Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

ENSC 20084
ENGR. MELVIN G. SINGAYAN

ENGR. MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING
MODULE 1: SIMPLE STRESS
The learning objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Interpret the different types of stress

• Evaluate the normal and shearing stress in a certain element
• Evaluate bearing stress
• Evaluate tangential and longitudinal stress on thin-walled pressure vessels
COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area of unit strength. It is the force on a
member divided by area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
Where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm 2. The maximum stress in
tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load.
Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to pure tension
(or tensile force) is under tensile stress, while compression members (members subject to
compressive force) are under compressive stress.
Compressive force will tend to shorten the member. Tension force on the other hand will tend to
lengthen the member.
PROBLEM 1. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm mist carry a tensile load of
400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.
Solution:
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
400 × 103 𝑁
120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋
[𝐷 2 − (100 𝑚𝑚)2 ]
4
𝐷 = 119.35 𝑚𝑚
𝑫 ≈ 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎
PROBLEM 2. Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded together at B and loaded as
shown. Knowing that the average normal stress must not exceed 175 MPa in rod AB and 150
MPa in rod BC, determine the smallest allowable values of d1 and d2.
Solution:
For rod AB:
𝑃𝐴𝐵
𝜎𝐴𝐵 =
𝐴𝐴𝐵
(70 × 103 𝑁)
175 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋 2
4 𝑑1
𝑑1 = 22.57 𝑚𝑚
𝒅𝟏 ≈ 𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒎
For rod BC:
𝑃𝐵𝐶
𝜎𝐵𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵𝐶
2
(30 × 103 𝑁)
⁄
150 𝑁 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜋 2
4 𝑑2
𝑑2 = 15.96 𝑚𝑚
𝒅𝟏 ≈ 𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝒎
PROBLEM 3. Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded together at B and loaded as
shown. Determine the magnitude of the force P for which the tensile stress in rod AB has the
same magnitude as the compressive stress in rod BC.
Solution:
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 𝜎𝐵𝐶
𝑃 60 − 𝑃
𝜋 =𝜋
(2 2 (3 2
4 𝑖𝑛) 4 𝑖𝑛)
90 = 4(60 − 𝑃)
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑵
PROBLEM 4. A homogenous
800 kg bar AB is supported at
either end by a cable as shown
in the figure. Calculate the
smallest area of each cable if
the stress is not to exceed 90
MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in
steel.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝑃𝑏𝑟 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = (800 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )
𝑃𝑏𝑟 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 7848 → (1)
By symmetry:
𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 → (2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we have
𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3924 𝑁
For the area of the bronze cable:
3924 𝑁
90 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝐴𝑏𝑟
𝑨𝒃𝒓 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐
For the area of the steel cable:
3924 𝑁
120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝟐
PROBLEM 5. Determine the largest weight W

that can be supported by two wires shown in
the figure. The stress in either wire is not to
exceed 30 ksi. The cross-sectional areas of
wires AB and AC are 0.4 in2 and 0.5 in2,
respectively.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝑃𝐴𝐵 cos 30° + 𝑃𝐴𝐶 cos 50° = 0 → (1)
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝐴𝐵 sin 30° + 𝑃𝐴𝐶 sin 50° = 𝑊 → (2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously in terms of W, we have
𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 0.6527𝑊
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 0.8794𝑊
In terms of wire AB:
0.6527𝑊
30 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 =
0.4 𝑖𝑛2
𝑊 = 18.39 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
In terms of wire AC:
0.8794𝑊
30 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 =
0.5 𝑖𝑛2
𝑊 = 17.06 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
Use the smaller value of W, that is 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔.
PROBLEM 6. Find the stresses in members BC,

BD, and CF for the truss shown in the figure.
Indicate the tension or compression. The cross-
sectional area of each member is 1600 mm2.
