Journal ofEnvimnmento1 Psychology (1996) 16,774X

(B 1996 Academic Press Limited

VIEWS TO NATURE: EFFECTS ON ATTENTION

CAROLYN M. TENNESSEN*~~AND BERNADINE CwmcHt

* Cornell University, Ithaca, New York and f University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, U.S.A.

Abstract

This study is based on a theoretical view which suggests that under increased demands for attention, individuals’
capacity to direct attention may become fatigued. Once fatigued, attentional restoration must occur in order
to return to an effectively functioning state. An attention-restoring experience can be as simple as looking at
nature. The purpose of this study was to explore whether university dormitory residents with more natural
views from their windows would score better than those with less natural views on tests of directed attention.
Views from dormitory windows of 72 undergraduate students were categorized into four groups ranging from all
natural to all built. The capacity to direct attention was measured using a battery of objective and subjective
measures. Natural views were associated with better performance on attentional measures, providing support
for -the proposed theoretical view.

Views to Nature: Effects on Attention there was a relationship between the degree of
naturalness in the view from university dormitory
Although few would argue about the importance of residents’ windows and their capacity to direct
having a window in any room that a person is going attention.
to spend time in, it has not been until recently that Directed attention is defined as the capacity to
researchers have begun to examine the importance of inhibit or block competing stimuli or distractions
windows. Early investigations established that during purposeful activity (Posner & Snyder, 1975;
people preferred rooms with windows to rooms Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982). This capacity is essential
lacking a window (Ne’eman & Hopkinson, 1970; for the effective performance of daily activities:
Ne’eman, 1974; Verderber, 1986). Not only do acquiring and using selected information; making
people prefer rooms with windows but it appears and carrying out plans; and self-regulation of
that those who have access to windows are better off responses and behavior to meet desired goals (Kaplan
in some ways than those who do not. For example, & Kaplan, 1982; Lezak, 1982). As first proposed
patients in intensive care units with windows were by William James (1890/1983) over 100 years ago,
found to maintain better mental functioning than directed or voluntary attention requires mental
those in units without windows (Wilson, 1972; Keep effort in order to sustain focus and prevent distrac-
et al., 1980). tions from interfering with intended activity. Intense
Further, the type of view from the window also or prolonged demands for directed attention can lead
may be important. In particular, a natural view as to attentional fatigue, manifested as a decreased
opposed to a view of the built environment has been capacity to inhibit competing stimuli along with
associated with positive physical and mental health reduced effectiveness in daily life (Kaplan & Kaplan,
effects when people are confined (Moore, 1981) or sick 1982).
(Ulrich, 1984; Verderber & Keuman, 1987). Although It has been theorized that attentional fatigue is a
views of nature appear to result in positive outcomes manifestation of overuse of the neural inhibitory
under demanding circumstances, the reasons for mechanism underlying the capacity to inhibit
this are not well understood. It has been suggested competing stimuli (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982). When
that exposure to the natural environment may help attempting to carry out purposeful activity in the
maintain or restore the capacity to direct attention presence of distracting stimuli such as noise in the
i.e. to focus and concentrate, when this capacity is external environment or worries in the internal
overused or fatigued (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). The environment, individuals must expend greater
purpose of this study was to. determine whether inhibitory effort to suppress competing cognitive
77
78 C. M. Tennessen and B. Cimpich

