at least feel comfortable with) reading in the
foreign language, and to read independently unfamiliar authentic
texts, at an appropriate speed, silently, and with adequate
understanding. The measure of the teacher‘s success is how much
the student learns to do without her help. According to Nuttall (2000,
p. 127) extensive reading has two positive sides. First, extensive
reading improves reader‘s reading skills. Second, if extensive
reading is source of enjoyment; it is easy to teach people to read
better. Nuttall (2000, p. 128) describes extensive reading as an
activity that students can do for themselves.
Nation (2004) examines the goals of extensive reading and
separates language, ideas, and skills. Language goals include
learning language issues such as vocabulary, grammar or discourse
features. Ideas can involve subject matter knowledge, culture or
general knowledge. Skills can comprise all four skills, in addition to
fluency and accuracy.
According to Grabe (2009) reading extensively usually requires
that a reader know 98-99% of the words in a text, some level of
fluency processing words and sentences, the knowledge about text
structure, applying of particular strategies and skills as inferencing,
monitoring, and evaluation.
There are ten principles in teaching extensive reading. They are
the main fundamentals developed by Day and Bamford (2002). They
are (See the Fig. 1.4.):
1. The reading material is easy.
2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must
be available.
3. Learners choose what they want to read.
4. Learners read as much as possible.
5. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure,
information and general understanding.
6. Reading is its own reward.
7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower
8. Reading is individual and silent
9. Teachers orient and guide their students
10. The teacher is a role model of a reader.
Other ―top ten‖ principles are elaborated by Prowse (2002) with
some modification of above mentioned extensive reading teaching
principles. Prowse (2002) expends some principles and even adds
some new ideas. He introduces the following principles: there should
be no comprehension questions; no use of dictionaries; recordings
are used in the program; teachers do not test learners; the texts
which can engage learners in reading should be exploited. Susser
and Robb (1990) characterize extensive reading: (a) reading is
individualized, with student choosing the books they want to read, (b)
the books are not discussed in class. This variety suggests that
quantity of reading is not an absolute number of hours or pages but
depends on teacher and student perceptions of how extensive
reading differs from other reading classes; this will vary according to
type of program, level, and other variables. Nuttall (2000) underlines
two main criteria for selecting texts in extensive reading: readability
and suitability of content. She also suggests acronym SAVE which
summarizes criteria for choosing extensive reading materials: Short,
appealing, varied, easy. Teacher is responsible to use every trick to
persuade students to ‘get hooked on books‘. Giving students a

Fig. 1.4. Characteristics of extensive reading

(adopted from http://www.xmind.net/m/CxVZ/)

purpose for reading is a way of clinging students to reading. Reading

is a purposeful activity.
According to Smith (1994b, p. 3) ―a person who has no
purpose in reading can bring nothing to the reading and the activity is
to be meaningless‖. Nuttall (2000, p. 128) distinguishes two ways to
make students read more: requiring them to do so and tempting to
do so.
Day&Bamford (2004) offer a number of activities for
extensive reading elaborated and used in practice by extensive
reading teachers. Most of them are done in the classroom; they are
divided into following sections: getting started, introducing reading
material, motivating and supporting reading, monitoring reading,
evaluating reading, oral reading reports, drama and role play, having
fun, written reading reports, writing creatively, developing awareness
in reading, increasing reading rate, developing and consolidate
vocabulary. These activities are a helpful guidance for a teacher to
orient a student in extensive reading. The teachers should be able to
ask students to describe either orally or in writing what they are
thinking as they read. The amount of reading learners do in a
reading class is crucial.
Nation (2005, p. 14) proposes additional activities to motivate
reading. Short report forms completed about each book allows the
learner and teacher to see the amount of reading done in a certain
period of time. Oral book reports enable a learner to present a
commentary on a book to the class in order to encourage others to
read it. Discussion groups can stimulate talks among the learners
who have already read the same book. Book awards, like Oscars for
movies are organized so that the learners can vote on what they
thought were the best books they read. The learners can get award
for the quantity they read.
Nuttall (2000, p. 143) does not recommend regular formal
testing of extensive reading. She believes it can be damaging if it
makes students read less freely and widely and with less pleasure.
Instead she suggests records of books which students have read.
Among the many factors affecting the shape and success of
an extensive reading program, Schmidt (2007) outlined five featured
prominently in interviews with eight extensive reading practitioners at
universities in Japan:
1) Convictions regarding language learning, especially in
regards to amounts of comprehended input needed and the role of
independent reading (and listening) in relation to other learning
activities
2) Defining desired learning and attitudinal outcomes and
setting reading targets and tasks appropriately.
3) Adapting the approach to ER for student attitudes,
interests, abilities, and goals
4) Effective introduction of an easily understood ER program,
with ongoing support and personal follow-up
5) Developing reading communities, in- and out-of-class.
Macalister (2010) investigated teachers‘ attitudes to
extensive reading in higher educational contexts. The teachers
taught at university preparation courses at language teaching
centers in New Zealand. Macalister (2010) concludes that if
extensive reading is to be more widespread in higher educational
contexts, it needs to be promoted through teacher education, new
research, changes in course design, raising awareness among
administrators and managers, and improved resource provision.
Clarity (2007) concludes her scheme of implementation of an ER
program ―if the program is managed in an effective, positive, and
ongoing manner, extensive reading may be one of the most valuable
lessons in learning you will ever teach.‖

The benefits of extensive reading

Compared to intensive reading, extensive reading is a long-
run approach, through which learners cannot expect prompt effect. It
is a time-consuming approach. Nevertheless, extensive reading has
obvious positive outcomes. It contributes to development of different
linguistic aspects. The benefits of extensive reading, such as gains in
vocabulary, writing, spelling, and positive attitude toward reading, are
described by Day and Bamford (2004), Bell (2001). Nuttall (2000, p.
128) formulates the role of extensive reading in foreign language
acquisition in a persuasive slogan ‗the best way to improve your
knowledge of a foreign language is to go and to live among its
speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it.‖
Steiner (1995) chief inspector for English at Israel ministry of
education, in her booklet ―Reading for Pleasure‖ lists following
benefits of extensive reading: a) enhances world knowledge, b)
accounts for one-third of vocabulary growth, c) promotes reading as
a lifelong activity, d) builds vocabulary, e) builds structural
awareness, f) improves comprehension skills, g) promotes
motivation, h) encourages pupils to read fluently and use all the
strategies, i) encourages pupils to progress through different levels
of text and monitor their own progress, j) provides with an enjoyable
reading experience. Nation (1997) explains the benefits of ER
―Extensive reading is attractive for several reasons; first, reading is
essentially an individual activity and therefore learners of different
proficiency level could learn at their own level without being locked
into an inflexible class program. Second, it allows learners to follow
their interests in choosing what to read and thus increase their
motivation for learning. Third, it provides the opportunity for learning
to occur outside the classroom.‖ Nation (2004) discusses the
vocabulary learning benefits from the extensive reading which are of
two kinds. One involves learning of previously unknown words, and
the other ―involves enriching and strengthening knowledge of words
that have been met before‖ which is more important than the former.
Elley (1991, pp. 378-379) attributes the success to five factors: a)
extensive input of meaningful print, b) Incidental learning, c) the
integration of oral and written activity, d) focus on meaning rather
that form, e) high intrinsic motivation. As for Incidental learning, as
the title indicates it is unintentional or unplanned learning that results
from any activities, which usually occurs at workplace, and during
learning in many ways; by watching, talking or observing. The
benefits of incidental learning are improved competence, changed
attitudes and interpersonal skills self-confidence and self-awareness
(McFerrin,1999). However, incidental learning is difficult to measure
or harness for use. Adult learners don‘t often make difference
between the formally and incidentally acquired learning. In fact,
incidental learning is more preferable for adults (Mealman, 1993).
Leung (2002) Investigation was conducted on the impact of
the extensive reading on an adult‘s self-study of Japanese over a 20-
week period. Data were collected from a learner diary, audio-
recordings from private-tutorial sessions and vocabulary texts. The
results of this study show that extensive reading can enhance
vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension and promote positive
attitude toward reading. The author admits that it is worth
incorporating extensive reading into the reading curriculum. The
author emphasizes keeping a record of reading and reading speed
regarding the effectiveness of extensive reading.
According to Hernandez (1997) it is difficult to implement
extensive reading program because of the large numbers of books
required although It has been shown to be effective for English
language learners because of the power in exposing them to a large
volume of English reading and the anxiety reducing power of easy
reading (cited in Herrell & Jordan, 2008).
Grabe (2009) indicates the following benefits: positive
attitude and motivation, vocabulary growth, development of language
and literacy skills, conceptual-knowledge growth and reasoning.
Here is the table (Table 1.1) of studies related to the benefits of
extensive reading. These studies were carried out in English as a
second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL),
settings.
Extensive reading approach provides an opportunity for
learners to acquire cultural awareness. Delanoy (1997, p. 60)
highlights that cultural learning is now viewed as an integral part of
communicative language learning; as I have already mentioned in
the previous chapter, reading is a kind of communication between
writer and a reader.
 Extensive reading can result in learner autonomy. Hedge
(2000, p. 204) comments that extensive reading can be productive
step in developing learner autonomy; it comes from assuming
responsibility for one‘s own learning.
Regardless the benefits of extensive reading, it must fit
institutional framework in a logical way in order to be most effective.
Table 2.2. The studies in extensive reading adopted from Grabe