Solution:
For member BD:
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
4
( 𝐹𝐵𝐷 ) (3 𝑚) = (60 𝑘𝑁)(3 𝑚)
5
𝐹𝐵𝐷 = 75 𝑘𝑁 (𝑇)
Stress at member BD:
𝐹𝐵𝐷
𝜎𝐵𝐷 =
𝐴𝐵𝐷
(75 × 103 𝑁)
𝜎𝐵𝐷 =
1600 𝑚𝑚2
𝝈𝑩𝑫 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
For member CF:
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
1
( 𝐹𝐶𝐹 ) (4 𝑚) = (90 𝑘𝑁)(4 𝑚)
√2
+ (60 𝑘𝑁)(7 𝑚)
𝐹𝐶𝐹 = 275.77 𝑘𝑁 (𝐶)
Stress at member CF:
𝐹𝐶𝐹
𝜎𝐶𝐹 =
𝐴𝐶𝐹
(275.77 × 103 𝑁)
𝜎𝐶𝐹 =
1600 𝑚𝑚2
𝝈𝑪𝑭 = 𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝑪)
For member BC:
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
(𝐹𝐵𝐶 )(4 𝑚) = (60 𝑘𝑁)(7 𝑚)
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 105 𝑘𝑁 (𝐶)
Stress at member BC:
𝐹𝐵𝐶
𝜎𝐵𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵𝐶
(105 × 103 𝑁)
𝜎𝐵𝐶 =
1600 𝑚𝑚2
𝝈𝑩𝑪 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝑪)
PROBLEM 7. Two steel plates are to be held together by means of 16-mm-diameter high-
strength steel bolts fitting snugly inside cylindrical brass spacers. Knowing that the average
normal stress must not exceed 200 MPa in the bolts and 130 MPa in the spacers, determine the
outer diameter of the spacers that yields the most economical and safe design.
Solution:
At each bolt location the upper plate is pulled down by a tensile force of the bolt. At the same
time, the spacer pushes that plate upward with a compressive force to maintain equilibrium. We
will equate these two forces to find the outer diameter of spacers.
𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
In terms of the bolt:
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
200 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋
(16 𝑚𝑚)2
4
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 40212.39 𝑁
In terms of the spacer:
𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟
𝜎𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟 =
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟
130 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋
(𝑑2 − 𝑑𝑏2 )
4 𝑠
40212.39 𝑁
130 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋
(𝑑2 2)
4 𝑠 − 16
𝒅𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟗 𝒎𝒎
SHEARING STRESS
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
Where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area A being
sheared.
PROBLEM 8. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-
diameter hole in a plate that is 25mm thick? The shear
strength is 350 MN/m2.
Solution:
The resisting area is the shaded area along the perimeter and
the shear force V is equal to the punching force P.
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑃 = (350 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )[𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)]
𝑃 = 549.78 𝑘𝑁
PROBLEM 9. Compute the shearing stress in the pin at B for the member supported as shown
in the figure. The pin diameter is 20 mm.
Solution:
Summing up moments at point C:
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑅𝐵𝑉 (0.25 𝑚) = (40 cos 35°)(0.20 𝑚) + (40 sin 35°)(0.25 𝑚)
𝑅𝐵𝑉 = 49.156 𝑘𝑁
Summation of forces horizontal:
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑅𝐵𝐻 = 40 cos 35°
𝑅𝐵𝐻 = 32.766 𝑘𝑁
Reaction at B:
2 2
𝑅𝐵 = √𝑅𝐵𝐻 + 𝑅𝐵𝑉
𝑅𝐵 = √32.7662 + 49.1562
𝑅𝐵 = 59.076 𝑘𝑁
Take note that at the pin, it is double shear. Therefore, the shearing stress at B is
𝑉𝐵
𝜏𝐵 =
𝐴𝐵
59.076 × 103 𝑁
𝜏𝐵 = 𝜋
2 [4 (20 𝑚𝑚)2 ]
𝝉𝑩 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 10. The 1.4-kip load P is supported by two wooden members of uniform cross
section that are joined by the simple glued scarf splice shown. Determine the normal and
shearing stresses in the glued splice.
Solution:
𝑁 = 1.4 cos 60° = 0.7 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑉 = 1.4 sin 60° = 1.212 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
The area at the section is
5 𝑖𝑛
𝐴=( ) (3 𝑖𝑛) = 17.321 𝑖𝑛2
sin 60°
The normal stress is
0.7 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝜎= = 0.0404 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛2 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔⁄𝒇𝒕𝟐
17.321 𝑖𝑛2
And the shearing stress is
1.212 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎= = 0.07 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛2 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔⁄𝒇𝒕𝟐
17.321 𝑖𝑛2
PROBLEM 11. Three pieces of wood, each 100 mm wide, are glued together as shown. If the
load joint is 50 kN, determine the average shearing stress in the glued joint.