activity in order to maintain clarity of focus and views of water and vegetation tended to hold
effective functioning. The characteristic effect of subjects’ attention and interest more effectively
overuse and fatigue of such an inhibitory mechanism than urban scenes. Hartig et al. (1991) compared
would be distractibility and a reduced capacity to three groups of experienced backpackers: one went on
direct attention in subsequent activity. Following a wilderness trip; one went on an urban vacation;
conditions requiring increased use of directed and the third did not vacation. Improvement on
attention, healthy individuals have shown attentional proofreading scores were found only for the
fatigue effects including increased distractibility wilderness vacationers. In a second study, Hartig
and reduced performance on effortful tasks (Glass et al. (1991) had subjects complete 40 min of tasks
& Singer, 1972; Hartley, 1973; Cohen & Spacapan, designed to induce attentional fatigue followed by one
1978; Neuchterlein et al., 1983; Parasuraman, 1986) of three conditions: walking in a natural environ-
increased irritability and strain (Warm & Dember, ment, walking in an urban environment, or passive
19861, and more impulsive and hostile behavior relaxation. Those completing the natural experience
(Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976). scored highest on a proofreading task. Finally, in
University students are a group likely to be at an intervention study focused on restoring directed
increased risk of attentional fatigue. New students attention in women treated for breast cancer
are confronted with multiple situations in the (Cimprich, 1993a), participants were randomly
university environment which require increased assigned to an experimental or control group. The
use of directed attention. Students must adjust to a notion of restorative activities was explained to the
novel environment, including, in many instances, experimental group, who contracted to participate
dormitory living. A dormitory environment often regularly in selected restorative activities over the
contains multiple demands including new rules and 3 months following breast cancer surgery. Subjects
constraints on behavior. At the same time, students typically chose to participate in nature-based activities,
must meet a new level of academic requirements including looking at nature. The restorative concept
(Aycock, 1989). In addition, Grayson (1985) has was not explained to the control group until after
described a continuous series of changes and the study. The experimental group showed
adaptations that must be made each year in order significantly greater improvements in performance
to complete the college experience successfully. across various measures of directed attention over
Previous research has shown that after a demanding time than those in the control group.
examination, college students showed a decline If exposure to nature has a restorative effect on
on measures of directed attention as compared to the capacity to direct attention, then such an effect
baseline (Cimprich, 1989). Thus, the development may, at least in part, explain the beneficial effects of
of attentional fatigue is salient in the college windows and in particular windows with a view of
experience and could undermine a student’s ability nature. The specific objective of this study was to
to succeed at a university. determine whether the degree of naturalness in the
A new era of research focuses on finding ways view from college dormitory windows was associated
to maintain or restore directed attention under with residents’ levels of capacity to direct attention.
demanding circumstances. Four factors are deemed It was hypothesized that students who had more
important for an attention-restoring experience natural views from their dormitory windows would
(Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989): fascination, involving a show higher levels of performance on measures of
spontaneous, effortless kind of selective attention directed attention than those who had less natural
called involuntary attention; a sense of being away, window views.
which involves relief from daily concerns by an
escape to a different place (even if only conceptually);
sufficient extent or scope, allowing enough magnitude Method
for one to become immersed in it; and compatibility
with an individual’s inclinations or purposes, which Setting and participants
reduces the need for directed attention.
The natural environment appears to contain factors Three university-owned and operated dormitories
necessary for an attention-restoring experience at a large midwestern university were selected as
(Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Gazing at a natural view the study sites. The dormitories provided a variety
from a window in one’s living environment may be of views ranging from all natural (lake and trees) to
an easily accessible ‘micro-restorative’ activity. In all built (city streets, other buildings or a brick
fact, Ulrich (1981) showed that slides of natural wall), Windows were of a similar size across the
 Views to Nature
dormitories, ranging from about 1.17 m2 to 1.39 m2.
All three dormitories contained a mix of males and
females and of single and double rooms. Students
were assigned to specific rooms based upon
seniority.
Healthy adult volunteers who were residents of
the selected university dormitories were recruited
for the study by door to door solicitation. Potential
subjects were excluded based upon the following
criteria: insufficient command of the English language
that would preclude testing; history of cognitive
disorder, such as dyslexia, or severe head injury;
uncorrected visual or hearing impairments; or taking
medication&hugs known to impair or enhance atten-
tion (e.g. depressants, anti-depressants, ampheta-
mines, psychoactive drugs). Of the 115 students who
met the criteria for the study, 72 (63%) volunteered.
Measures
All testing was done in the participants’ rooms with
only the researcher and the subject present. To
ensure privacy and no interruptions during the
testing, a sign was posted on the door asking others
to be quiet and not to disturb, and the telephone
was taken off the hook. All measures were adminis-
