ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 2:HYDRODYNAMICS REVIEW

FLUID FLOW MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

(FEW IMPORTANT CONCEPTS)
1. Important Flow Lines
Path Line:

Path line is the line traced by a given fluid particle in motion. The path line shows the direction
of a particle over a certain period of time or between two given sections. This is generated by
injecting a dye into the fluid and following its path by photography or other means (Fig.1).

Figure 1: Path lines.

Streamline:

A streamline is drawn tangentially to the velocity vector at every point in the flow at a given
time (Fig. 2 & 3). The streamlines help in understanding flow patterns.

Figure 2: Streamline definition

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 Figure 3: Streamlines

Difference between Path line and Stream line

• A stream line is an imaginary line drawn in a flow field such that a tangent drawn at
any point on this line represents the direction of the velocity vector. Path line is the line
traced by a single fluid particle as it moves over a period of time.
• Stream line shows the direction of velocity of a number of fluid particles at the same
time. Path line shows the direction of velocity of the same fluid particle at successive
times.
2. Important Flow Types
Compressible Flow:
A flow in which volume of a flowing fluid and its density change during the flow is called a
compressible flow. All the gases are generally considered to have compressible flows.

Incompressible Flow:
A flow in which volume of a flowing fluid and its density do not change during the flow is
called an incompressible flow. All the liquids are generally considered to have incompressible
flows.

Steady Flow:
A steady flow is one in which the flow conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section) may
differ from point to point but do not change with time. So the flow rate at every point
remains constant with respect to time.

Unsteady Flow:
If at any point in the fluid, flow conditions change with time, the flow is called as unsteady.
So, flow rate changes with time.

One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow:

Term one, two or three dimensional flow refers to the number of space coordinates (X, Y and
Z) required to describe a flow.

Fluid flow is three-dimensional (3D) in nature which means that flow parameters like
velocity, pressure etc. vary in all the three coordinate directions. The 3D-flow is difficult
to analyze. It requires too much simplification. Also, in many cases, the largest changes only
take place only in two directions or even only in one direction. In these cases, changes in the

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other direction can be effectively ignored making analysis much simpler. In other words
sometimes simplification is made in the analysis of different fluid flow problems by selecting
the appropriate coordinate directions so that large variation of flow parameters take place in
only two directions or even in only one thereby reducing a 3D-flow problem to a 2D-flow
problem or even to a 1D-flow problem.

One, two and three-dimensional fluid flows are described below:

One-dimensional Flow (1D-Flow):

A flow in which all the flow parameters may be expressed as functions of time and one space
coordinate only X or Y or Z coordinate is called as one-dimensional (1D) flow.
OR
A flow is one-dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity, pressure, etc.) at a given
time only vary in the direction of flow and not across the cross-section. The streamlines being
mathematical straight lines possess only one dimension, i.e. either X-X or Y-Y or Z-Z
direction.
Example: Flow in a pipe.

Two-dimensional Flow (2D-Flow):

A flow in which all the flow parameters are functions of time and two space coordinates (say
X and Y), i.e. flow parameters vary in only two directions. No variation takes place in the third
direction (space coordinates Z) is called as two-dimensional (2D) flow.
OR
A flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow parameters vary in the direction
of flow and in one direction at right angle to the direction of flow. Streamlines in two-
dimensional flow are curved lines on a plane.

Example: Flow over a weir (Fig. 4).

Figure 4:Two-dimensional flow over a weir.

Three-dimensional Flow (3D-Flow):

A flow in which flow parameters are functions of three space coordinates (X, Y, Z) and time
is called as three-dimensional (3D) flow. For this flow, streamlines are represented in space
i.e., along three mutually perpendicular directions (three space coordinates; X, Y, Z).

Example: Fluid flow through porous medium, i.e. Groundwater flow in aquifers.