Solution:
Shearing force at each joint:
𝑃
𝑉= = 25 𝑘𝑁
2
The average shearing stress at the glued joint is
25 × 103 𝑁
𝜏= = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
(150 𝑚𝑚)(100 𝑚𝑚)
BEARING STRESS
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴 𝑡𝑑
PROBLEM 12: In the figure, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each
110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa
for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest
average tensile stress in the plates.
Solution:
Based on the shearing of the rivet:
𝑃 = 𝜏𝐴
𝜋
𝑃 = (60 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) [ (20 𝑚𝑚)2 ]
4
𝑃 = 18849.56 𝑁
Now, based on the bearing of the plate:
𝑃 = 𝜎𝑏 𝐴𝑏
18849.56 𝑁 = (120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(20 𝑚𝑚)(𝑡)
𝒕 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝒎
The largest stress is found where the area is
smallest; this occurs at the cross section at where the
hole is located.
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴
18848.56 𝑁 = 𝜎(7.85 𝑚𝑚)(110 𝑚𝑚 − 20 𝑚𝑚)
𝝈 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 13: In the hanger shown, the upper portion of link ABC is 3/8 in thick and the lower
portions are each 1/4 in thick. Epoxy resin is used to bond the upper and lower portions together
at B. The pin at A is of 3/8-in diameter while a 1/4-in-diameter pin is used at C. Determine (a)
the shearing stress in pin A, (b) the shearing stress in pin C, (c) the largest normal stress in link
ABC, (d) the average shearing stress on the bonded surfaces at B, (e) the bearing stress in the
link at C.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐶 (10 𝑖𝑛) = (500 𝑙𝑏)(15 𝑖𝑛)
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 750 𝑙𝑏
Shearing stress in pin A (single shear):
𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝜏𝐴 =
𝐴𝐴
750 𝑙𝑏
𝜏𝐴 = 𝜋
(0.375 𝑖𝑛)2
4
𝝉𝑨 = 𝟔𝟕𝟗𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝒑𝒔𝒊
Shearing stress in pin C (double shear):
𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝜏𝐶 =
𝐴𝐶
750 𝑙𝑏
𝜏𝐶 = 𝜋
2 [4 (0.25 𝑖𝑛)2 ]
𝝉𝑪 = 𝟕𝟔𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟒 𝒑𝒔𝒊
Largest normal stress on link ABC: The largest stress is found
where the area is smallest; this occurs at the cross section at A
where the 3/8-in hole is located.
𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝜎𝐴 =
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡
750 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝐴 =
3
(8 𝑖𝑛) (1.25 𝑖𝑛 − 0.375 𝑖𝑛)
𝝈𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 𝒑𝒔𝒊
Average shearing stress at B: We note that bonding exists on both sides of the upper portion of
the link and that the shear force on each side is 𝐹1 = (750 𝑙𝑏)⁄2 = 375 𝑙𝑏. The average shearing
stress on each surface is thus
𝐹1
𝜏𝐵 =
𝐴
375 𝑙𝑏
𝜏𝐵 =
(1.25 𝑖𝑛)(1.75 𝑖𝑛)
𝝉𝑩 = 𝟏𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝒑𝒔𝒊
Bearing stress in link at C:
For each portion of the link, 𝐹1 = 375 𝑙𝑏 and the nominal bearing area is (0.25 𝑖𝑛)(0.25 𝑖𝑛) =
0.0625 𝑖𝑛2.
𝐹1
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴
375 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
0.0625 𝑖𝑛2
𝝈𝒃 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊
THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resist
bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.
Tangential (or Circumferential) Stress
Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L
and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank:
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐷𝐿
𝑇 = 𝜎𝑡 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝐿
𝑝𝐷𝐿 = 𝜎𝑡𝐿
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡
If there exist an external pressure 𝑝𝑜 and an internal
pressure 𝑝𝑖 , the formula may be expressed as:
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 )𝐷
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡
Longitudinal Stress
Consider the free body diagram in the transverse section of the tank. The total force acting at
the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal stress on the wall 𝑝𝑇 = 𝜎𝐿 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 . Since
t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is close to 𝜋𝐷𝑡.