tered using standard formats and instructions.
Capacity to direct attention was measured by
performance, i.e. speed, accuracy or ability to sustain
activity, on measures requiring inhibition of competing
or distracting stimuli. The battery included standard
neurocognitive measures, i.e. Digit Span Forward and
Backward, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test, that
have a known validity and reliability (Lezak, 1983).
A newer measure of directed attention, the Necker
Cube Pattern Control Test, also was included. In
addition, a subjective rating of attentional func-
tioning, the Attentional Function Index, was used.
The Digit Span test is a standardized clinical
measure of attention (Lezak, 1983; Mesulam, 1985).
Both Digit Span Forward (DSF) and Backward
(DSB) were measured using standard testing
procedures described by Wechsler (1955). Digit
Span Forward is the number of bits of information a
person can attend to at one time, while Digit Span
Backward requires sustained attentional effort to
mentally hold and recite digits in reverse sequence.
Normative data have been obtained on large
numbers of healthy adults (Wechsler, 1955; Lezak,
1983).
The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (Smith,
1973) is another standardized test of directed atten-
tion in a complex task (Lezak, 1983). The SDMT
requires the participant to use directed attention
79
in substituting numbers for a random presentation
of 10 geometric symbols including three minor
image pairs, according to a specified key. The score
is the correct number of substitutions in a ninety
second period based on standard scoring procedures
(Smith, 1973). Normative data have been obtained
in healthy and clinical populations (Smith, 1973;
Lezak, 1983).
The Necker Cube Pattern Control (NCPC) Test
was designed to measure directly ability to inhibit
competing stimuli, i.e. the capacity to direct atten-
tion (Cimprich, 1990, 1993a). The Necker cube is a
drawing of a three-dimensional wire cube that can
be viewed from two different perspectives due to
reversals of the foreground and background. When
viewing the cube, the availability of alternate
patterns leads to a tendency to switch focus from
one perspective to the other (James, 1890/1983;
Orbach et al. 1963). Thus, a decreased capacity to
direct attention is manifested by a decreased ability
to inhibit pattern reversals. After providing a 30-s
baseline rate of spontaneous pattern reversals by
tapping on a recorder for each reversal, the subject
is then instructed to hold each pattern (keep the
pattern from reversing) for as long as possible during
a 30-s period. The score is the per cent reduction in
pattern reversals from baseline to holding conditions.
In studies involving healthy adults (Cimprich, 19933)
and breast cancer patients (Cimprich, 1993a),
baseline scores of spontaneous pattern reversals
obtained in tandem and over time were highly
reliable.
The Attentional Function Index (AFI) was designed
to measure perceived effectiveness in common
cognitive activities requiring directed attention, i.e.
planning, deciding, following a train of thought, and
concentrating on details (Cimprich, 1992). The
measure consists of 16 linear analogue scales (each
100 mm) labeled at each end with polar opposite
phrases (e.g. ‘not at all’, ‘extremely well’). The
subject is asked to place a mark on the horizontal
line at whatever point best describes ‘how you are
doing in each area at the present time’. Examples
of index items include, ‘Finishing things you’ve
started’ and ‘keeping your mind on what others are
saying’. Items are scored from the low end (O-100)
and a single overall score is computed consisting of
the average score on the 16 scales. The AFI has
been shown to be a reliable measure of attentional
functioning in studies involving 32 cancer patients
(Cimprich, 1992, 1993a) and 112 healthy adults
(Cimprich, 19933) with Cronbach alpha coefficients of
0.87 and 0.84, respectively. The internal consistency
coefficient in this sample was O-84.
 C. M. Tennessen
FIGURE 1. m natural view.
Because attentional performance may be influenced
by a depressed mood state. i.e. decreased arousal
level, the Profile of Mood States (POMS) was used
to assess depressed mood state (McNair et al., 1981).
The POMS is a 65item adjective checklist which
measures six identifiable mood states including
depression-dejection. Subjects rate themselves on
how they have been feeling ‘over the past week
including today’ on each adjective using a &point
scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely).
The test has been shown to be a valid and reliable
instrument for the measure of mood state across
numerous studies (McNair et al., 1981). The total
POMS and depression-dejection subscale scores
were used in the analysis. In the present study, the
internal consistency coefficient was 0.93 for the
total POMS and 0.91 for the depression-dejection
subscale.
View categorization
In order to categorize the views, slides were taken
from each participant’s window using Kodachrome
and B. Cimprich
FIGURE 2. Mostly natural view.
64 film with a 35 mm camera. The interior window
frame served as the border for each picture, ensuring
that the whole view could be seen from as close a
perspective as possible. A group of six adults (with
knowledge of the subject matter ranging from very
little to quite a lot) was asked to rate each slide with
a one for ‘all natural’ to a four for ‘all built’ based on
the following guidelines. The all natural view con-
sisted of trees, grass, bushes, and/or lakes and no
evidence of human influence (see Fig. 1). The mostly
natural view included evidence of human influence
such as paths, roads, or a parking lot along with a
mostly natural setting (see Fig. 2). If the majority of
what could be seen was built, including buildings,
roads, or parking lots but with a natural component
to the view such as a few trees, bushes or a lawn, it
was mostly built (see Fig. 3). The all built view,
which included views that were completely blocked
by another building as well as views of streets and
buildings, had no natural component (see Fig. 4).
The level of agreement across the raters revealed
an acceptable internal consistency reliability of
0.85. The average of the six ratings for each slide
 Views to Nature 81