In this course, mostly we will be considering steady, incompressible one- and two-
dimensional flows.
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3. Control Volume:
A control volume is a volume enclosed by an imaginary surface to analyze a fluid dynamic
system (Fig. 1). The boundary of the control volume is called as control surface. The control
volume can be fixed in space or moving with constant velocity through which the fluid (gas or
liquid) flows. Mostly a fixed control volume is considered for analysis of fluid dynamics. The
shape of the control volume does not change normally.

Mass, momentum and energy of fluids are allowed to cross the boundary. A balance of mass,
momentum and energy that flow across the boundary is performed and the changes that could
take place to flow properties within the control volume are determined.

A control volume can also be considered as a mathematical concept used for developing
mathematical models of physical processes of fluids flow.

Figure 1: Control Volume

Other Definition of Control Volume (CV):

A control volume (CV) is an imaginary volumetric region of a flowing fluid space (Fig. 1) used
to study or analyze the fluid flow properties (velocity, acceleration, density, pressure,
momentum, energy, etc.) thereby to develop mathematical models (equations, formulae) for
the fluid flow properties. The boundary of the volumetric region is called as control surface
which is mostly fixed. Mass of the fluid is not fixed within the control volume rather mass,
energy and momentum enter and leave the CV and the changes taking place in the fluid flow
properties within CV are analyzed/studied mathematically.

Control Volume Approach:

The control volume approach is commonly used for study and analysis of fluids flow/motion
phenomenon. In this approach, a control volume is defined (see Fig. 2), within which fluid
flow properties of interest like velocity, acceleration, pressure and all other flow properties are
described/expressed as fields.
In other words, each property is expressed as a function of space and time, as shown for the
velocity field in Fig. 2. In the CV approach to analyze fluid flow, one is concerned about the
velocity, acceleration, etc. of whatever particle happens to be at a particular location of interest
at a particular time.

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 Figure. 2: Control volume with velocity field.

Example: Velocity field - An example of a fluid flow variable/property is the velocity (V). A
velocity field within CV is given by:

Note that since velocity is a vector, it can be split into three components (u, v, and w), all three
of which are functions of space and time (x, y, z, and t). In other words, at a given point in
space (x, y, and z), and at some particular time (t), the velocity vector is defined.

4. Flow Field:
A flow field of a fluid in motion is the distribution of a flow property like flow velocity (V) or
acceleration (a) over space and time (w.r.t. location & time) within the given control volume
of the flowing fluid
OR
A flow field consists of a flow property (say V or a) at different points (positions/locations)
and different times within a given control volume of the flowing fluid. For example, for a two-
dimensional fluid flow represented in the X-Y plane using X and Y Cartesian coordinates, the
velocity field will consist of velocity of flow {resultant velocity (V), velocity component in X-
direction (u) & velocity component in Y-direction (v)} at different points and different time,
i.e. V (x, y, t), u (x, y, t) and v (x, y, t) within the given control volume. In simple words,
velocity field inside CV is given/expressed by V (x, y, t). A flow field help understand flow
pattern by drawing streamlines as tangents to the velocity vectors.

Example of Flow Field: Velocity Field

Velocity field implies a distribution of velocity in a given region say R (control volume) as
shown in Fig.3. It is represented in a functional form as V(x, y, z, t) meaning that velocity is a
function of the spatial and time coordinates.

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 Figure 3: Velocity Field
As velocity is a vector quantity having both direction and magnitude, velocity field for a three-
dimensional flow (3D-flow) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as:

For a 3D-flow, velocity have three components (Fig. 4), one in each direction, i.e., u, v and
w in x, y and z directions, respectively.

Figure 4. Velocity Components for 3D-flow.

So velocity vector for 3D-flow is written as:

Where
ˆi is a unit velocity vector associated with X-axis
ˆj is a unit velocity vector associated with Y-axis
ˆk is a unit velocity vector associated with Z-axis
As the velocity components (u, v & w) are functions of both position and time. That is:
u = f (x, y, z, t)
v = f (x, y, z, t)
w = f (x, y, z, t)

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Velocity vector can be written as:

This velocity description is called the velocity field since it describes the velocity of all points
in a given control volume.

