DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.

WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN

COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
WEEK 2
Understanding Logic and Language: Reasoning
______________________________________________________________________________

Content Standard: The learners shall have an understanding of Logic and language: reasoning
_____________________________________________________________

OUR TARGET – LEARNING

COMPETENCIES
At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. Defining Logical Concepts such Logic, Propositions, Arguments, Deductive & Inductive Arguments,
Validity and Truth
2. Determine if the sentence is a statement or not
3. Explain Arguments: Analysis and Evaluation
4. Describe Paraphrasing and Diagramming Arguments
5. Recognizing Arguments
6. Explain Complex Argumentative Passages
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TERMS TO
REMEMBER
Logic Propositions Arguments Deductive & Inductive Arguments,

Validity and Truth

____________________________________________________________________________

What Do You Need to Know?

Read Information very well then find out how much you can remember and how much you
learned by answering Self-check activity 1

____________________________________________________________________________________

LET’S
DISCUSS
Course Content:
I. Understanding Logic and Language: Reasoning
A. Defining Logical Concepts
Logic, Propositions, Arguments, , Deductive & Inductive Arguments, Validity and Truth
B. Arguments: Analysis and Evaluation
-Paraphrasing and Diagramming Arguments
- Recognizing Arguments
- Complex Argumentative Passages

Introduction
1
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
Logic is the formal study of the principles of correct reasoning. Year of research supports a
long-held intuition that logic and critical thinking can improve student understanding of the
concepts presented across a variety of disciplinary areas (Durand-Guerrier, 2003; Fitch,
2012; Hoyles & Küchemann, 2002; Jenicek & Hitchcock, 2004; Morou & Kalospyros,
2011). Jenicek & Hitchcock (2004) have suggested that: our entire professional life is a wild world
of arguments-meant in the sense of exchanges between people sharing information and giving
reasons which form the bases, grounds, and warrants for their claims. Since logic and critical
thinking is about rational uses of evidence, a valuable preparation for professional practice would
naturally include learning the proper uses of evidence in daily practice and research.
This is an introductory lesson in logic and critical thinking. Both logic and critical thinking
centrally involve the analysis and assessment of arguments. “Argument” is a word that has multiple distinct
meanings, so it is important to be clear from the start about the sense of the word that is relevant to the study
of logic.

What is Logic?
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning

The term “logic” is derived from the word logos which means study, reason, or discourse.It is actually the
science and art of correct thinking. (Corazon L. Cruz,1995, Introduction to Logic, 4th Edition).

Logic as philosophical science, has its own rewards, namely;

1. It guides man in his search for truth.

2. It develops and perfects his reasoning power
3. It assures better relationships among men.
4. It is very helpful in the study of other philosophy subjects.

Critical Thinking-The object of thinking is truth. Logic is a branch of knowledge, which reflects upon the
nature of thinking itself. Critical thinking alludes to knowledge of the science of logic such as skills of
logical analysis, correct reasoning, and understanding statistical methods. Critical thinking is beyond
apprehending logical procedures. A critical thinker apprehends the sources of knowledge, the nature of
knowledge, and the nature of truth.

Reasons are the coin we pay for the beliefs we hold. Yes; but reason given are not always good reasons.
With reasoning we produce arguments some good, some bad-that can be formulated in writing or speech.
Every argument confronted raises this questions.

 Does the conclusion reached follow from the premises used or assumed?
 There are objective criteria with which that question can be answered.

 In the study of logic we seek to discover and apply those criteria

 If asserting the premises of some argument are to be true does warrant asserting the conclusion
also to be true.

 Reasoning is an art as well as science; it is something we do as well as understand.

 Giving reasons may come naturally, but our skills in the art of building arguments, and testing
them, can be strengthened with practice.

2
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
 One who has developed this skills is more likely to reason correctly than one who has never
thought about the principles involved.
 Judgements that must be relied upon are to be made, their solid foundation will be correct
reasoning.

What is propositions?

Propositions are the materials of our reasoning. A proposition asserts that some thing is (or is not) the
case.

Any proposition may be affirmed or denied. The truth and falsity of some propositions

Example of proposition

There is life on some other planet in our galaxy.

Propositions is differ from questions, which can be asked, and from command which can be given and
from exclamation which can be uttered.

None of these can be asserted or denied

Truth and falsity apply always to propositions, but do not apply to questions, or commands, or
exclamation

Propositions must be distinguished also from the sentences by means of which they are asserted.

Two different sentences, consisting of different words differently arranged ,may have the same meaning and
be used to assert the same proposition

Example;

“Leslie won the election” and “The election was won by Leslie”

Proposition is the term we use to refer to what is that declarative sentences are typically used to assert.

Sentences are parts of some language, but propositions are not tied to any given language.