FIGURE 3. Mostly built view. FIGURE 4. All built view.

was computed and rounded to the nearest whole TABLE 1

number. This number determined the category for Demographic characteristics of sample
each view, i.e. an average rating of two meant the
Demographic variable Data
view was put into the mostly natural category.
Sex
Data analysis Male 30 (41.7%)
Female 42 (58.3%)
Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Age
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), t-tests, and Pearson Mean f S.D. 20* 1
(Min, Max) (18,251
correlation coefficients. Given the exploratory nature
Year in school
of this study, the analysis was conducted using the Freshman 9 (12.5%)
four view groups, as well as combinations of the Sophomore 34 (47.2%)
groups, in order to determine possible differences Junior 20 (27.8%)
between those with natural views and those with Senior 8 (11.1%)
built views. Special 1 (1.4%)
Subjects by dormitory location
One 26 (36.1%)
TWO 22 (30.6%)
Results Three 24 (33.3%)
Subjects by view category
The sample consisted of 72 undergraduate students, All natural 10 (13.9%)
30 males and 42 females living in the three selected Mostly natural 10 (13.9%)
dormitories at a large midwestern university (see Mostly built 26 (36.1%)
All built 26 (36.1%)
Table 1). Their ages ranged from 18 to 25 (M = 20,
82 C. M. Tennessen and B. Cimprich

Attention and mood scores by view category Attention and mood scores by all natural and all other
view categories
Test View category
Test View category
AI1 Mostly Mostly AI1
natural natural built built AI1 natural AI1 other categories
(n= 10) (n = 10) (n=26) (n=26) (n = 10) (n = 62)