Similarly: Each of the other variables/properties involved in a fluid flow can also be given a
field representation. For example:

Temperature field can be expressed by T(x, y, z, t); Pressure field can be expressed by p(x,
y, z, t) and Density field can be expressed by ρ(x, y, z, t).

5. Differential Approach:
The differential approach provides point‐by‐point details of a flow pattern opposite to the
technique that provide gross‐average information about the flow.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:

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Eq. 3 represents the continuity equation for 3-dimesnional unsteady compressible fluid flow.

Differentiating eq. 3, we get

𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜌
= 𝜌( )+𝑢( ) , = 𝜌( )+𝑣( ) ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜌
= 𝜌( )+𝑤( )
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
− [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑢 ( )] − [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑣 ( )] − [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑤 ( )] = eq.4
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
For Steady flow, =0 so, eq. 4 becomes
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜌
− [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑢 ( )] − [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑣 ( )] − [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑤 ( )] = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜌
[𝜌 ( ) + 𝑢 ( )] + [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑣 ( )] + [𝜌 ( ) + 𝑤 ( )] = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

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Rearranging the above equation to get ‘𝜌′ common,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 [( ) + ( ) + ( )] + [𝑢 ( ) + 𝑣 ( ) + 𝑤 ( )] = 0 eq.5
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Eq. 5 represents the continuity equation for 3-dimesnional steady compressible fluid flow.
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
For Incompressible flow, [𝑢 ( ) + 𝑣 ( ) + 𝑤 ( )] = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

So,
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
+ + =𝟎 eq.6
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Eq. 6 represents the continuity equation for 3-dimesnional steady incompressible fluid flow.

Example Problem: For an incompressible fluid, flows are expressed by

i) u = -2y & v= 3x ii) u = 0 & v = 3xy iii) u = 2x & v = -2y
Do these flows satisfy continuity?

ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW

Basically, there are two types of motion:

translation and rotation. The two may exist
independently or simultaneously, in which case
they may be considered as one superimposed on
the other. If a solid body is represented by square,
then pure translation or pure rotation may be
represented as shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (b),
respectively.
If we now consider the square to represent a fluid
element, it may be subjected to deformation. This
can be either linear or angular, as shown in Fig. 2
(a) and (b), respectively.

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Rotational flow is when the particles of fluids are
all rotating about their own axis in addition to
their other movement. Irrotational flow is when the
individual particles are not rotating around their
axis.
The rotational movement can be specified in
mathematical terms. Fig.3 (a) shows the rotation of a
rectangular fluid element in a two-dimensional flow.
Consider a moving fluid element ABCD that moves
from one position at time ‘t’ to a new position and also
deforms as A’B’C’D’ during a small time interval ‘∆t’
as shown in adjoining figure. By superimposing new
position at time ‘t+∆t’ to the original position at time
‘t’, we get Fig. 3 (b)
Fig. 3 (a)

Fig. 3 (b)
The angular velocity (wAB) of line AB is,

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Examples Problem: Determine the following flows are rotational or irrotational;
i) u = -2y & v= 3x ii) u = 0 & v = 3xy iii) u = 2x & v = -2y

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STREAM FUNCTION & VELOCITY FUNCTION

What is stream function (ψ)?

Stream function is a very useful mathematical expression to study the hydro-kinematics. It is
related to the streamlines of flow. Stream functions can be defined for both 2D and 3D flows.
The 3D-flow is quite complicated. So we will be considering only two-dimensional flows.
We will be discussing three important points related to stream function:
1. Definition of stream function
2. Prove that stream function is constant along a streamline
3. Prove that volume flow rate between two streamlines is proportional to the difference in
values of their stream functions

1. Definition of stream function (ψ)

A stream function (ψ) is a mathematical expression which represents the volume flow rate
per unit width at a point in a flow field. The stream function (ψ) is a function of the position
of the given point. The derivatives of a stream function give velocity components at a given
point in a flow field.
For a steady, incompressible, 2D flow field, stream function ψ is represented by ψ(x, y). The
flow velocity components in the x- and y- directions at a given point are given by the partial
derivatives of the stream function ψ(x, y) at that point.