𝜋
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝 𝐷 2
4
𝑃𝑇 = 𝜎𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑡
𝜋
𝜎𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑡 = 𝑝 𝐷 2
4
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
If there exist an external pressure 𝑝𝑜 and an internal pressure
𝑝𝑖 , the formula may be expressed as:
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 )𝐷
𝜎𝑡 =
4𝑡
It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress.
𝜎𝑡 = 2𝜎𝐿
Spherical Shell
If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas under a pressure of p, the stress
at the wall can be expressed as:
𝑝𝐷
𝜎=
4𝑡
PROBLEM 14: A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of
20 mm, is subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m2. (a) Calculate the tangential and
longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b) To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the
stress in the steel is limited to 120 MN/m2?
Solution:
Tangential stress:
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡
(4.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎)(400 𝑚𝑚)
𝜎𝑡 =
2(20 𝑚𝑚)
𝝈𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Longitudinal stress:
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑙 =
4𝑡
(4.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎)(400 𝑚𝑚)
𝜎𝑙 =
4(20 𝑚𝑚)
𝝈𝒍 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 15: The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 inch. Calculate the
allowable internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi.
Solution:
𝑝𝐷
𝜎=
4𝑡
12 𝑖𝑛
𝑝(4 𝑓𝑡) ( )
1 𝑓𝑡
8000 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 =
5
4 (16 𝑖𝑛)
𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝒑𝒔𝒊
MODULE 2: RELATIONSHIPS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
• Interpret the relationship of stress and strain

• Identify the components of the stress-strain diagram
• Understand Hooke’s Law
• Interpret the importance of factor of safety
• Evaluate the deformation of members under axial loading
• Evaluate shearing deformation
• Understand Poisson’s ratio
• Evaluate statically indeterminate structures
• Evaluate thermal stresses
COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations
caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly, it is important to avoid deformations so large
that they may prevent the structure from fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended. But the
analysis of deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses. Indeed, it is not
always possible to determine the forces in the members of a structure by applying only the
principles of statics. This is because statics is based on the assumption of undeformable, rigid
structures. By considering engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the deformations
in their various members, it will be possible for us to compute forces that are statically
indeterminate, i.e., indeterminate within the framework of statics. As a matter of fact, the
distribution of stresses in a given member is statically indeterminate, even when the force in that
member is known. To determine the actual distribution of stresses within a member, it is thus
necessary to analyze the deformations that take place in that member. In this module, you will
consider the deformations of a structural member such as a rod, bar, or plate under axial
loading.
First, the normal strain 𝜖 in a member will be defined as the deformation of the member per unit
length. Plotting the stress 𝜎 versus the strain 𝜖 as the load applied to the member is increased
will yield a stress-strain diagram for the material used. From such a diagram we can determine
some important properties of the material, such as its modulus of elasticity, and whether the
material is ductile or brittle. You will also see in the next part that, while the behavior of most
materials is independent of the direction in which the load is applied, the response of fiber-
reinforced composite materials depends upon the direction of the load.
From the stress-strain diagram, we can also determine whether the strains in the specimen will
disappear after the load has been removed—in which case the material is said to behave
elastically—or whether a permanent set or plastic deformation will result.
NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING
Let us consider a rod BC, of length L and uniform cross-sectional area A, which is suspended
from B (Fig. 2.1a). If we apply a load P to end C, the rod elongates (Fig. 2.1b). Plotting the
magnitude P of the load against the deformation 𝛿 (Greek letter delta), we obtain a certain load-
deformation diagram (Fig. 2.2). While this diagram contains information useful to the analysis of
the rod under consideration, it cannot be used directly to predict the deformation of a rod of the
same material but of different dimensions. Indeed, we observe that, if a deformation 𝛿 is
produced in rod BC by a load P, a load 2P is required to cause the same deformation in a rod
B’C’ of the same length L, but of cross-sectional area 2A (Fig. 2.3). We note that, in both cases,
the value of the stress is the same: 𝝈 = 𝑷⁄𝑨. On the other hand, a load P applied to a rod B”C”,
of the same cross-sectional area A, but of length 2L, causes a deformation 2𝛿 in that rod (Fig.