Report Population Results

Greaney & Hegarty Fifth grade students; Positive correlation
(1987) Ireland between amount of time
reading books and
reading comprehension
Elley & Mangubhai Primary; Fiji Reading
(1983) comprehension, English
grammar, vocabulary,
listening comprehension,
written composition
Janopoulos (1986) University, USA Writing proficiency
Pitts et al. (1989) Adults; USA Vocabulary
Lightbown (1988- Reading, listening,
1992) vocabulary, speaking
Rob & Susser (1989) University, Japan Reading proficiency and
positive affect
Hafiz & Tudor (1990) Primary, Pakistan Vocabulary base and
writing
Elley (1991) Primary, Singapore Proficiency and positive
affect
Gradman & Hanania ―reading outside of
(1991) class‖ –outstanding
predictor on TOEFL
performance
Lai (1993a; 1993b) Secondary, Hong- Reading proficiency and
Kong vocabulary
Cho & Krashen (1994) Adults, USA Reading proficiency,
vocabulary, positive
affect, and oral skills
Rodrigo (1995) University, USA Positive affect
Mason & Krashen (1997) University, Japan Reading proficiency,
positive affect and
writing
Elley (2000) Reading comprehension
Tanaka &Stapleton (2007) High school, Japan Positive attitude
Takasa (2007) high school, Japan Reading performance
Karlin & Romanko (2010) University, Japan Affect, fluency, and
vocabulary
Yamashita (2013) University, Japan increases in Comfort and
Intellectual Value and a
decrease in Anxiety

Reading material for extensive reading programs

In extensive reading one of the crucial factors is rich print
environment. Graded readers are the reading materials which are
most often used in extensive reading. According to Sheu (2004),
and Day & Bamford (1998, p. 61) ―graded readers written under
structure and information control are the main materials in most
studies on ESL/EFL ER, and have been reported as successful in
developing learners‘ language proficiency.‖ Graded readers are a
form of language learner literature. They are books specially written
for second or foreign language learners, fiction and non-fiction which
are graded structurally and lexically. The flow of information and the
explicitness of background, concepts and suppositions may be
controlled as well (Bamford, 1984). They do not correspond to
specific grade levels. They are graded readers in the sense that they
are informed by grammar and vocabulary guidelines for specific
levels of difficulty. The levels are graded from beginner to advanced,
and at each level the books are written using only the grammatical
structures and vocabulary items appropriate to that level of study.
Readers usually have a specific number of words within which they
are written (either - for example - the 1000 most frequently used
words in English, or 1000 words chosen from among the most
frequently used words in English.)
Beginning learners would read books with simple vocabulary
(about 200-300 most common words in narrative English), which are
written in basic grammar, which is restricted to the present tense,
imperative, 'going to' future and perhaps the regular past; and
sentences are typically single clauses of the subject + verb + direct
object construction. Vocabulary and plot match their linguistic ability.
Once readers feel comfortable reading at this level, they move up
through the series by reading books with more challenging
vocabulary, grammar, plot and so on. At higher levels, matching the
teaching order of most main course textbooks, structures are
introduced in a logical way. This is similar to the way a child learns to
read in the first language. The first level books contain few words
and many illustrations, and as reading progressed, students are able
to read more complex materials. Graded readers also provide
suitable conditions for unknown words from context, and they may
often contain few questions and exercises
There has often been criticism regarded graded readers as
the literature for children unsuitable for university students. The other
criticism described graded readers as artificial and low quality
reading material. Learners using graded readers develop "reading
strategies that are inappropriate for reading unsimplified English"
(Honeyfield, 1977).
Wodinsky & Nation (1988) conducted a study of two graded
readers and an unsimplified text to determine the contribution that
graded readers can make to vocabulary learning. It was found that in
order to master the vocabulary at a particular level, it is necessary to
read several texts at that level. When moving from one level to
another, one does not have to learn the vocabulary of the new level,
or master all the vocabulary of the previous levels, in order to read
successfully at the new level.
Claridge (2005) examined the characteristics and quality of
simplification in graded readers as compared to those of 'normal'
authentic English. Two passages from graded readers were
compared with the original passages. The computer programme
compared uses and analyzed the distribution of high and low
frequency words in the passages. The study was in part a reanalysis
and extension of Honeyfield's (1977) seminal study of simplification,
but different conclusions were drawn. It found that patterns of use of
structure, discourse markers, redundancy, collocations, and high and
low frequency vocabulary, are similar in both original and
simplification and suggested that the writing in well-written graded
readers can be experienced as authentic and typical of 'normal'
English.
Claridge (2012) reported on a study of graded readers,
focusing on interviews with some major publishers of graded
readers, to investigate their production rationales. The findings
suggested that the publishers did not research regularly opinions of
the ultimate consumers, the learners. Publishers based production
more on the demands of teachers and librarians. The largest quantity
of graded readers was produced for the intermediate levels. The
recommendation of the study was to publish a greater number of
texts at the lowest level, to develop good reading habits from the
beginning.
 The following publications of graded readers are
widespread: 1) Heinemann Guided Readers 2) Oxford Bookworms
Series 3) Macmillan Graded Readers 4) Penguin readers.

