Heating effect of electric current and Joule’s Law of electric heating

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Course Outcome: Conduct a DC circuit analysis using electric circuit theorems, laws, and techniques

Learning Objective: Calculate heat generated, current, resistance, or time when given appropriate data

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Outline

1. Heating effect of electric current

2. Joule’s Law of Heating
a. Formula
b. Conversion of Electrical Units into Mechanical and Thermal Units or Vice-Versa
3. Applications of Joule’s Law of Heating
4. Thermal Units
5. Efficiency
 1. Heating effect of electric current
It is a fact of everyday experience that a conductor in which there is an electric current is thereby
heated. In some cases, such as the electric iron and toaster, this heating is desirable. In many other cases,
particularly in electric machinery such as dynamos and transformers, the heating is most undesirable. Not
only does this heat represent an expensive loss of energy, but it necessitates careful design of the
apparatus to get rid of the heat (Weber, R.L., Manning, K.V., White, M.W., Weygand, G.A., 1977).
In heating devices, the wire in which the useful heat is produced is called the heating element. It
is often embedded in a refractory material, which keeps it in place and retards its oxidation. If the heating
element is exposed to air, it should be made of metal that does not oxidize readily. Nickel-chromium alloys
(such as Nichrome) have been developed for this purpose (Weber,R.L., Manning, K.V., White, M.W.,
Weygand, G.A., 1977).
When an electric current flows through a conductor, electrical energy is expended to overcome
the frictional resistance between electrons and the molecules of the wire (Gupta, J.B., 2012).
If a potential difference of V volts is applied across a conductor and a current of I amperes flows
through it for time t seconds, then the energy expended will be equal to VIt watt-seconds or joules (Gupta,
J.B., 2012).
If R is the resistance of the conductor through which a current of I amperes flows, and V is the
potential difference applied across its ends, recall by Ohm’s Law
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 (1)
Notice that Equation 1 is a specific case of Ohm’s law, where the current is constant (as for the
case of DC). Thus, the amount of energy can be calculated by
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝜏 = 𝐼𝑅 × 𝐼 × 𝜏 = 𝐼 2 × 𝑅 × 𝜏 (𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) (2)
Equation 2 can also be written as follows:
𝑉2
𝑊= ×𝜏 (𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) (3)
𝑅
Where, 𝜏 is the time duration in seconds or hours.

According to the law of conservation of energy, this electrical energy expended must be
converted into some other form of energy and that other form is heat, i.e. electrical energy expended is
converted into heat energy and conversion of electrical energy into heat energy is called the heating or
thermal effect of electric current (Gupta, J.B., 2012).

2. Joule’s Law of Heating

James Prescott Joule established that there exists a definite relation between electrical energy
expended and the amount of heat produced. Thus, the relation is called Joule’s law of electrical heating
(Sahdev, S.K., 2015).
Joule’s law of heating basically tells us about the heat produced by a conductor (with some
resistance) when current passes through it1.
Joule’s Law states that the amount of heat produced in an electric circuit is proportional to the
square of the current, resistance, and time duration for which the current flows (Gupta, J.B., 2012) – as is
shown in Equation 2. Thus,

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 𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 2 , 𝐻 ∝ 𝑅, 𝐻 ∝ 𝜏 (4)
The heating is caused by the interactions between the electrons and the atomic ions of the
conductor. A voltage difference between two points of the conductor creates an electric field which causes
the electrons to accelerate in the direction of the field, thus giving them kinetic energy. These electrons
can collide with other electrons, or the atomic ions of the metal and these collisions produce thermal
energy2. Hence, the electric energy is converted into thermal energy (heat).

2.1 Formula
This law states that the amount of heat produced (H) is directly proportional to the electrical
energy expended (W) (Sahdev, S.K., 2015).

That is,
𝑊
𝐻 ∝ 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 = 𝐽 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) (5)
𝐻

Where: J – Joule’s Constant or Joule’s Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (J = W/H = Work Done/Heat
Produced) (4.18 joule per calorie; 1 calorie = 4.18 joule). It means that to produce one calorie of heat, 4.18
J of electrical energy is expended (Sahdev, S.K., 2015).