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The numerical constant associated to ψ represents the volume rate of flow. In SI units, stream
function ψ has a unit of cubic meter per second per meter width (normal to the xy- plane).
Consider a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow for which continuity equation is given
by:

(1)

A stream function {Ψ (x, y)} relates to the velocity components (u & v as shown in Fig. 1) in
such a way that continuity equation (Eq. 1) is satisfied i.e. the velocity components, u and v
are expressed in terms of ψ as follows:

(2)

Figure 1: Velocity components along a streamline.

Putting values of u and v in Eq. 1, we get:

(3)

Thus the continuity equation is automatically satisfied. Thus if we can find a stream function Ψ
that satisfy Eq. 2, the continuity equation need not to be solved.

Two important characteristics related to a stream function are:

• Lines of constant ψ are streamlines of the flow. In other words, value of the stream
function is constant along a streamline. As no flow can exist normal to a streamline;
thus, selected ψ-constant lines can be considered as solid boundaries of the flow.
• For any two points in the flow field, difference in the values of the stream functions of
those points represents the volume flow rate between the points. s
• A stream function will exist if given flow satisfy the continuity equation (the condition
for the existence of ψ).

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2. Prove that stream function is constant along a streamline
By definition:
The lines along which ψ is constant are called as streamlines. In a flow field, the tangent drawn
at every point along a streamline shows the direction of velocity (Fig. 2). So, the slope at any
point along a streamline is given by:
(4)

Thus, along a streamline in any steady incompressible flow, dy/dx=v/u

Referring to Fig. 2, if we move from one point (x, y) to a nearby point, (x+dx, y+dy) then the
corresponding change in the value of stream function is dΨ which is given by:

(5)

Along a line of constant Ψ, dΨ must be equal to zero. So,

(6)

Eq. 4 is the same as is the Eq. 6. So it has been proved that Ψ = constant line is a streamline of
the flow. Alternately equation for a streamline is given by Ψ = C (Ψ is constant along a
streamline). Thus, infinite number of streamlines can be drawn with constant Ψ. This family
of streamlines will be useful in visualizing the flow patterns. It may also be noted
that streamlines are always parallel to each other.

Figure 2: A streamline in a flow.

Example:

The equation, Ψ = C indicates that the general equation for the streamlines in a flow pattern is
obtained when Ψ is equated to a constant.

Different numerical values of the constant in turn define streamlines. As an example, the
stream function for a steady two-dimensional flow shown in Fig. 3 takes the following form:
Ψ = xy

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The general equation for the streamlines of such a flow is obtained when Ψ = C (constant),
that is,

Ψ = xy = C

Which indicates that the streamlines are a family of rectangular hyperbolas. Different
numerical values of C define different streamlines as shown in Fig. 3. Obviously, the volume
flow rate between any two streamlines is equal to the difference in numerical values of their
constants.

Figure 3: Streamlines defined by stream function in a flow field.

3. Prove that volume flow rate between two streamlines is proportional to the difference
in values of their stream functions

The numerical constant associated to Ψ, represents the volume flow rate. Consider two closely
spaced streamlines Ψ and (Ψ +dΨ) as shown in Fig. 4a.

Figure 4: Flow between two streamlines.

Let dq represents the volume flow rate per unit width perpendicular to x-y plane, passing
between the streamlines.

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At any arbitrary surface AC, the volume flow rate dq must be equal to net outflow through
surfaces AB and BC, i.e.

Volume flow rate (dq) across surface AC = volume flow rate through surface AB + volume
flow rate through surface BC

Mathematically,

(7)

The volume flow rate (q) can be determined by integrating Eq. (7) between streamlines Ψ1 and
Ψ2 (Fig. 4b) as follows:

(8)

So Eq. 8 indicates that the volume flow rate between two streamlines is proportional to the
difference in the values of stream functions of the streamlines.