Extensive reading through the Internet

With the development of the internet and technologies, a new
scheme involving the use of internet - called W-ERP was set in place
in collaboration with the students. One of the reasons the Internet is
changing the way one learns individually is the enormous amount of
information available to anyone equipped with a computer and
access to the Internet. For teachers, the web is a rich sorce that
makes a smooth transition from learning to read to reading to learn
possible.
According to Pino-Silva (2006) Extensive reading (ER) has
gradually grown into a world-wide accepted practice in both ESL and
EFL reading instruction programs. Researchers and practitioners
have been closing ranks thanks, in part, to the initiative of a group
who have put up a website
(www.extensivereading.net) and a discussion group
(http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ExtensiveReading/), in which more
than 200 members share and debate everything from new ideas
about how best to manage an ER program, to research findings. A
Web-based ER program (w-ERP) has evolved from an earlier paper-
based version (p-ERP) since 1999, both carried out with college
students enrolled at Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas,
Venezuela.
Extensive reading through the Internet invites learners to
read online. Reading online consists of reading texts from a portion
of a computer screen. These texts have minimal combination of
three colors for background page, the actual written text and another
for the purpose of highlighting a link. Besides the color, graphic
information, photos, audio and video can be added to a page. A key
factor in reading online is the concept of hypertext connecting
together the sections or pieces of a text. Information is on the screen
in a non-linear fashion; the hyperlinks are responsible for retrieving
one or several sections of a single text by a click of a mouse (Pino-
Silva, 2006).
Interaction of the eyes, the screen, the texts presented in
hypertext and comprehension of verbal and nonverbal information
are involved in reading online. The term ‗reading online‘ usually
refers for the act of reading while working in the internet, and even
when connection is lost the browsers may show the hypertext.
Studies have looked at the process strategies and at
comparison with reading printed material. Comparing reading rates,
for instance, Al-Othman (2003) found (cited in Pino-Silva, 2006) that
reading online is slower than on paper. In the literature, and
especially among reading teachers, both promoters and detractors of
reading online can be found. Promoting factors emphasize its
powerful pedagogic potential (i.e motivation, text enhancement).
Detractors (e.g. text and visuals) may confuse readers, overload
their cognitive abilities, and damage vision.
Extensive reading through the internet, whether teacher-led
or self-directed, sees learning as an individual pursuit for meaning
and relevance. It is a potent tool to learn at one‘s own pace and on
one‘s own time. It develops learner autonomy which has the
following advantages according to Jones (1998) cited in Pino-Silva‘s
study (2006):
 Autonomy may strengthen intrinsic motivation
 Absence of teacher control can enable personalization of
texts and tasks. This personalized practice may increase
retention of input
 Taking charge of one‘s own learning translates into self-
empowerment
Thus, teachers should incorporate the principles of self-
direction and autonomy to their pedagogical practice.
In Pino-Silva‘s study (2006) of extensive reading through the
Internet three types of users were identified: (a) web or online
readers; (b) screen readers and (c) readers of printed Internet
articles. Some readers felt discomfort with either online or screen
reading and preferred print the text before reading. Another
important obstacle in this program was related to cheating. Some
students simply copied the work of other students. However, it was
not defined what percentage of students are inclined to cheat. The
positive result of the study was that students got familiar with both
reading online and on screen. Students got the explanation how to
work and then they are dispatched home with the instructions (a) to
read the manual, (b) send an introductory note to signal the group
moderator that they are in the group, and (c) do their first W-ER
assignment.
 Pino-Silva (2006) surveyed the students to find out what
benefits they obtained from the extensive reading through the
Internet. Here is some positive feedback:
 access to hundreds of newer and interesting articles magazine
articles
 practice reading after the course is over
 easier, faster and more practical reading than from a book
 a great help
 convenient in term of time
 frequent access to the teacher
 help with vocabulary
 focus on the main idea
 attractive method

Some negative statements that appeared in the data are given next:
 computer breaking down
 no access
 Too many commercials pop up in the online working group
 Some texts not interesting

The web project provides opportunities for students and

teachers to work together. Students help the teacher by finding the
materials on the web they would like to read or learn about. The
teacher supports students construct main ideas, build vocabulary,
develop positive attitudes towards reading, monitor their progress
and keep constant and interactive contact with them.
Extensive reading through the Internet seems a promising
pedagogical approach that promotes students‘ (a) access and
reading from the vast amount of information available on the web, (b)
access to updated and varied information, (c) discipline in the use of
their time. Students learn to explore, evaluate and make their own
decisions on what to read now and what to postpone for later (Pino-
Silva, 2006).
The web-based extensive reading is a new perspective,
derived from the paper-based procedure. It challenges conventional
extensive reading approach with graded books. The web-based
approach helps students develop a wide range of reading and
language proficiency skills in a foreign language. The combination of
both, paper-based and web-based extensive reading will increase
options available to students with different learning styles. It will
empower teachers in a significant manner.
 Reading in Georgian and Russian foreign language
teaching methodology
In the 1980s all the foreign language departments of
universities in Georgia shared the same curricula, similar disciplines
and programs with the variation of material used to teach. The
teaching methods and approaches applied in these programs were
the same. Mostly these programs reflected the influence of Russian
methodologists and their gains in teaching foreign languages.
The reading development program known as home reading
was popular in the 1980s and even later. Home reading has some
common aspects with extensive reading and obvious differences.
Klichnikova (1973) describes home reading as an approach which
serves two goals: a) means to consolidate the reading skills learned
at the lessons and b) preparation for other classroom activities. She
admits that home reading should be enjoyable for the reader,
although sometimes this enjoyment is diminished by abundant
follow-up activities. Khaliuk (1987, p. 30) suggests that reading of a
large quantity of easy materials can support the motivation for
reading and encourage obtaining specific language skills more
effectively. Russian methodologists and teachers offer many kinds of
text-based activities. Koriaktseva (1987) makes distinction between
philological and linguistic reading at the foreign language
departments. Philological reading is oriented on cultural content. The
reading material in philological reading is mainly literary works,
where cultural aspects of a foreign language are more vividly
presented. On the other hand linguistic reading is focused on the
language of the text; the text is the means to expand a learner‘s
language competence. Linguistic reading is mainly used to increase
vocabulary of a learner or in an autonomous learning. This kind of
reading is important in professional education. Russian
methodologists did not come to a distinct procedure of teaching
home reading. Mostly they distinguished two phases in home
reading. The first phase was reading and the other was the
sequence of activities which were vocabulary work, comprehension
activities, discussion, and writing according to Fadeev (1979),
Balakirev (1988), Skazkiv (1982). Furthermore, there is no
agreement among Russian methodologists whether to use the
activities based on vocabulary and grammar structures present in the
reading material. Naturally, the selection of these activities by a
teacher depends on what the aim of home reading is. If the purpose
of home reading is reading itself, then the activities will serve to
check students‘ comprehension of texts. In addition, if the purpose of
home reading is to lead some discussions about the material which
students read, then there will be supplementary tasks which will
support students‘ discussions.
In Georgian foreign language teaching methodology reading
is primarily considered to be the source of information and at the
same time the means of language learning i.e. reading is the goal of
language learning as well as means. Kraveishvili (2002, pp. 163-164)
describes reading approaches and mentions extensive reading as an
approach that focuses on the large quantity of reading material which
presents the goal of teaching reading; the reader‘s attention is
targeted at the meaning of the written form. In another
methodological publication (Tsitsishvili, R., Nijaradze, N., Darchia,
M., Tevzia, M., & Tkavashvili, E., 2006) extensive reading is defined
as an approach used to improve a student‘s reading ability. It
focuses on reading materials in the target language in a rapid and
casual way with an emphasis on quantity rather than quality.
One of the early publications on teaching home reading is by
Tsintsadze designated for senior students of foreign language
departments of Georgian universities. According to Tsintsadze
(1987, pp. 3-4) the goal of home reading is to develop a learner‘s
reading skill and reading comprehension, enrich vocabulary and
improve speaking skill. This helpful textbook for teaching home
reading is based on short stories after J. Salinger. Each story is
ensued by new words and word combinations to remember; lexical
units for revision; vocabulary exercises (e.g. translation, paraphrase,
matching, etc.) aimed at remembering lexical items; questions and
topics for discussions. Tsintsadze considers that home reading
enables to introduce linguistic analysis and acknowledges that the
amount of reading is preferably 30 pages of authentic material a
week. In order to reach reading comprehension, which should be
minimum 60%-80% according to the requirements of modern
methodology of teaching home reading, the list of obligatory words
and word combinations will not be enough. Students will have to
acquire partly actively and partly passively lexical units through
exercises and questions.
In 2004 the professional and educational journal ‗Tsignieri‘
(Dzamukashvili et al., 2004) published a survey about literacy of 15-
year old learners in Tbilisi. The survey was conducted by the faculty
of Psychology of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University in 2003.
The model of the survey belonged to PISA (Program of International
Students Assessment) which in 2000 carried out the similar surveys
in 32 countries.
In Georgia one of the focuses of this survey was reading in
native language. The following issues were explored: a) attitude
towards reading among 15-year old students b) motivation in reading
c) Self-control in acquisition of reading material. 200 15-year-old
students from Tbilisi participated in this survey which revealed the
following; the general interest and positive attitude toward reading
was obvious. The motivation in reading was high – 96%, although
only 40% of the students used to read about 1-2 hours a day. 85% of
the students exposed high self-control. If self-control indicator is
compared with the amount of reading students did in a day, then this
number proves to be incongruous. The conclusion of this survey
states that the motivation is high and self-control is effective, even
though the number of students, who read every day, is minor, and
the time spent on reading is little too. The root of this incongruous
fact goes to the inadequate teaching of reading in Georgian
educational institutions; consequently, reading as a habit and lifelong
activity is very weak.
Another study concerns home reading and the strategies of its
teaching. Danelia (2005) presents her study on home reading at
foreign language departments of the universities in Tbilisi. 100
students and 20 teachers of home reading participated in her survey.
Here are some conclusions made by Danelia (2005, p. 130):
1. 89% of the teachers consider that they use interesting
materials; only 23% of the students agree with the teachers‘
opinion, which indicates that students‘ interests and desires
are not taken into consideration. 60% of the teachers and 92%
of the students acknowledge that most of the reading materials
are quite difficult and the plots are quite cumbersome.
2. Homework includes reading and memorization of lexical units.
In the classroom, mainly activities are related to retelling the
summaries and testing new vocabulary; discussions are rarely
used.
3. 34% of the students think that it is possible to teach home
reading better and to make this program much more pleasant.
4. 60% of the students express their desire of having more
creativity in home reading.
5. The teachers and the students, both, argue the
inappropriateness of difficult and large quantity of reading
 materials; very often reading of a book is not completed within
a semester. Most of the respondents prefer to read smaller
books.
6. 60% of the teachers and 58% of the students believe that
successful teaching of home reading will contribute to
mastering other theoretical subjects.
Danelia (2006, p. 5) set the following questions about teaching
home reading: What kind of reading materials should be selected?
What should be the goals of home reading? How can the reading
materials for homework be checked in the classroom? According to
Danelia (2005), working on a reading material in home reading
programme consists of the following principles: systematization,
consistency, and accessibility. Students‘ assignment is reading at
home a part or a whole literary work and doing exercises based on
this reading material. The exercises are checked in class. The focus
of home reading is not the volume/ amount of reading, but acquired
knowledge and skills. Danelia concludes that home reading or so-
called ‗extensive reading‘ should be instructed at foreign language
departments. Reading materials, utilized in home reading, should
combine teaching of language with contents, style, literature, and
culture. She elucidates that while teaching home reading it does not
imply solely teaching reading skills; moreover, it involves teaching of
other language skills - speaking, reading, writing, and grammar.
Activities related to these skills should be used in the program. She
recommends the system of activities in home reading. This system
discerns the activities:
 done at home and in the classroom
 at different stages of reading
 done individually, in pairs and groups
 related to general understanding and details
 for synthetic and analytical reading
To sum up, the first research presents the tendency in L1
literacy among 15-year-old students in Georgia. The students value
reading but allot a little time for doing it. The second research is the
first attempt to expose the shortcomings, such as difficult and
inappropriate reading material, in teaching home reading. Danelia
(2006) elaborates teaching of home reading, where she names
‗home reading‘ as ‗extensive reading‘. According to Danelia‘s
definition home reading resembles a language development program
which focuses on different language skills concurrently; even the
activities serve this focus.
 Accepting home reading as extensive reading is very
common among Georgian foreign language methodologists. It is
important to bring light to the point that extensive reading differs from
home reading.
 2