Proposition is an assertion that something is or is not the case; all propositions are either true or false

What is Statement?

The meaning of a declarative sentence at a particular time; In logic, the word “statement” is sometimes
used instead of proposition

Simple proposition a proposition making only one assertion

Compound proposition a proposition containing two or more simple proposition

Example;

The Americans and Russians were driving swiftly to a junction on the Elbe. The British were
at the gates of Hamburg and Bremen and threatening to cut off Germany from occupied
Denmark. In Italy Bologna had fallen and Alexander’s Allied forces were plunging into the
valley of the Po. The Russians, having captured Vienna on April 13, were heading up to
Danube.

Disjunctive or Alternative Propositions

A type of compound proposition; If true, at least one of the component propositions must be true.

3
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
Example;

Circuit Courts are useful , or they are not useful

Hypothetical or Conditional Proposition

A type of compound proposition; it is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.

If God did not exist, It would be necessary to invent him

What is an Arguments?

Arguments are the chief concern of Logic

An arguments is any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from others , which are
regarded as providing support or ground for the truth of that one.

“Argument” is a word that has multiple distinct meanings, so it is important to be clear from the start about
the sense of the word that is relevant to the study of logic. In one sense of the word, an argument is a heated
exchange of differing views.

Sally: Abortion is morally wrong and those who think otherwise are seeking to justify murder!

Bob: Abortion is not morally wrong and those who think so are right-wing bigots who are seeking to
impose their narrow-minded views on all the rest of us!

But the reason for thinking the conclusion is true is what we call the premise.

Two parts of an argument:

the premise and the conclusion. a conclusion will be supported by two or more premises. Both premises
and conclusions are statements.

A statement is a type of sentence that can be true or false and corresponds to the grammatical category of a
“declarative sentence.”

1. The Nile is a river in northeastern Africa

2. The Yangtze is a river in Japan

What is Deductive and Inductive Arguments?

Every argument makes the claim that its premises provide grounds for the truth
of its conclusion; that claim is the mark for conclusion. There are two great classes of
arguments: the deductive and inductive. Understanding this distinction is essential in the
study of logic.

Deductive Argument – Claims to support it conclusion conclusively.

Inductive Argument – Claims to support its conclusion only with some degree of probability.

If we judge that in some passage a claim for conclusiveness is being made, we treat the
argument is deductive, if we judge that such a claim is not being made, we treat is as inductive. Since
every argument either makes this claim of conclusiveness (explicitly or Implicitly) or does not make it,
every argument is either deductive or inductive.

When the claim is made that the premises of an argument (if true) provide incontrovertible
grounds for the truth of its conclusion, that claim will be either correct or not correct.

4
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
If it is correct, that argument is valid. If it is not correct (that is, if the premises when true fail
to establish the conclusion irrefutably although claiming to do so), that argument is invalid.

Valid Argument – If all premises are true, the conclusion must be true, applies only to deductive
argument.

Invalid Argument- The conclusion is not necessarily true even if all the premises are true; applies only
to deductive arguments.

For logicians the term validity is applicable only to deductive arguments. To say that a deductive
argument is valid is to say that it is not possible for its conclusion to be false if its premises are true.

Thus validity define as a deductive argument is valid when, if its premises are true, its conclusion must
be true.

Logic’s first concern is validity; i.e., if the premises is necessarily and inevitably lead into conclusion. If we
say,

All orchids are flowers;

but the waling-waling is an orchid
therefore I shall give you a waling-waling corsage
on your birthday.

Premise: All orchids are flowers; but the waling-waling is an orchid

Conclusion: Waling-waling is a flower

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to
keep and bear arms shall no be infringed.
Premise: A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state.
Conclusion: The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall no be infringed.

Forbear to judge, for we are all sinners.

Premise: We are all sinners
Conclusion: We ought to forbear to judge

Because light moves at a finite speed, looking at an objects that are millions of miles away is
actually looking at light that was emitted many years ago.

Premise: Light moves at a finite speed.

Conclusion: Looking at an objects that are millions of miles away is actually looking at light that was
emitted many years ago.

The institution of public education thrives on its own failures. The more poorly its charges
perform, the more money it asks for (and gets) from the public and government. The more money it
gets the more it can grow itself

Premise: The more poorly its students perform, the more money it asks for and gets.
Conclusion: The institution of public education thrives on its own failures
There are many possible combinations of true or false premises and conclusions in both valid and
invalid arguments. Here follow seven illustrative arguments, each prefaced by the statement of the
5
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
combination (of truth and validity) that is represents. With these illustrations (whose content is deliberately
trivial) before us, we will be in a position to formulate some important principles concerning the relations
between truth and validity.