2.4), i.e., a deformation twice as large as the deformation d it produces in rod BC. But in both
cases the ratio of the deformation over the length of the rod is the same; it is equal to 𝛿 ⁄𝐿. This
observation brings us to introduce the concept of strain: We define the normal strain in a rod
under axial loading as the deformation per unit length of that rod. Denoting the normal strain by
𝜖 (Greek letter epsilon), we write
𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿
Plotting the stress 𝜎 = 𝑃 𝐴 against the
⁄
strain 𝜖 = 𝛿 ⁄𝐿, we obtain a curve that is
characteristic of the properties of the
material and does not depend upon the
dimensions of the particular specimen
used. This curve is called a stress-strain
diagram.
Since the rod BC considered in the preceding discussion had a uniform
cross section of area A, the normal stress 𝜎 could be assumed to have a
constant value 𝑃⁄𝐴 throughout the rod. Thus, it was appropriate to
define the strain 𝜖 as the ratio of the total deformation 𝛿 over the total
length L of the rod. In the case of a member of variable cross-sectional
area A, however, the normal stress 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 varies along the member,
and it is necessary to define the strain at a given point Q by considering
a small element of undeformed length ∆𝑥 (Fig. 2.5). Denoting by 𝑑𝛿 the
deformation of the element under the given loading, we define the normal strain at point Q as
∆𝛿 𝑑𝛿
𝜖 = lim =
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Since deformation and length are expressed in the same units, the normal strain 𝜖 obtained by
dividing 𝛿 by L (or 𝑑𝛿 by 𝑑𝑥) is a dimensionless quantity. Thus, the same numerical value is
obtained for the normal strain in a given member, whether SI metric units or U.S. customary
units are used. Consider, for instance, a bar of length 𝐿 = 0.600 𝑚 and uniform cross section,
which undergoes a deformation 𝛿 = 150 × 10−6 𝑚. The corresponding strain is
𝛿 150 × 10−6 𝑚
𝜖= = = 250 × 10−6 𝑚⁄𝑚 = 250 × 10−6
𝐿 0.600 𝑚
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
We saw in the previous section that the diagram representing the relation
between stress and strain in a given material is an important characteristic
of the material. To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material, one usually
conducts a tensile test on a specimen of the material. One type of specimen
commonly used is shown in Photo 2.1. The cross-sectional area of the
cylindrical central portion of the specimen has been accurately determined
and two gage marks have been inscribed on that portion at a distance 𝐿0
from each other. The distance 𝐿0 is known as the gage length of the
specimen.
The test specimen is then placed in a testing machine (Photo 2.2), which is
used to apply a centric load P. As the load P increases, the distance L
between the two gage marks also increases (Photo 2.3). The distance L is
measured with a dial gage, and the elongation 𝛿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿0 is recorded for
each value of P. A second dial gage is often used simultaneously to
measure and record the change in diameter of the specimen. From each
pair of readings P and 𝛿, the stress 𝜎 is computed by dividing P by the
original cross-sectional area 𝐴0 of the specimen, and the strain 𝜖 by
dividing the elongation 𝛿 by the original distance 𝐿0 between the two
gage marks. The stress-strain diagram may then be obtained by plotting
P as an abscissa and 𝜎 as an ordinate.
Stress-strain diagrams of various materials vary widely, and different

tensile tests conducted on the same material may yield different results,
depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of
loading. It is possible, however, to distinguish some common
characteristics among the stress-strain diagrams of various groups of
materials and to divide materials into two broad categories on the basis
of these characteristics, namely, the ductile materials and the brittle
materials.
Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of other metals, are
characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. As the specimen is subjected to an
increasing load, its length first increases linearly with the load and at a very slow rate. Thus, the
initial portion of the stress-strain diagram is a straight line with a steep slope (Fig. 2.6).
However, after a critical value 𝜎𝑌 of the stress has been reached, the specimen undergoes a
large deformation with a relatively small increase in the applied load. This deformation is caused
by slippage of the material along oblique surfaces and is due, therefore, primarily to shearing
stresses. As we can note from the stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials (Fig.