A MODEL OF EXTENSIVE READING PROGRAM FOR

GEORGIAN UNIVERSITIES

My dissertation fulfilled four phases of implementation of

extensive reading in Georgian universities (Mikeladze, 2011b). In the
first phase two surveys were designed and conducted in 2009 –
2010 (Mikeladze, 2010a). The goals of these surveys were to gather
the information about program profiles, teachers‘ attitudes,
graduates‘ opinions; describe the teaching methodology of these
programs; reveal similarities and differences between these
programs and an extensive reading program. The first survey was
conducted among the instructors of these programs at Georgian
universities. The second survey was carried out among the
graduates of foreign language departments who completed the
reading development programs in 1998-2009 (Mikeladze, 2010b).
Both surveys showed a range of differences between existing
reading development programs and an extensive reading program.
These discrepancies implied the changes that should have been
done in order to improve and alter these reading development
programs into a successful extensive reading program. In the second
and third phases an ad hoc extensive reading teaching methodology
for foreign language departments of Georgian universities was
designed and the experimental teaching of the reading programs
was incorporated. In the last phase the results of the experimental
teaching were analysed with positive findings of extensive reading
(Mikeladze, 2011a).
The implementation of extensive reading programs at foreign
language departments of Georgian universities consists of several
phases. The existing reading development programs require
development and improvement. We offer the following alterations to
the existing reading programs:
1. The title of the program should be defined in accordance with
the program goal and content.
2. The duration of the program must be increased as the duration
and intensity of the academic hours are the principal factors
which support successful outcome of an ER program.
 3. The principles of ER should be applied in teaching ER program.
By properly adjusting ER program to the learners‘ language level and
interests, the problems mentioned in the questionnaire can be
realistically solved. First, in ER programs reading material
corresponds with the language level of the reader; the amount of
new words in reading material is limited to 3-5 words on a page. The
solution of the problem connected to the new lexical units will
positively influence learners‘ emotional experience in ER program,
and successful reading comprehension will make reading enjoyable;
even reading of 50 pages a week will be pleasurable. Second, the
readers select different books; if the selected book is uninteresting
the reader can change it. This kind of approach prevents the learners
from reading the books that are boring for them. Third, the teacher‘s
dominant role is reduced in an ER program. A teacher provides
learners with freedom in selection of materials and activities.
Learners are responsible for their reading and activities they do at
home and in the classroom. The activities used in the language
learning environment are rare in ER environment. A list of the
classroom activities should be prepared in advance and offered to
learners for selection. The activities offered by Day and Bamford
(2005) give opportunities to the teachers and learners to add
creativity to classroom activities and change monotonous lectures
into an exciting, reading-friendly setting.
4. A new teaching model for an extensive reading program
implementation should be devised. The principles of extensive
reading cannot be applied in a traditional classroom setting. In
the new teaching model a teacher is a guide and facilitator,
and a learner has an active role.
5. Keeping record of reading on regular bases is a characteristic
of ER programs. Logbooks reveal at what extent the learner is
an active reader.
6. Libraries should be supplied with books, graded readers and
various reading materials in English.