We get,
𝑊 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝐻= 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒) (6)
𝐽 4.18

Where:
H – Heat generated (Here it is in calories, cal)
I – Current passed (amperes, A)
R – Resistance of the wire (ohm, Ω)
t – Time for which current is passed (seconds, s)

2.2 Conversion of Electrical Units into Mechanical and Thermal Units or Vice-Versa
1 watt = 1 joule/second = 1 N-m/s
1,000
1 kW = 1,000 watts or J/s or N-m/s = i.e. hp (metric)
735.5
1 kWh = 1,000 watt-hours = 3,600,000 watt-seconds or joules = 1.36 Hp-hour (metric)
1 calorie = 4.18 J or watt-seconds
4,180 1
1 kcal = 4,180 J or watt-seconds = i.e. kWh
3,600,000 860
36 × 105
1 kWh = 36 x 105 watt-seconds = i.e. 860 kcals
4,180

3. Applications of Joule’s Law of Heating

 Electric heating device – Electric iron, electric heater, electric toaster are some of the appliances
that work on the principle of heating effect of current.

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  Electric Bulb is another application that works on the principle of Joule heating. Since the
resistance of the filament in the bulb is high, the heat produced in the bulb is also high.
 Fuse wire is connected in series in an electric circuit. It has high resistance and a low melting point.
When a large current flows through a circuit due to short-circuiting, the fuse wire melts due to
heating and hence the circuit becomes open. Therefore, the electric appliances are saved from
damage.

4. Thermal Units
a. Heat energy: The flow of current through a material produces a heat. According to the
principle of conversion of energy, the electrical energy spent must be equal to the heat energy
produced.
𝑽𝟐
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑯) = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 = 𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑹

b. Specific heat capacity: The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 kilogram
of substance through 1 degree kelvin.
Key Point: Its unit is Joules/kg - °K. This is denoted by “C”
𝑸 𝑸
𝑪= =
𝒎∆𝑻 𝒎(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Table 1. Values of specific heat capacity of various substances.

Substance Specific heat capacity in J/kg - °𝑲 Specific heat capacity in J/kg - °𝑪
Water 4187 4182
Copper 390 385
Aluminum 950 897
Iron 500 449

c. Sensible heat: The quantity of heat gained or lost when change in temperature occurs.
𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪∆𝒕 (𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔) (𝟕)
Where: 𝑚 = mass of substance in kg
𝐶 = specific heat in J/kg - °K
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = change in temperature
d. Latent heat: The quantity of heat required to change the state of the substance i.e. solid to
liquid to gas without change in its temperature.
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝒎 × 𝑳 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
Where: m = mass of substance in kg
L = Specific latent heat in specific enthalpy in J/kg
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 + 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
The various relations between electrical and thermal units are,
1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 4.186 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
1
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒
4.186
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 × 106 𝐽 = 860 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
e. Specific enthalpy: It is the heat required to change the state of one kilogram mass of a
substance without change in temperature. Its unit is J/kg.
 f. Calorie value: Heat energy can be produced by burning the fuels. The calorific value of a fuel
is defined as the amount of heat produced by completely burning unit mass of that fuel.
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈 × 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑱/𝒌𝒈
g. Water equivalent of container: When water is heated in a container then the container is also
heated. So heat is wasted to heat container. To take into account this heat, water equivalent
of container must be known.

Key Point: The water equivalent of container means whatever heat is required to heat body of
container can be considered to be equivalent to heat energy required to heat equivalent mass of
water.

5. Efficiency

The efficiency can be defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input. It can also be expressed
as ration of power output to power input.