2.6), the elongation of the specimen after it has started to yield can be 200 times as large as its
deformation before yield. After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached, the
diameter of a portion of the specimen begins to decrease, because of local instability (Photo
2.4a). This phenomenon is known as necking. After necking has begun, somewhat lower loads
are sufficient to keep the specimen elongating further, until it finally ruptures (Photo 2.4b). We
note that rupture occurs along a cone-shaped surface that forms an angle of approximately 45°
with the original surface of the specimen. This indicates that shear is primarily responsible for
the failure of ductile materials, and confirms the fact that, under an axial load, shearing stresses
are largest on surfaces forming an angle of 45° with the load. The stress 𝜎𝑌 at which yield is
initiated is called the yield strength of the material, the stress 𝜎𝑈 corresponding to the maximum
load applied to the specimen is known as the ultimate strength, and the stress 𝜎𝐵 corresponding
to rupture is called the breaking strength.
Proportional Limit
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line.
This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir
Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain or
𝜎∝𝜖
or
𝜎 = 𝑘𝜖
The constant of proportionality 𝑘 is called the modulus of elasticity 𝐸 or Young’s modulus and is
equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that there is
no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Elastic And Plastic Ranges
The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to
R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N⋅m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience
of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N⋅m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable
stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the
yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or
yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADING
Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and uniform cross section of area A subjected to a
centric axial load P (Fig. 2.1). If the resulting axial stress 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 does not exceed the
proportional limit of the material, we may apply Hooke’s law and write
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
from which it follows that
𝜎 𝑃
𝜖= =
𝐸 𝐴𝐸
Recalling that the strain 𝜖 was defined as 𝜖 = 𝛿 ⁄𝐿, we have
𝛿 = 𝜖𝐿
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
STIFFNESS, 𝒌
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement.
It has a unit of N/mm.
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿
It shows that for an axially loaded member, the axial stiffness is
𝐴𝐸
𝑘=
𝐿
PROBLEM 1: Determine the deformation of the steel rod shown in the figure under the given
loads (𝐸 = 29 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖).
Solution:
To find the internal forces P1, P2, and P3, we must pass
sections through each of the component parts, drawing
each time the free-body diagram of the portion of rod
located to the right of the section. Expressing that each of
the free bodies is in equilibrium, we obtain successively
𝑃1 = +60 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 = +60000 𝑙𝑏
𝑃2 = −15 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 = −15000 𝑙𝑏
𝑃3 = +30 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 = +30000 𝑙𝑏
The total deformation is
𝑃𝑖 𝐿𝑖 1 𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2 𝑃3 𝐿3
𝛿=∑ = ( + + )
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖 𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
1 (60 × 103 𝑙𝑏)(12 𝑖𝑛) (−15 × 103 𝑙𝑏)(12 𝑖𝑛) (30 × 103 𝑙𝑏)(16 𝑖𝑛)
𝛿= [ + + ]
29 × 106 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 0.9 𝑖𝑛2 0.9 𝑖𝑛2 0.3 𝑖𝑛2
𝜹 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒊𝒏
PROBLEM 2: A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2

and length of 150 m is suspended vertically from one end. It supports
a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is
7850 kg/m3 and 𝐸 = 200 × 103 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , find the total elongation of the
rod.
Solution:
Deformation due to the tensile load of 20 kN:
𝑃1 𝐿
𝛿1 =
𝐴𝐸
(20 × 103 𝑁)(150 × 103 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿1 =
(300 𝑚𝑚2 )(200 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝛿1 = 50 𝑚𝑚
Deformation due to the weight of the rod:
(𝜌𝑔𝐴)𝑥
𝑑𝛿2 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝐸
𝜌𝑔 𝐿
𝛿2 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐸 0
𝜌𝑔𝐿2
𝛿2 =
2𝐸
Substituting 𝜌 = 7850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3, 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 , 𝐿 = 150 𝑚 and 𝐸 = 200 × 106 𝑁⁄𝑚2 , we have
(7850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(150 𝑚)2
𝛿2 = = 4.33 𝑚𝑚
2(200 × 106 𝑁⁄𝑚2 )
Therefore, the total deformation of the rod is 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 50 𝑚𝑚 + 4.33 𝑚𝑚 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒎.
PROBLEM 3: An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads
applied at the positions shown in the figure. Compute the total change in length of the bar if 𝐸 =
10 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.