The characteristics of the program

An extensive reading program is an necessary constituent in
a well designed course, although it should not occupy more than
20% of the time spent in and out of the class (on the course) (Nation,
2004). Teaching principles regulate the teaching process. This is the
knowledge about how teaching should be proceeded in accordance
with the objectives of the society. Teaching principles define the
activities of a teacher and they are formed in the process of teaching
(Asatiani, 2008, p. 125; Malazonia, 2001, p.84). The successful
teaching process is built on several teaching principles. Malazonia
(2001) distinguishes the following teaching principles: scientific
principle of teaching; consistency; connection between life and
teaching; consciousness and activeness; use of visual aids;
accessibility; sound knowledge acquisition. For a successful
extensive reading program three teaching principles are defined
which are core of the program and are based on the teaching
principles of higher education in Georgia. They are consistency,
accessibility and pragmatism.
1. Consistency - the principle of consistency implies that a
learner is constantly involved in learning through reading
process.
2. Accessibility - the principle of accessibility keeps the
program structure, materials, activities, learners‘ and
teachers‘ expectations accessible and clear.
3. Pragmatism - the principle of pragmatism directs learning in
practical consequences which means that learners acquire
the skills that have practical value for them.
The goal of an extensive reading program is necessary
condition to run it successfully. For a teacher it is a landmark and for
a student it is the destination to reach. The goal of an extensive
reading program is to allow students to read self-selected large
quantity of reading materials and enjoy it. Through this program
some obvious gains should be formed in a reader: a) a positive
reading experience, b) reading as a lifelong activity, c) elements of
autonomous learning / taking responsibility for own learning. The
teacher has to clearly understand the goal of the program to orient
the students to the productive result. At the same time a student
should be aware that extensive reading is the best pleasant and
painless way of mastering language and obtaining experience in
reading.
From the traditional 10 principles by Day&Bamford the
following principles were adopted and modified. Their significance is
underlined for an extensive reading program:
1) The material should be easy. When we say easy we admit
Day&Bamford‘s comprehensible model ―i minus 1‖ as the
model to practice automaticity in reading and develop sight
vocabulary. Another model which is also acceptable for the
 program is Krashen‘s comprehensible input ―i + 1‖ to acquire
the small amount of new structures and units. Shorbruker‘s
comprehensible input ―i minus 2‖ can also be used by weak
students. Students should be encouraged to use the first two
models of input in substitution. Students must be explained
first to read the book where there is no new words and is
easy to read, then to take another book, where there will be
from 3 to 5 new words on a page. Lowering the difficulty of
text means controlling vocabulary and in some cases
grammatical complexity. Unusual, low-frequency words can
be replaced by common high-frequency words. This
technique is used to produce Graded Reader.
2) Students select reading materials / books themselves. They
are autonomous in this question. They are free to express
their interests in different fields or works of a particular writer.
3) Students should be supported to read a lot. A teacher should
explain to them that reading a large quantity is one of the
characteristics of this reading program and the part of the
program‘s goal, although they should avoid tension in
reading. A teacher can remind them about their enjoyable
experience of reading in L1, and advise where and how to
read. Students are not required to understand 100% of the
text, translate it, or use a dictionary. This is one of the
differences between the other language programs and
extensive reading program. Students read for general
understanding.
During the other language courses Georgian students are
used to work with dictionaries. At the lesson they usually ask a
teacher the meaning of a new lexical item. Usually the teacher helps
with the translation of a word. When students have to read
something independently they get the meaning through word-for-
word translation using a dictionary. Almost all of the unknown words
are looked up in the dictionary. If students are asked not to pay
attention to some unknown words they feel anxiety and uncertainty
about the meaning. Georgian students should learn to practice such
strategies as guessing or ignoring unknown words or passages,
going for the general understanding, and being comfortable with a
certain level of ambiguity. Extensive reading is an approach of keep
reading.
 4) The comprehension of the reading material it absolutely
student‘s experience. The main focus is reader‘s personal
experience:
Comprehension achieved/knowledge gained → reader‘s personal
experience
5) Reading is its own reward. A teacher can explain what kind
of processes are going in a reader‘s mind while reading in a
foreign language. A teacher must speak with students about
the benefits of reading. Students will appreciate reading only
after such a rational approach. The speed should be
comfortable for a reader. The reading speed can vary. It
depends on a reader. The reading speed depends on
interest or enjoyment, comprehension and purpose of a
student. According to Leedy (1968, p. 14) ―We read only as
fast as the brain converts the verbal perception into
meaning.‖
6) Reading is individual and silent.
7) Teachers orient and guide their students.
8) The teacher is a role model of a reader.

A teaching model of an extensive reading program

The methodology of teaching extensive reading program
assimilates the elements of learner autonomy. The essential
elements of learner autonomy in this program are focused from
teaching to learning, peer encouragement and cooperation, practice
with readers‘ logbooks which are a documentation of learning and a
tool of reflection.
Teacher in traditional classroom is considered as an
important media, but in exstensive reading the role of the teaching is
diminished which causes doubts and concerns. Here is the case
when teaching is changed into learning and the learners are starting
taking responsibility for their reading and language acquisition (Dam,
2003).
A learner is supported to take responsibility for his/her own
learning/reading by independently:
1) Choosing particular aims and purpose; for example, the
amount of pages read in a week, moving from one level of graded
reader in a specific period.
2) Choosing materials and tasks. A learner is free to choose
the reading material in correspondence to his/her language level.
reading his/her favourite writer‘s books, or deepen knowledge in
his/her favourite field. At the beginning the teacher offers two types
of activities to a learner.
3) Exercising choice and purpose in organizing and carrying
out the tasks. Students systematically exercise their choice by
selecting activities and reading materials. They get accustomed to
making decisions in their leanrning, consequently they learn to plan
and find the ways of its accompishment, for example, they have to
plan their daily reading program.
A teacher‘s role in an extensive reading program is
comperatively different from the role in other language programs. In
other language programs a teacher‘s responsibility is to transfer
information, knowledge. According to Tsitsishvili et al. (2008, pp. 13-
15) there are several roles of a teacher depeneding on the various
ELT methods, for example controller, organizer, assessor,
prompeter, participant, resource, tutor and observer. According to
the teaching styles the teacher roles‘ can be discerned as teacher
explainer, teacher involver, teacher enabler, etc. Teacher enabler
aims to assist students to become successful learner by allowing
them to learn themselves. This former is the closest to a new role of
a teacher in an ER program. A teacher‘s role as a guide is a new
concept in Georgian methodology of foreign langauge teaching. A
teacher is a guide in an extensive reading program.
A teacher orients learners through the following steps: 1)
Experience of reading - no weak learner can ―hide‖. Even weak
learners are required to read. 2) Awareness of a learner‘s reading –
why, what and how to read. A teacher raises the awareness of
learners by emphasizing the benefits extensive reading and explains
the purpose of an extensive reading program, which is not for a
teacher, or university, but for life. Teacher makes clear to learners
what is expected from them and introduce them with the tips how to
choose a book as well as possible and varied activities for the
learners to select. The teacher presents various ways of organizing
reading. The teacher should explain the demands through the ER
program clearly. One of the influential factors to make students
demonstrate their skills systematically with appropriate quality is the
clarity and intensity of teachers‘ requirements. If requirements are
high, clearly developed and concrete, students do their maximum,
and in contrary , if the requirements are vague, or they are lower, a
learner is less productive, inert, and gradually becomes passive.
Athough, it should be noted that the teacher‘s requirements through
an ER program should be realistic and achievable (Tkhemaladze et
al., 2008, p. 23).
3) participation in decision making (choice of reading
materials, activities). Learners are supported to choose activities in
order to reach curricular aims and personal goals.
4) responsibility for a student‘s reading (reading, completing
logbooks, making presentations).
A teacher supports her students‘ choices, decisions, and
their roles in the program by encouraging, prompting, modeling, and
clarifying. Nation (1997) recommends that ―teachers need to be
serious about extensive reading programs particularly in ensuring
that learners do large amounts of reading. The benefits of extensive
reading do to come in the short term. Nevertheless, the substantial
long-term benefits justify the high degree of commitment needed.‖
The teacher‘s responsibilities include following:
 helping students enjoy and value extensive reading
 understanding what extensive reading involves
 finding out what the students can and cannot do
 introduction to library and procedure of selecting books
 choosing or devising effective tasks and activities
 preparing the students to undertake the tasks
 making sure that everyone reads productively
 monitoring progress to make sure that everyone in the class
improves steadily according to their own capabilities
An extensive reading program is only a part of a language course.
Thus, teachers need to make sure that other parts of the course are
supporting extensive reading; and vice versa, other parts of the
course are being supported by extensive reading.