Example Problem 1:

ψ = 3x2 − y3

Determine the magnitude of velocity components at the point (3, 1). Find also magnitude of
the resultant velocity.

SOLUTION: The x and y components of velocity are given by:

At the point (3, 1):

u = -3 and v = -18

The magnitude of the velocity V (resultant velocity) at any point P (with x and y coordinates)
can be calculated by the following relation:

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So,

V = [(-3)2 + (-18)2]1/2

V = [9 + 324]1/2

V = [333]1/2 = 18.24

Example Problem 2:

In a two-dimensional, incompressible steady flow the fluid velocity components are given by:
u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x. Show that the flow satisfies the continuity equation and obtain the
expression for the stream function.

Solution:

Given

Velocity field given by u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x.

Find

1. To check whether given flow (velocity field) satisfies continuity equation

2. Obtain the expression for the stream function  from the given velocity field.

Detailed Solution

1. Check whether given flow (velocity field) satisfies continuity equation:

For incompressible, steady, two-dimensional flow, the continuity equation is:

u v
+ =0
x y

Put u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x in above equation and get:

∂(x – 4y)/∂x + ∂(-y – 4x)/∂y = 0 1-1= 0

So, continuity equation is satisfied. It means given velocity field is a valid velocity field.
Also, as the given velocity field satisfies the continuity equation, the stream function, exists.

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2. Obtain the expression for the stream function :

As by definition:

u = ∂ѱ/∂y and u = x – 4y so ∂ѱ/∂y = x – 4y (1)

v = - ∂ѱ/∂x and v = -y - 4x so ∂ѱ/∂x = y + 4x (2)

Now separate and integrate Eq. (1) to get:

∂ѱ/∂y = x – 4y ʃ ∂ѱ = ʃ (x – 4y) ∂y + f(x)

So ѱ = xy-2y2 + ƒ (x) (3)

Where f(x) is any function of x including constants.

The f(x) has been added to Eq. (3) because ѱ is a function of both x and y, and we integrated
only with respect to y.

To determine f(x), take partial derivative of Eq. (3) with respect to x and equate to Eq. (2):

∂ѱ/∂x = ∂/∂x (xy-2y2) + ∂/∂x ƒ (x)

Or

∂ѱ/∂x = y+∂/∂x ƒ (x)

Now equating above Eq. with Eq. 2 we get:

y+∂/∂x ƒ (x) = y + 4x so

∂/∂x ƒ (x) = 4x

Now separate and integrate above expression to get value of ƒ (x):

∂ƒ(x) /∂x = 4x

ʃ ∂ƒ (x) = ʃ (4x) ∂x so ƒ (x) = 2x2

Put the value of ƒ (x) into Eq. 3 and get expression for stream function:

ѱ = xy-2y2 + ƒ (x)

Finally,

ѱ = 2x2 + xy-2y2 expression for defining the streamlines

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What is velocity potential function (ϕ)?

When the flow is irrotational, a mathematical function called the velocity potential function φ
may also be found to exist. A velocity potential function ϕ for a steady, irrotational flow in
the xy-plane is defined as a function of x and y, such that the partial derivative of ϕ with
respect to displacement in any chosen direction is equal to the velocity in that direction.
Therefore, for the x and y directions,

u = ∂ϕ/∂x (1)

v = ∂ϕ/∂y (2)

The continuity equation can be written in terms of ϕ by substitution Eqs. (1) and (2) into the
u v
continuity Eq. + = 0 as follows:
x y

u v
+ =0
x y

After putting values of u and v from Eqs. 1 & 2 we get:

∂2ϕ/∂x2 + ∂2ϕ/∂y2 = 0 (3)

The Eq. 3 is called as Laplace differential equation.

All practical flows (which must conform to the continuity principle) must satisfy the
Laplacian equation in terms of ϕ, which is based on the assumption of existence of velocity
potentials and the satisfaction of continuity principle.