DSF DSF
Mean 750 7.40 7.38 6.96 Mean 7.50 7.20
(S.D.) (1.08) (1.35) (0.90) (1.11) (S.D.) (1.08) (1.07)
DSB DSB
Mean 5.60 5.11 5.04 5.00 Mean 5.60 5.03
(S.D.) (1.35) (1.62) (1.18) (1.13) (S.D.) (1.35) (1.21)
SDMT SDMT
Mean 74.00* 64.40 61.50 63.08 Mean 74.00** 62.63
(S.D.) (9.87) (10.76) (10.36) (8.74) (S.D.) (9.87) (9.67)
NCPC NCPC
Mean -60.53% -64.18% -35.38% -36.35% Mean -60.53%** -40.43%
(S.D.) (13.61) (22.48) (38.14) (39.78) (S.D.) (13.61) (37.81)
AFI AFI
Mean 71.97 61.03 66.09 63.17 Mean 71.97* 64.05
(S.D.) (10.26) (11.34) (11.80) (11.73) (S.D.) (10.26) (11.66)
POMS POMS
Mean 1.31 1.40 1.25 1.48 Mean 1.31 1.37
(S.D.) (0.32) (0.42) (0.36) (0.45) (S.D.) (0.32) (0.42)
Depression-Dejection Depression-Dejection
subscale of the POMS subscale of the POMS
Mean 0.65 0.95 0.57 0.94 Mean 0.65 0.78
(S.D.) (0.60) (0.77) (0.50) (0.68) (S.D.) (0.60) (0.64)

* p < 0.05: AI1 natural > Mostly built and AI1 built view
categories.
Abbreviations: DSF = Digit Span Forward; DSB = Digit
Span Backward; SDMT = Symbol Digit Modalities Test;
NCPC = Necker Cube Pattern Control; API = Attentional
Function Index; and POMS = Profile of Mood States.
S.D. = 1). The greatest percentage (47.2%) were sopho-
mores. The subjects were about evenly distributed
among the three dormitories. Of the four view
categories, 13.9% had an all natural view, another
13.9% had a mostly natural view, 36.1% had a
mostly built view, and 36.1% had an all built view.
Subjects in two of the dormitories (dormitories
one and two) were about evenly split across all four
view groups. The third dormitory (dormitory three),
which was surrounded by streets and buildings,
contained about an equal number of subjects with
mostly and all built views with none having all
natural or mostly natural views. There were no
significant demographic differences (i.e. age, sex,
and year in school) among the subjects by dormitory
location. There were no differences across view
groups on subjects’ ratings of their rooms and
dormitories on noise and crowding. In addition,
subjects reported their average number of hours of
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Abbreviations: DSF = Digit Span Forward; DSB = Digit
Span Backward; SDMT = Symbol Digit Modalities Test;
NCPC = Necker Cube Pattern Control; AFI = Attentional
Function Index; and POMS = Profile of Mood States.
sleep per night over the past week as well as total
number of exams taken over the past week and
anticipated in the coming week, and again, no
differences were found across view groups.
There were no significant differences across the
four view groups based on the demographic variables
of age, sex, and year in school. With respect to mood
state, ANOVA showed that the view groups did not
significantly differ on mean scores for the total
POMS or the depression-dejection subscale (see
Table 2).’ Also, no correlations were discovered
between mood state (either the total POMS or
the depression-dejection subscale) and any of the
objective measures of attention. However, scores on
the total POMS as well as the depression-dejection
subscale of the POMS were significantly inversely
correlated with scores on the self-rated API (r(72) =
-0.49, p < 0.001 and r(72) = -0.29, p c 0.05 respec-
tively). Thus, more negative mood states (higher
scores) were associated with lower self-ratings of
 Views to Nature 83