The role of motivation

One of the principles of extensive reading program is
reading for pleasure. Readers will be more motivated to read if the
materials they are reading help to meet these broad purposes (Fig.
1.5.). The difference between attitude and motivation is a crucial
distinction in the discussion of motivation, as positive attitude
towards reading is not the same as motivation towards reading (Ro,
2013). Positive feelings towards reading play a crucial role in
facilitating extensive reading, although learners may have positive
attitudes towards reading, but such attitudes do not necessarily lead
to frequent pleasure reading. As Williams (1984, p. 36) underlines
―motivation, that is - wanting to read, wanting to learn, is crucial‖.
Fransson (1984, p. 112) found an interaction between intrinsic
motivation and state anxiety, students who reported being anxious
during the reading showed weak intrinsic motivation. Students who
have low trait anxiety tend to read at a deeper level, whereas highly
state anxious students tend to be surface processors. Reading for
pleasure provides many readers an opportunity to relax and enjoy
the world of books. For both reasons, readers expect to be able to
comprehend the material being read and to reach their purposes. As
Guthrie at el. (1999, p. 250) pointed out ―one of the major
contributions of motivation to text comprehension is that motivation
increases reading amount, which then increases text
comprehension.‖ In an extensive reading program two motivation
focuses can be defined: Motivation instruction and teacher
motivation.
Irwin‘s (1991, p. 145) model of motivation instruction is
suitable and applicable in an extensive reading program. Motivation
can be increased if expected efforts are decreased or the expected
reward is increased:
Motivation = expected reward: expected effort (Irwin (1991, p. 145)
In an extensive reading program expected effort is

Fig. 1. 5. Motivation in extensive reading

(adopted from http://www.xmind.net/m/CxVZ/)

decreased by offering students to read within their language

competence. Students do not have to refer to a dictionary. Another
factor how we decrease the expected effort is the amount of post-
reading activities. The questions in post-reading worksheets (PRW)
are easy to fill in and do not require much effort and time from
students. A teacher never presents reading as a chore or a
punishment. In an extensive reading program if a student fails to
read, the teacher should avoid asking students to do extra reading to
recover the amounts of reading. Instead of this, the teacher should
identify the obstacle, and help the student to overcome it.
In extensive reading expected reward is increased by
explaining to students the importance of reading and the benefits
that extensive reading contributes to, for example it builds
vocabulary, improves reading fluency, provides with enjoyable
reading experience, promotes reading as a lifelong activity, etc.
Motivation instruction requires purposeful and systematic
approaches from a teacher which should be planned in advance
within the program (Natsvlishvili & Gorgodze, 2008); for example, it
can involve giving practical tips to readers. A teacher provides
readers with the tips given below and asks them to read regularly in
order to promote and inspire reading among readers. It is also
helpful to write these ideas on a poster and have it in the classroom.
1) Plan your individual reading program.
2) Focus on the benefits of extensive reading, be positive and
visualize your success.
3) See everything that you read as an opportunity to grow.
4) Measure your success every day by hours spent on reading,
pages read and feeling of satisfaction you got.
5) Choose the books that match your personal needs and seek
the variety in reading.
6) Be constant in reading; be responsible for your reading.
7) The more you read and the more effort you put in your
reading program, the more gains you have.
8) Surround yourself with the learners who like reading in
English and are committed to it.
9) Feel free to talk about benefits of extensive reading to other
readers in your group.
10) Help your peers choose books for reading.
As I have discussed above a teacher does not transfer
knowledge in an extensive reading program, but she has abundant
responsibilities in directing the reading program in a proper way,
supporting learners and monitoring the program outcomes. For these
reasons, a teacher also necessitates motivational ideas. The
following suggestions for teacher motivation in extensive reading are
devised:
 1. A teacher agrees with the teaching methodology of
extensive reading and she completely believes in the
benefits of extensive reading. Asraf & Ahmad (2003) explain
that ―we felt that it was important that teachers fully
understand the aims and objectives as well as the rationale
for extensive reading, because it is only when the teachers
believe in its value would the program work.‖
2. As much as possible, a teacher increases the reward and
decreases the effort.
3. A teacher follows activities that allow the students to use
what they learned while reading.
4. A teacher is also interested in the material. A teacher should
regularly read and be aware of the books students tend to
read. It makes discussion in class easy. Also it enables a
teacher to foresee the possible obstacles in students‘
reading of the specific book.
5. A teacher is positive that each student has a chance to
succeed.
Another important issue in teaching extensive reading is
inculcating reading habit among learners. How can this habit be
cultivated among foreing language learners? In order to develop a
reading habit in a reader, an inner, specific ―reading‖ need should be
created in a subject; later, a situation satisfying reader‘s need should
be initiated (Uznadze, 1977, p. 54-55). If a learner is allowed to read
a book, enjoy this reading process, and experience positive feelings
repeatedly, after some time a need to read a book and undergo the
moments of pleasure is instigated in a learner; to satisfy this need a
learner strives toward an activity, an action, i.e. reading. When a
learner takes a break and ceases the strokes, used in an activity,
s/he focuses on an activity itself. Here the objectivism or thinking is
developed in a learner. In more concrete terms a learner
contemplates about a writer, characters in a book, encountered
words and expressions.