Important points:

• It is important to note that the stream functions are not restricted to irrotational
(potential) flows, whereas the velocity potential function exists only when the flow is
irrotational because the velocity potential function always satisfies the condition of
irrotationality. In other words, if a velocity potential exists, flow must be irrotational
(condition for the existence of ϕ).
• The flows which satisfy continuity and irrotationality are called as potential flows.
Because of the irrotationality requirement potential flows are generally of ideal fluids.
• A line having equal velocity potential at all points lying on it is called as potential or
equipotential line.

Relation between stream function (ѱ) and velocity potential (ϕ):

A geometric relationship between streamlines and equipotential lines may be derived from
the mathematical definition equations of ѱ and ϕ as follows:

dѱ = (∂ѱ/∂x) dx + (∂ѱ/∂y)dy = - vdx + udy

dϕ = (∂ϕ/∂x) dx + (∂ϕ/∂y) dy = udx + vdy

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However, along a streamline ѱ is constant and dѱ = 0, so along a streamline:

dy/dx = v/u (Eq. a)

Also along any equipotential line ϕ is constant and dϕ = 0, so along an equipotential line;
dy/dx = - u/v (Eq. b)
When a negative reciprocal of slope of a line is the slope of the other line, then geometrically
these lines are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other OR when the product of slopes of
two lines is equal to -1, then geometrically these lines are orthogonal or perpendicular to each
other. So slopes of streamline (Eq. a) and equipotential line (Eq. b) indicate that streamlines
and equipotential lines are orthogonal or everywhere perpendicular to each other. As shown in
Figs. 5 & 6, the equipotential lines are normal to the streamlines. Thus the streamlines and
equipotential lines (for potential flows) form a net of mutually perpendicular families of lines.
This net is called a flow net, which is used to analyze/study the flow fields where formal
mathematical expressions of ϕ and ψ cannot be obtained. Fig. 7 shows the flow through a bend
where the streamlines and the equipotential lines have been plotted. The two form an
orthogonal network called a flow net for flow through a bend.

Figure 5: Showing orthogonality of streamlines and equipotential lines.

Figure 6: Showing orthogonality of streamlines and equipotential lines.

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 Figure 7: Stream lines and equipotential lines for flow through a bend.

For any flow pattern the velocity potential function ϕ is related to the stream function ψ by the
means of the two velocity components, u and v, at any point (x, y) in the Cartesian coordinate
system in the form of the two following equations:

u = ∂ϕ/∂x = ∂ѱ/∂y and v = ∂ϕ/∂y = - ∂ѱ/∂x

Example Problem 3:
A stream function in a two-dimensional flow is ψ = x+ 2y. Determine the corresponding
velocity potential function ϕ.

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Example Problem 4:
In a two-dimensional, incompressible steady flow the fluid velocity components are given by:
u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x. If the flow is potential (irrotational) obtain the expression for the
velocity potential, ϕ.

Solution:

Given
Velocity field given by u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x.

Find

1. To check whether the flow is potential

2. Obtain the expression for the velocity potential ϕ from the given velocity field.

Detailed Solution

1. To check whether the flow is potential.

We know that for potential flow:

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 2. To obtain the velocity potential:

THE FLOW NETS

What is a Flow Net?

A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines is known as a flow
net. In other words, a flow net is a graphical representation of a two-dimensional steady-
state incompressible irrotational flow problem and comprises a family of flow lines and
equipotential lines. For example, Figure 1 shows a flow net of a flow through a bend.

Figure 1: Flow net for flow through a bend.

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Characteristics of flow nets (Figures 2 through 6)
• Flow lines or stream lines represent flow paths of water particles.
• Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other.
• The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel.
• The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant (Δq).
• Flow cannot occur across flow lines.
• An equipotential line is a line joining points with the same velocity potential or head (h).
• The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line.
• The difference in velocity potential between two equipotential lines is called the potential
drop or head loss (Δh).
• A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
• An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line.
• Streamlines are parallel to no flow boundaries.
• Grids are curvilinear squares, where diagonals cross at right angles. However, in a region
where boundaries converge, diverge or bend, flow net does not contain squares.