TABLED mostly built and all built view groups were combined
Attention and mood scores by natural and built view into a single group. Table 3 shows a comparison of
categories the all-natural view group vs the combined group.
Test View category Subjects with the all natural view scored sig-
nificantly better on the SDMT, t(71) = 3.29,
AI1 & mostly Mostly & all p c 0.01, the NCPC (t(71) = 3.12, p c O-01, and the
natural built AFI t(72) = 2.02, p < 0.05.
(n = 20) (n = 52) Next, in order to determine the possible differ-
DSF ences between subjects who had a more natural
Mean 7.45 7.17 view and those who did not, view categories were
(S.D.) (1.19) (1.02) combined into two groups for analysis: more natural
DSB (combination of all natural and mostly natural) and
Mean 5.37 5.02 more built (combination of mostly and all built).
(S.D.) (1.46) (1.15) Table 4 shows that the combined natural view
SDMT group scored significantly higher on the SDMT
Mean 68.95* 62.29 t(71) = 2.49, p < 0.05 and had a greater percentage
(SD.) (11.20) (9.52)
reduction in pattern reversals on the NCPC t(71) =
NCPC
Mean -62.35%** -35.87% 2.94, p c 0.01 than the combined built view group.
(S.D.) (18.19) (38.59) Finally, to determine whether the dormitory that
API had only built (mostly and all) view categories
Mean 66.50 64.63 (dormitory three) was in some way different from
(SD.) (11.93) (11.74) the two dormitories that contained all four view
POMS categories (dormitories one and two>, the data
Mean 1.35 1.36 were analysed using only subjects residing in the
(S.D.) (0.36) (0.42) dormitories containing all four view groups (10 to 16
Depression-Dejection subjects in each group). This analysis revealed the
subscale of the POMS same pattern of significant results as those reported
Mean 0.79 0.75
(S.D.) (0.68) (0.62) using subjects from all three dormitories.

* p < 0.05; ** p c 0.01.