Solution:
𝑃1 = 6000 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
𝑃2 = 1000 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶)
𝑃3 = 4000 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
Assuming that tensile force is positive and compressive force is negative, the change in length
of the bar is
𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3
𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2 𝑃3 𝐿3
𝛿= + +
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
1
𝛿= (𝑃 𝐿 + 𝑃2 𝐿2 + 𝑃3 𝐿3 )
𝐴𝐸 1 1
Substituting the values, we have
1
𝛿= [(6000 𝑙𝑏)(36 𝑖𝑛) + (−1000 𝑙𝑏)(60 𝑖𝑛) + (4000 𝑙𝑏)(48 𝑖𝑛)]
(0.5 𝑖𝑛2 )(10 × 106 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 )
𝜹 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟔 𝒊𝒏
The positive value indicates that the bar has an increase in length.
PROBLEM 4: A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in
the figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that will
not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel;
120 MPa in the bronze; and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably
braced to prevent buckling. Use 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎, and 𝐸𝑏𝑟 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
Solution:
Based on allowable deformation:

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝛿𝑏𝑟 + 𝛿𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑏𝑟 𝐿𝑏𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
𝛿= + +
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑏𝑟 𝐸𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝑃(1000) (−2𝑃)(2000) 2𝑃(1500)
3.0 𝑚𝑚 = + +
(480)(200 × 10 ) (650)(83 × 10 ) (320)(70 × 103 )
3 3
𝑃 = 42733.51 𝑁
𝑃 = 42.73 𝑘𝑁
Based on allowable stresses:

Steel:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑃 = (140 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(480 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑃 = 67200 𝑁
𝑃 = 67.20 𝑘𝑁
Bronze:
𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑟
2𝑃 = (120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(650 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑃 = 39000 𝑁
𝑃 = 39.00 𝑘𝑁
Aluminum:
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑎𝑙
2𝑃 = (80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(320 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑃 = 12800 𝑁
𝑃 = 12.80 𝑘𝑁
Use the smallest P, 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵.
PROBLEM 5: The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in the figure, is
horizontal before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical displacement of B if P = 50 kN.
Solution:
Solve for the deformation of aluminum and steel, respectively:
Aluminum:
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑃𝑎𝑙 (6.0 𝑚) = (50 𝑘𝑁)(2.5 𝑚)
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 20.833 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑙
(20.833 × 103 𝑁)(3000 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
(500 𝑚𝑚2 )(70 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝛿𝑎𝑙 = 1.7857 𝑚𝑚
Steel:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝑎𝑙 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 50 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 29.167 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡
(29.167 × 103 𝑁)(4000 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
(300 𝑚𝑚2 )(200 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 1.9444 𝑚𝑚
By similar triangles:
𝑦 − 𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝛿𝑠𝑡 − 𝛿𝑎𝑙
=
3.5 6
𝑦 − 1.7857 1.9444 − 1.7857
=
3.5 6
𝒚 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟖𝟑 𝒎𝒎
SHEARING DEFORMATION
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.
The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain
and is expressed as
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿
The ratio of the shear stress 𝜏 and the shear strain 𝛾 is called the modulus of elasticity in
shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾
The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is
𝑉𝐿
𝛿𝑠 =
𝐴𝑠 𝐺
Where V is the shearing force acting over an area 𝐴𝑠 .
POISSON’S RATIO
When a homogeneous slender bar is axially loaded, the resulting stress and strain satisfy
Hooke’s law, as long as the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. Assuming that the load
P is directed along the x-axis, we have 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑃⁄𝐴, where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the bar,
and, from Hooke’s law,
𝜎𝑥
𝜖𝑥 =
𝐸
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
We also note that the normal stresses on faces
respectively perpendicular to the y and z axes are zero:
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 0 . It would be tempting to conclude that the
corresponding strains, 𝜖𝑦 and 𝜖𝑧 are also zero. This,
however, is not the case. In all engineering materials, the
elongation produced by an axial tensile force P in the
direction of the force is accompanied by a contraction in
any transverse direction. In this part, all materials
considered will be assumed to be both homogeneous and
isotropic, i.e. their mechanical properties will be assumed
independent of both position and direction. If follows that
the strain must have the same value for any transverse
direction. Therefore, for the loading shown in the figure, we
must have 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 . This common value is referred to as the
lateral strain. An important constant for a given material is
its Poisson’s ratio, named after the French mathematician
Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) and denoted by the
Greek letter 𝜈 (nu). It is defined as
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜈=−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑧
𝜈=− =−
𝜖𝑥 𝜖𝑥
BIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously by ensile stresses, 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 , in the x and y
directions, the strain in the x-direction is 𝜎𝑥 ⁄𝐸 and the strain in the y direction is 𝜎𝑦 /𝐸 .