Figure 2: Flow net and its characteristics.

Figure 3: Flow net and its characteristics.

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Figure 4: Flow net and its characteristics.

Figure 5: Flow net and its characteristics.

Figure 6: Flow net and its characteristics.

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Uses of Flow Net

The flow net being a graphical method is an important tool for analyzing the two-dimensional
steady state incompressible irrotational flow problems. The flow net is mainly used for:

• Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs.

• Determination of uplift pressures below dams.
• Checking the possibility of piping beneath dams.
• Solving groundwater flow problems

Typical illustrations of flow nets

Figures 7 through 11 demonstrate the typical flow nets drawn for different kinds of seepage
problems pertaining to flow beneath hydraulic structures like, dam and sheet pile wall.

Figure 7: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam.

Figure 8: Typical flow net for the flow around a sheet pile wall.

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 Figure 9: Flow through an earth dam

Figure 10: Flow lines and equipotentials

Figure 11: Value of Head on Equipotentials

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Limitations of Flow Net

• The flow net analysis cannot be applied in the region closed to the boundary where the
effect of viscosity is dominant.

• The flow net is not applied to sharply diverging flow (Fig. 12), as the actual flow pattern
is not represented by the flow net.

For example in case of a flow of water around a bridge pier, the flow net can provide a
reasonably accurate picture of the flow pattern for the upstream part of the pier, but it
can give little information about the flow conditions at the rear because of separation
of boundary layer (a very thin layer of a flowing liquid in contact with the surface of
the inside wall of a pipe. The viscosity is very dominant in the boundary layer. Velocity
is very small and is zero next to pipe wall) from the wall and formation of eddies. In
the rear of bridge pier, turbulent flow conditions are produced which cannot be captured
by a flow net.

Figure 12: Showing a diverging flow

Methods of Drawing Flow Nets

1. Hydraulic models

• Streamlines can be traced by injecting a dye in a seepage model or Heleshaw apparatus/model.

• Then by drawing equipotential lines, the flow net is completed.

2. Analytical Method

• It is only applied to problems with simple and ideal boundary conditions.

• First, the equations for stream function and velocity potential are obtained and then streamlines and
equipotential lines are plotted to obtain the flow net for the given flow problem.

3. Electrical Analogy Method

This method is based on the fact that the flow of fluids and flow of electricity through a conductor are analogus.
These two systems are similar in the respect that electric potential is analogus to the velocity potential. The

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electric current is analogus to the velocity of flow and the homogeneous conductor is analogus to the
homogeneous fluid. This is a practical method for drawing a flow net for a particular set of boundaries.

4. Graphical Method

This method requires a lot of erasing to get the proper shape of a flow net and also consumes a lots of time. The
graphical method consists of drawing steam lines and equipotential lines such that they cut orthogonally and
form curvilinear squares.

5. Flow Net Software

An example on use of a flow net:

Consider a flow net given below (Fig. 13). Now consider two sections 1 and 2 of the flow net.

Figure 13: Showing a flow net

Let

X1 = spacing between two streamlines at section 1

V1 = velocity of liquid particles at section 1
X2 & V2 = corresponding values at section 2

Discharge per unit width (q) between two adjacent streamlines will be given by:

q = X1.V1 = X2.V2
Example Problem
From a flow net diagram, it was found that the distance between two consecutive streamlines at two adjacent
sections are 10 mm and 6 mm, respectively. If the velocity at the first section is 1 m/s, find the velocity at the
other section. Also find the discharge between these two streamlines.

Given:

X1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m
X2 = 6 mm = 0.006 m
V1 = 1 m/s

Find:

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 i) V2 =?

ii) q =?

Solution:

As V2 = X1.V1/X2

So i) V2 = 0.01x1/0.06 = 1.67 m/s Ans.

And ii) q = X1.V1 = 0.01x1 = 0.01 m3/s/m = 0.01 m2/s Ans.

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