Reading requirements, activities and testing in an

extensive reading program
One of the points that differentiates an extensive reading
program from other language programs, and manifests in its title, is
the large quantity of reading that a student is expected to read.
There are no established norms of reading amounts that can be
considered as extensive. The appropriate technique how to define
the required amount of reading in a week is to investigate how much
of reading students do in an intensive reading programs weekly. This
amount for Georgian students varies from the level they are at. It is
approximately from 10 to 15 pages. The amount of reading in a week
that was found suitable for extensive reading program for Georgian
students is about 50-80 pages. These numbers were obtained by
multiplying intensive reading indicator to 5. Bi-lingual texts at the
appropriate level may make it possible to check quickly on the
meanings of new structures/lexis. To that extent, slightly more
difficult texts could be attempted by students.
Silent reading- twice a month the teacher can ask students
to do silent reading. The students read their books; the teacher does
not interfere in their reading process. She also gives the example by
reading herself.
Oral presentation- Students regularly present the book they
have finished. It is 3-5 minute presentation. During an oral
presentation students can use their summaries written in their
notebooks. The discussion often is like a conference. The teacher
can conduct an interview on the topic ‗the best and the most boring
books‘.
The logbook - is a significant tool in an extensive reading
program because logbooks are the documantation which are basics
for asessment and a teacher‘s further orientation in a student‘s
reading. First, a reading log provides readers a mechanism of
accountability to record what they are reading each day. Students
can be encouraged to record what they are reading. Another way
that this reading log has proved useful is how much time they spent
on reading. The log does not require the reader to provide a detailed
description of their comprehension of what has been read. In logs
readers must summarize what they have read. The logbook which
was designed for Georgian students for an extensive reading
program got a name of post reading worksheet (PRW). The PRW
develops some reading strategies in readers (cf. Appendix 3). The
most prominent ones are scanning and summarization which are
discussed separately in the specific sections. The PRW forces the
students to activate the knowledge that they gained from the reading.
From this process, the students learn how to do their own research
of the book.
In the first section the students write the author‘s name and
the title of the book. This section helps them to pay attention to the
significance of the title and it will help them keep their worksheets
organized. Students should keep a record of the material that they
have read.
In the second and third sections the students write the
number of pages in the book and the amount of time they spent on
reading the book. This data enables the students to monitor their
progress. They can compare the speed that they read a book to
previous one. The students can also use this section to monitor the
time that they have worked on extensive reading lessons throughout
the course.
In the fourth section the students list and describe briefly the
characters. This section, as well as the fourth and the fifth sections,
develops a reading strategy, scanning, in readers. Scanning is a
technique often used when looking for specific information, for key
words or ideas. In most cases, readers know what they are looking
for, so they are concentrating on finding a particular answer.
Scanning involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking
specific words and phrases (Nuttall, 2000, p.49).
In the fifth section the students write about the significance
of the book and their further comments. After reading, students
usually remain under the impression of the book. They want to
express their ideas, judgments and emotions after reading. They
often complete this section with zeal. In this section students often
express their appreciation of the author‘s writing style; however,
sometimes students criticize the author and they write their preferred
ending to the story. Students also show their sympathy and affection
towards the heroes and characters of the story, and they often use
new words from a book to express their opinions.
In the sixth section the students discuss those few new
words and expressions that they found important and interesting for
them. Students especially like this section because they can
demonstrate what they have learned. The students can discuss
words‘ meanings in their oral presentation.
In the seventh section the students rate the book. This
activity is easy for the students. They often rate a book
controversially. The discrepancies among their opinions stimulate
debates among students as they defend and justify their ratings,
sometimes mingled with humor.
In the eighth section the students write the summary.
Students summarize the plot of the book briefly. This activity helps
students to concentrate on the main idea of the book. According to
Hatzitheodorou (2008, p. 61) ―…summarization techniques enable
the individual to both receive and interpret a text competently,
appreciating its full meaning, re-enacting all most of its initial
circumstances of production and viewing it as a living piece of text,
which is embedded in its orders of production and consumption and
constituted with its purpose of production and purpose of
consumption.‖ Learners should combine both competent readership
and authorship combined with interpreting skills. The contribution of
summarizing to comprehension within a pedagogical context is
attested in Pearson and Fielding‘s (1991, p. 833) study, which
argues that condensing texts is conducive to improved
comprehension, increased recall and improvement on standardized
reading test scores. Therefore, summarizing serves the purpose of
study skill - reading comprehension.
In the nineth section the students analyze the difficulty of the
reading material.
The items of PRW can be changed or modified according to
a teacher or students‘ requirements even though a teacher should
avoid overloading students with tasks.
Tests - Once a month teacher may ask students to write a
topic based on a reading material, for example the favorite
character‘s description, etc. Every following second week the teacher
collects students‘ notebooks and checks them. She usually pays
much attention to the summaries, which shows how the students
comprehend the texts, rather than writing and spelling.
Other optional activities are:
1) Characters you identify with
2) Points of the story or behaviors that interest you
3) Personal experience or thoughts related to the book
4) Favorite parts
5) Parts you dislike
6) How you would change the book
7) How you would act differently from the characters
8) Larger issues raised in the book (war, racism, sexism, etc)
9) Experiences while reading (meeting familiar words,
excitement, sleepiness, etc)
10) Design a poster to advertise the book
11) Draw or use a map to show important places/routes in the
book. Explain why they are important
12) Create a timeline of events in the book, perhaps with some
text to help people understand the events in the timeline
13) Compare the book with a movie/TV version of the same
book
14) Imagine that a character in the story became a student at
your school. How would they dress? How would they
behave? How would students, teachers, you, and others
react to them?
15) Short note to the next reader of the book
16) Imagine, you met the author, what would you tell?
Most ER researchers discuss learners‘ assessment briefly
and discourage teachers from evaluating learners and testing them
in an ER program (Day & Bamford, 2005; Nuttall, 2000) According to
Tkhemaladze et al. (2008, p. 77) there are several criteria for
assessment: reliability, validity, objectivity, and transparency.
According to the purpose of assessment there are two forms of
evaluation: developing and defining. The teacher varies these forms
of evaluation according to the lesson objectives.
As the goal of ER is to encourage students to read more and
enjoy it, the teacher, in order to maintain this goal, should prefer to
use frequently developing evaluation more than the defining one.
The developing evaluation is aimed at improving skills, giving advice
and recommendations as a solution of a certain problem. Through
this evaluation a learner constantly gets comments and information
from the teacher through different ways. This feedback helps a
learner to follow own progress and perceive in learning. Furthermore,
through the developing evaluation the teacher monitors students‘
weak and strong sides, suggests the ways of overcoming problems
and achieving extensive reading goals.