Its value is always less than 1. Higher its value, more efficient is the system of equipment. Generally
expressed in percentage. Its symbol is 𝜂.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
%𝜂 = × 100
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
= × 100
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Sample Problem 1
An electric bulb draws a current of 8A and works on 250 volts on an average of 8 hours a day. Find the
power consumed by the bulb and the energy dissipated as heat
Given: 𝐼 = 8 𝐴, 𝑉 = 250 𝑉, 𝑡 = 8 ℎ𝑟𝑠
Required: P and H
Solution:
Calculate the power of the bulb,
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 250 × 8
∴ 𝑷 = 𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟐 𝒌𝑾
Calculate the heat energy dissipated in the bulb,
𝐻 = 𝑃𝜏
3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐻 = (2000) (8 ℎ𝑟 × )
1 ℎ𝑟
∴ 𝑯 = 𝟓𝟕, 𝟔𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱 𝒐𝒓 𝟓. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑱
Therefore, the power of the bulb is 2kW and it draws 57,600,000 joules of energy when powered for 8
hours.

Sample Problem 2
Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when 5A current flows through it for 5 minutes.
Given: 𝑅 = 10 Ω, 𝐼 = 5 𝐴, 𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 5 × 60 = 300 𝑠
Required: H
Solution:
This is a direct substitution to Equation 2,
𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝜏
𝐻 = (5)2 (10)(300)
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱 𝒐𝒓 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑱
Therefore, the energy produced by this resistance is 75 kJ.

Sample Problem 3
A house is supplied with electricity at 250 V. It has the following electrical loads:
a. 20 lamps, 100 W each
b. 5 radiators, 2 kW each
c. 2 motors, each taking 50 A.
If the electricity is kept in use for 5 hours a day, find the cost of energy consumed for the month of
February 2007, at the rate of ₱ 8.00 per unit.
Given: Voltage = 250 V
Loads: 20 lamps, 100 W each
5 radiators, 2 kW each
2 motors, each taking 50 A
𝜏 = 5 hours/day
Required: Cost of energy for February 2007
Solution:
Let C be the cost of energy required
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 = 20 × 100 = 2 000 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 5 × 2 = 10 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2 × (𝑉𝐼) = 2 × 250 × 50 = 25000 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 25 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 + 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝑘𝑊 + 10𝑘𝑊 + 25𝑘𝑊 = 37 𝑘𝑊
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 2007 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 × (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒𝑏. )
5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 37 𝑘𝑊 × 28 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 ×
1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 5,180 𝑘𝑊ℎ
∴ 𝐶 = 5,180 𝑘𝑊ℎ × 8 = ₱ 41,440.00
Therefore, the cost of energy for the month of February 2007 is 41,400 Php.

Sample Problem 4
In an electric heater the inlet temperature is 15 °C. Water is flowing at the rate of 300 grams per minute.
The voltmeter measuring voltage across the heating element reads 120 volts and an ammeter
measuring current taken reads 10 amperes. When steady state is finally reached, what is the final
reading of the outlet thermometer?
Given: 𝑡1 = 15 °C
Flow rate of the water = 300 g/min
Voltage = 120 V
Current = 10 A
Required: 𝑡2 =?
Solution:
Equation 2 and Equation 7 for sensible heat can be equated in this problem. That is,
𝑉𝐼𝜏 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑡
The change in temperature (rise), can now be calculated as
 𝑉𝐼𝜏 𝑉𝐼 (120)(10)
∆𝑡 = =𝑚 =
𝑚𝐶 𝐶 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝐽
𝜏 (300 × × ) (4182 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1 000 𝑔 𝑘𝑔 − °𝐶
Thus,
∆𝑡 = 57.39 °𝐶
But,
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Hence,
𝑡2 = ∆𝑡 + 𝑡1
𝑡2 = 57.39 + 15
𝑡2 = 72.39 °𝐶
Therefore, the final temperature is 72.39°C.

References
i. Sahdev, S. K. (2015). Basic Electrical Engineering. Pearson
ii. Gupta, J. B. (2012). Basic Electrical Engineering. S. K. Kataria & Sons
iii. U.A. Bakshi, V. U. Bakshi (2009). Basic Electrical Engineering. Technical Publications Pune
iv. Siskind, C. S. (1980). Electrical Circuits (2nd Edition). McGraw-Hill, Inc.
v. Weber,R.L., Manning, K.V., White, M.W., Weygand, G.A., (1977). College Physics. McGraw-Hill,
Inc.
vi. https://protonstalk.com/physics/joules-law-of-heating/