Abbreviations: DSF = Digit Span Forward; DSB = Digit
Span Backward; SDMT = Symbol Digit Modalities Test;
NCPC = Necker Cube Pattern Control; API = Attentional
Function Index; and POMS = Profile of Mood States.
attentional functioning and vice versa.
Overall, the subjects’ attention scores fell within
normal ranges for healthy adults (Smith, 1973;
Lezak, 1983). A comparison of mean scores among
the four view groups on the attention measures is
found in Table 2. To determine differences in mean
scores among the four groups, ANOVA using Scheffe’s
method for post hoc comparisons was performed.
Subjects in the all natural view category showed
a significantly higher mean score on one test,
SDMT, than subjects in the mostly and all built
view categories (F(3, 67) = 3.78, p c O-05). However,
examination of the pattern of the means of the
four groups revealed that subjects in the all natural
view category scored higher on nearly all attention
measures than subjects in the other view groups,
but not significantly so. .
Subjects in the all natural view category were
compared with all others, i.e. sthe mostly natural,
Discussion
Those who had natural views from their dormitory
windows were better able to direct attention than
those with less natural views on some of the
measures used to test the capacity to direct atten-
tion in this study. When all four of the view cate-
gories were compared, those with all natural views
scored significantly higher on the SDMT, an objective
measure of directed attention, than those with less
natural or built views. When categories were
collapsed to form two groups, the more natural
view group performed significantly better on both
the SDMT and the NCPC than the more built
view group. Finally, in addition to performing
significantly better on the SDMT and NCPC, stu-
dents who had an all natural view rated their atten-
tional functioning as more effective than those in all
the other view groups combined. Overall, the find-
ings support the hypothesis that dormitory resi-
dents with more natural views from their windows
would have a stronger capacity to direct attention
than those with less natural or built views.
Natural views did not have an influence on mood
a4 C. M. Tennessen
state in this study. Further, there was no relationship
between scores on the objective measures of directed
attention and mood state, as might be expected if
depressed mood state interfered with the capacity to
direct attention, There was, however, a relationship
between self-ratings of attentional functioning and
mood state such that subjects across view categories
who reported a more negative or depressed mood
state also tended to rate themselves lower on atten-
tional functioning. Previous research suggests that
affective states may have a pronounced influence
on thought (Isen, 1984). Thus, it is possible that
subjects’ judgments of effectiveness in common
activities requiring directed attention may have
been influenced by mood state. Future studies are
needed to explore the relationships among various
dimensions of mood state, attentional functioning,
and natural views.
Previous research has suggested physical and
psychological benefits of natural views in certain
populations (Moore, 1981; Ulrich, 1984; Verderber
& Reuman, 1987) while the present study suggests
that university students with natural dormitory
views benefit in terms of increased capacity to
direct attention. Thus, another possible benefit
may be that natural views allow for restoration of
directed attention.
In the present study, those dormitory residents
with the more natural views automatically may have
had an additional mode of restoration not available
to those without a natural view. This would suggest,
then, with similar attentional demands, that those
with a more natural view have access to an addi-
tional mode of restoration of directed attention
above and beyond that of those who do not have this
view. If natural views from windows do have posi-
tive effects on students’ capacity to direct attention,
this would have considerable implications for the
placement and design of dormitories. Students
require strong attention to master successfully the
multiple demands of education in the university
setting (Grayson, 1985; Aycock, 1989) and the
provision of natural views from dormitory rooms
appears to be an easy way to allow them the oppor-
tunity to restore their capacity to direct attention.
The finding of a relationship, in this study,
between natural views and the capacity to direct
attention provides support for the theoretical
link between the natural environment, attentional
fatigue, and restoration of attention (Kaplan &
Kaplan, 1989). Further, the flndings suggest that
even a modest exposure to the natural environ-
ment-a window view-may have some beneficial
effects on the capacity to direct attention.
and B. Cimprich
There are certain limitations to the present study
that should be taken into consideration in interpreting
the findings. First, the results of this study are
limited by the size and nature of the sample. In
particular, there were small numbers of subjects in
the natural view groups. Another limitation is that
the study could not provide information about the
capacity to direct attention prior to moving into the
dormitory. Obtaining a baseline and repeated
measures would make it possible to examine changes
in the capacity to direct attention associated with
the type of window view over time. A final limita-
tion involves the procedure of testing subjects in
their dormitory rooms. Although steps were taken
to prevent noise and distraction, the environment
could not be strictly controlled. Thus, it is unknown
to what extent distracting stimuli may have affected
performance on the measures.
Although this study provided initial evidence of a
positive relationship between natural views from
dormitory windows and the capacity to direct atten-
tion, further research is needed to understand
the beneficial effects of a natural view on attention
better. Longitudinal studies involving repeated
measures are needed to understand better the
effects of the environment and a natural view on
the capacity to direct attention over time.
Little is known about factors that may moderate or
influence the attention-restoring effect of a natural
view. Thus, for example, some research suggests
that view preference may be an important variable in
assessing reactions to views (Butler & Steuerwald,
1991). There is a need to understand better whether
view preference influences attentional responses
to varying window views. There is also a need to
explore other aspects of the environment that may
influence attentional responses. For example, where
natural views are lacking, what role might other
natural objects or ‘surrogate views’.play (Heerwagen
& Orians, 1986; Verderber, 1986)? Heerwagen and
Orians (1986) found that those in windowless office
spaces put up a similar amount of such surrogate
views (pictures of landscape or cityscapes) as those
in windowed offices but the content in the window-
less offices was more likely to include landscapes
and natural scenes than cityscapes. The addition of
items such as pictures of natural scenes or plants
could be systematically controlled and effects on the
capacity to direct attention observed. In addition,
it is important to examine other aspects of the
environment (that the individual may or may not be
able to control) such as noise, space, or lighting, for
their effect on the capacity to direct attention.
Finally, there is a need for similar research on the
 Views to Nature
attentional effects of environments in other popula-
tions. For example, would the capacity to direct
attention in older adults be affected by access to
natural views? If so, access to a natural view would
be an important consideration in the design of living
environments for the older person. Also, would
windows with a natural view have a similar effect
on employees in office environments? It would seem
important to learn whether employees with natural
views or with natural interior landscaping were
more productive due to the attention-restoring
benefits of nature.
Notes
(1) All subscales of the POMS were tabulated but are not
presented. It csn be noted that there were no differences
on mean scores for any of the subscales across view
categories.
(2) All correspondence should be addressed to C. M.
Tennessen, IWSP, DEA, E213 MVR Hall, Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.
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Manuscript received 1 April 1994
Revised manuscript received 8 February 1995