Selecting reading material

In selecting reading material successfully and enjoying the
reading, schemata plays significant role. A schema is a mental
structure. It derives from all the particular experiences students have
had. It is structure because it is organized; it includes the
relationships between its component parts. According to Alderson
(2000, p. 33) schemata ―are seen as interlocking mental structures
representing reader‘s knowledge. When readers process text, they
integrate the new information from the text into their pre-existing
schemata. More than that their schemata influence how they
recognize information as well as how they store it.‖ The way
Georgian students interpret depends on the schemata activated by
the text; and whether students interpret successfully depends on
whether their schemata are sufficiently similar to the writer‘s. In a
responsive reader- one who is alert and actively processing the
ideas in the text- the relevant schemata are activated. That means
they are ready to be called on to explain unstated relationships and
also liable to be modified by new ideas. Perhaps we can say that the
responsive readers should be flexible in their approach to the ideas
in the text and subconsciously a reader is an experimenter. People
of similar background tend to have similar schemata; for them, the
common ground is much bigger than for people coming from
different backgrounds. We see the difference in backgrounds and
thus in schemata between a Georgian reader and an English writer.
The final component of orientation in selecting books is
practical. An important matter refers to students‘ introduction with the
library. Students also need to be introduced to the graded readers
and tips how to find their appropriate level. The teacher explains that
books are colour-coded according to the levels. The teacher has also
to show to the students the blurb and why they need to read it, etc.
Nation and Wang (1999) in their study reached the following
conclusions how learners should plan and move systematically
through the Graded Reader levels: 1) learners should read at least
one graded reader every week, no matter what level they are reading
at, 2) learners should read at least five books at a level before
moving to books at the next levels, 3) learners should read more
books at a later levels than the earlier, 4) learners should read
between 15-20 readers in a year, 5) Learners may need to study the
new vocabulary at the earlier levels, 6) learners should work their
way through the levels of Graded Readers. Learners may choose the
books that appeal them without considering the level of the books.
Some learners may have difficulty getting started. Others may read
slowly and reluctantly. For this reason the teacher should monitor
learners‘ progress, talking with them individually about problems and
reading goals.
A teacher of the program and an administrator of the library
can together develop a list of English books existing in the library.
This list of publications will be given to students at the beginning of
an extensive reading program. The list will have the following
sections: level of reading, title, author, amount of pages in a book
publisher. It will be good if genre will also be included in this
description. Students can often look into the catalogue-list, even at
home and plan in advance their reading program for a month. This
kind of list also saves students and a librarian‘s time. Students
directly come and ask for a specific book. If a book is uninteresting or
too difficult a student simply abandons it for another. In other words,
readability or comprehensibility is essential. Students often mark
titles and make notes on their booklist; therefore this booklist is a
matter of discussion among students, even out of class; students
recommend the books to one another. This booklist empowers them
with the control over their reading, and increase their autonomy.
 Obstacles in teaching extensive reading
Experimental incorporation of extensive reading at the
foreign language department and the foreign language center
divulged some obstacles. These obstacles are also discussed in Day
& Bamford (2005). They suggested various reasons: cost of the
program; the work required to set up a program; the difficulty in
incorporating ER in already-crowded curriculum; the teacher‘s role;
the easy-nature of reading material; the prevailed reading skills
approach in EFL; the belief that reading should be delayed until
students can speak and understand the FL; confusion between
extensive reading and class readers. Grabe (2009, p. 311) indicated
following problems in implementing ER. He argues that firstly, in L2,
fluent reading is not often really the goal for a reading class or a
reading curriculum; rather the goal is the development of language
skills, vocabulary, grammar, translation, or study skills. Second,
teaching ER requires lots of resources. Third, the focus of many
reading curricula is on accurate comprehension and ―the assumption
that a good comprehender will eventually become a fluent reader of
extended texts on his or her own‖. Fourth, Grabe considers one of
the reasons of non popularity of ER is the teacher‘s role and
unreadiness to teach it. According to him even administrators are
uncomfortable with teachers not teaching and students not preparing
for high-stakes exams while in classes. The vision of teachers
teaching something to students is taken away by ER and teachers
feel disempowered. I took into considerations the problems indicated
by Grabe (2009), and Day & Bamford (2005) and I designed the
experimental implementation of ER in such way that I could
decrease the possibility of manifestation of all above mentioned
obstacles, however, following gaps and obstacles were met while
experimental incorporation of ER: the teacher‘s role; the myth- no
reading pain, no reading gain; poor print environment.
1) A teacher as the crucial factor of successful ER program -
before implementing ER it is important to instruct teachers on the
benefits reading and ER. Most teachers are not aware how reading
is favorable to foreign language acquisition. When the teacher is
equipped with the necessary knowledge about ER, the next step is to
make the teacher believe that ER is the one of the best ways of
teaching a foreign language and developing reading skill and reading
habit. At the beginning the teacher constantly needs encouragement
because the teacher may feel doubt about her role in the program as
it differs from other role where she transfers knowledge to learners.
The teacher may be confused with her role and regard it as passive
and finally feel uncomfortable. To solve this problem the teacher
should permanently read different books and perceive the nature of
extensive reading herself/himself. It will be helpful for teachers to
become familiar with learner‘s autonomy and periodically have
trainings on autonomous learning. It will enable teachers to look at
their responsibilities from different point of view and understand the
significance of learner‘s independence in studying process.
2) The myth- No reading pain, no reading gain. Students
accustomed to wading through difficult foreign language texts might
drown when suddenly plunged into a sea of simple and stimulating
material. Serious-minded students, for example, some participants A
believed in - no reading pain, no reading gain. They did not
understand how reading easy and interesting material can help them
become better readers. They admitted that one of the limitations of
the ER program was easy reading materials. It was monitored that
these serious-minded students, who believed that they had to
memorize many new words and read difficult texts, complained often
about the easiness of materials during the experimental teaching and
compared their achievements with the group of the home reading
program, where the focus was on vocabulary and the unabridged
book was read. This might be serious problem for good readers and
the solution is the teacher‘s orientation. This myth or false belief for
ER ―no reading pain, no reading gain” can be dispersed by the
teacher‘s explanation of the benefits of reading easy materials. At
the beginning of the program the teacher elucidates the goals, the
benefits and the novelty of the program. The teacher can clarify that
students increase their vocabulary on a regular basis through other
language programs. If the teacher‘s orientation is done properly good
readers will be eagerly involved in the ER program. When foreign
language acquirers read for pleasure, they develop the competence
they need to move from the beginning ―ordinary conversational‖ level
to a level where they can use the foreign language for more
demanding purposes such as the serious study of literature ,
business, and so on.
3) Print environment in Georgian Universities- one of the
serious obstacles for the implementation of ER is the poor print
environment or in some cases even the absence of print
environment. Krashen (1993) highlighted the importance of print
environment; ―When the print environment is rich, more reading is
done.‖ If not ETAG which provided graded readers for the
experimental instruction of the ER program, it would be difficult to
think about implementation of ER at Telavi State University. In order
to run successful ER programs it is important that universities be
equipped with graded readers, different reading materials,
newspapers, and magazines.
We plan to continue the survey of the graduates in order to
get a more complete picture of the reading programs at foreign
language departments of Georgian Universities. One of the
difficulties of the survey was to have access to the graduates. Only
the specific group of graduates was available for this time. This
group mainly comprises English teachers and MA students. We
admit that some responses may be influenced by professional
opinions or memories could be biased.

Conclusion
The extensive reading is an effective and pleasurable way for
students to learn to read English as a foreign language as an
alternative to translation or skill courses in which students are not
free to choose reading material that interests them. Extensive
reading raises students‘ motivation to read more and enjoy their
homework, develops confidence in students within reading; also it
promotes foreign language acquisition.
Extensive reading expands teachers‘ awareness about the
new approach and encourages them to step aside from the
traditional ways of teaching reading. Extensive reading gives an
incentive to Georgian teachers to read more which is crucial for
teachers too. In addition, Georgian university libraries will create
foreign language rich-print environment, which is one of the
important issues. Rich-print environment will cause better results in
reading and consequently in a foreign language acquisition. The
following recommendations are given for the implementation of
extensive reading.
 Extensive reading programs should be implemented as the
efficient reading development programs in Georgian
universities. An extensive reading program will widen
students‘ education level.
 Within this program students will become aware of
different cultures, countries, writers, notions, books, people
 and people‘s lifestyles. This reading program will raise
their activeness as students and as readers.
 Extensive reading teaching methodology is adequately
designed to fit the requirements of academic programs.
 It will contribute to the following improvements and
benefits among the students of the foreign language
department: positive attitude toward reading, general
language competence, and motivation. An extensive
reading program will inculcate among students the love of
reading, and it will increase interest toward foreign
language study.
 Extensive reading programs will popularize comparatively
less-practiced teaching model in Georgia - learner
autonomy. The relationship of a teacher and a student
based on learner autonomy, in extensive reading, will
create a beneficial background for a student to take
responsibility for own learning, and to experience real life
reading/learning. On the other hand, a teacher will respect
students‘ effort, show deep interest in each student‘s
success. Testing and grading will take secondary part in
this environment.
 Extensive reading will emphasize meaningful interaction
between students. This communication will take following
forms: lively discussions, analyses, and reading
recommendations.
It is essential to continue further research to discuss
extensive reading in terms of book selection, course administration,
pedagogic procedure, etc. Several suggestions for further research
should be presented. Future research could allot an academic hour
for foreign language center students for ER and observe the
improvements between one group of students reading extensively
and another lacking this activity and then assess the two groups‘
performance in general language competence.
To sum up, the extensive reading teaching methodology
developed in this chapter includes novelty in itself. It adopts teaching
principles which are the pedagogical basis of educational system in
Georgia. It outlines and structures the organization of teaching
extensive reading. A teacher as a guide and an enabler is relatively
new concept in foreign language teaching methodology in Georgia.
This methodology supports implementing learner autonomy in the
educational environment of Georgia by allowing learners to take
responsibilities for their learning. The extensive reading methodology
offers ways of approaching motivation, particularly, teacher
motivation and learner motivation. The methodology directs the
teacher through all the steps of teaching ER, such as, using
activities, testing, and selecting reading materials.
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