I. Some valid arguments contain only true propositions-true premises and a true conclusion:
All mammals have lungs,
All whales are mammals,
Therefore all whales have lungs.
II. Some valid arguments contain only false propositions-false premises and false conclusion:
All four-legged creatures have wings
All spider have four legs
Therefore all whales have lungs
This argument is valid because, if its premises were true, its conclusion would have to be true
also.-even though we know that in fact both the premises and the conclusion of this argument are
false.

III. Some invalid arguments contain only true propositions-all their premises are true, and their
conclusions are true as well;

If I owned all the gold in Front Knox, then I would be wealthy.

I do not own all the gold in Front Knox.
Therefore I am not wealthy.

The true conclusion of this argument does not follow from its true premises. Thus will be seen more clearly
when the immediately following illustration is considered.
IV. Some invalid arguments contain only true premises and have a false conclusion. This is
illustrated by an argument exactly like the previous one (III) in form, changed only enough to
make the conclusion false.
If Bill Gates owned all the gold in Front Knox, then Bill Gates would be wealthy.
Bill Gates does not own all the gold in Front Knox.
Therefore Bill Gates is not wealthy.
The premises of this argument are true, but its conclusion id false. Such an argument cannot be valid
because it is impossible for the premises of a valid argument to be true and its conclusion to be false.

V. Some valid arguments have false premises and a true conclusion:

All fishes are mammals,

All whales have wings.
Therefore all whales are mammals.
The conclusion of this argument is true, as we know; moreover it may be validly reffered from these
two premises, both of which are wildly false.

VI. Some invalid arguments also have false premises and a true conclusion.
All mammals have wings.
All whales are fishes.
Therefore all whales are mammals.
From examples V and VI taken together, it is clear that we cannot tell from the fact that an argument
has false premises and a true conclusion whether it is valid or invalid.

VII. Some invalid arguments, of course contain all false propositions-false premises and false
conclusion:
All mammals have wings.
All whales have wings
6
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
Therefore all mammals are whales.

Self Check Activity

_______________________________________________________________________________________

1. ASSESSMENT: Use yellow paper

A. Give the meaning of the following:
1. Logic 2. Propositions 3. Arguments 4. Deductive Argument
5. Inductive Argument 6. Validity 7. Truth

B. Which of the following sentences are statements and which are not?

1. No one understands me but you.

2. Alligators are on average larger than crocodiles.
3. Is an alligator a reptile or a mammal?
4. An alligator is either a reptile or a mammal.
5. Don’t let any reptiles into the house.
6. You may kill any reptile you see in the house.
7. East Africans are not the best distance runners.
8. Obama is not a Democrat.
9. Some humans have wings.
10. Some things with wings cannot fly.
11. Was Obama born in Kenya or Hawaii?
12. Oh no! A grizzly bear!
13. Meet me in St. Louis.
14. We met in St. Louis yesterday.
15. I do not want to meet a grizzly bear in the wild.

I. ASSIGNMENT: Answer the following; Use yellow paper

1. What is Philosophy?
2. What are the components of Philosophy?
3. What are the Division of Philosophy?
4. What are the nature of Logic?
5. Give the relevance of studying logic
6. Discuss the History of Logic.

II. Research the following questions:

1. Describe, explain and illustrate paraphrasing and diagramming arguments.
2. Discuss the techniques for recognizing arguments .
3. Explain and discuss the difference between arguments and explanation and Complex
Argumentative Passages.
4. Discuss the problems of reasoning.
5. Give at least five statement of propositions then determine the premise and conclusion.

REFERENCES:
7
 DR. YANGA’S COLLEGES INC.
WAKAS, BOCAUE, BULACAN
COLLEGE OF HEALTH AND SCIENCES
1. Polytechnic University of the Philippines COLLEGE OF ARTS AND LETTERS Department of
Philosophy and Humanities Sta. Mesa, Manila
2. Moore and Parker, Critical Thinking (2006). Boston: McGraw Hill.
3. Whitcomb, Deductive and Inductive Logic (2010). Oakville: Apple Academics.
4. Nabor-Nery, Fundamentals of Logic (2010). National Book Store.
5. Bachhuber, Introduction to Logic (1966). New York: Appleton Century.
6. Corbi and Cohen, Logic: Language, Deduction and Induction (2005). Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.
7. Jevons, Elementary Lessons in Logic Deductive & Inductive (2010). London and New York: MacMillian
and Co.
8. College of Humanities and Sciences– Dela Salle Health Institute
9. Matthew J. Van Cleave ,(2016) Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking Version 2.0
vancleave@mac.com
10. Irving M. Corpi and Carl Cohen,Logic: Language.Deduction and Induction, 12th edition
(2005)Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
*Supplementary materials, assignments, students’ outputs and grades may be posted in the blog,
http://epbrabante.wordpress.com

Prepared by: Approved by:

FERDINAND S. NATIVIDAD TEODORA M. DELOS
REYES
FACULTY DEAN