Simultaneously, the stress in the y direction will produce a lateral contraction on the x direction
of the amount −𝜈𝜖𝑦 or −𝜈𝜎𝑦 /𝐸. The resulting strain in the x direction will be
1
𝜖𝑥 = (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸 𝑥
and
1
𝜎𝑦 = (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎𝑥 )
𝐸 𝑦
TRIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually perpendicular normal stresses 𝜎𝑥 ,
𝜎𝑦 , and 𝜎𝑧 , which are accompanied by strains 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , and 𝜖𝑧 , respectively,
1
𝜎𝑥 = [𝜎 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )]
𝐸 𝑥
1
𝜎𝑦 = [𝜎 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 )]
𝐸 𝑦
1
𝜎𝑧 = [𝜎 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )]
𝐸 𝑧
The relationship between modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 is
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜈)
The bulk modulus of elasticity 𝐾 is a measure of a resistance of a material to change in volume
without change in shape or form. It is given as
𝐸
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜈)
PROBLEM 6: A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show that its change in
diameter is 4𝑃𝜈⁄𝜋𝐸𝑑.
Solution:
𝜖𝑦
𝜈=−
𝜖𝑥
𝜖𝑦 = −𝜈𝜖𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑃
= −𝑣 ⋅
𝑑 𝐴𝐸
𝛿𝑦 𝑃
= −𝜈 ⋅ 𝜋
𝑑 𝑑2 𝐸
4
𝟒𝑷𝝂
𝜹𝒚 =
𝝅𝒅𝑬
The negative sign is neglected; it only signifies that if the applied axial load is compression, then
the diameter experiences elongation, otherwise, it contracts.
PROBLEM 7: A 2-inch-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid
hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume 𝜈 =
0.30 and neglect the possibility of buckling.
Solution:
Since the tube just fits in a rigid hole, it cannot afford to have an expansion. This means that the
strain along the diameter should be zero, thus,
1
𝜖𝑥 = (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎𝑦 ) = 0
𝐸 𝑥
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜈𝜎𝑦
where 𝜎𝑥 = tangential stress, 𝜎𝑦 = longitudinal stress
3140 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑦 =
𝜋(2 𝑖𝑛)(0.05 𝑖𝑛)
𝜎𝑦 = 9994.93 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Therefore, the tangential stress is

𝜎𝑥 = 0.30(9994.93 𝑝𝑠𝑖)
𝝈𝒙 = 𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊
PROBLEM 8: A rectangular block of a material with a modulus of rigidity 𝐺 = 90 𝑘𝑠𝑖 is bonded
to two rigid horizontal plates, 2 inches apart. The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is
subjected to a horizontal force P. Knowing that the upper plate moves through 0.04 inch under
the action of the force, determine (a) the average shearing strain in the material, (b) the force P
exerted on the upper plate.
Solution:
a. Shearing strain:
𝛿𝑠
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐿
0.04 𝑖𝑛
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
2 𝑖𝑛
𝜸𝒙𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅
b. Force exerted on upper plate:

Solve for the shearing stress in the material.
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = (90 × 103 𝑝𝑠𝑖)(0.02 𝑟𝑎𝑑) = 1800 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The force exerted on the upper plate is thus

𝑃 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 = (1800 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(2.5 𝑖𝑛)(8 𝑖𝑛) = 36000 𝑙𝑏
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS
When the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section exceed the number
of independent equations of equilibrium, he structure is called statically indeterminate. These
cases require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformation in the
members.
PROBLEM 9: A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial
compressive load of 300 kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable
stresses are 6 MPa and 120 MPa for the concrete and steel, respectively. Use Ece= 14 GPa and
Est= 200 GPa.
Solution:
By compatibility condition, the deformation of the concrete and steel
are equal:
𝛿𝑐𝑜 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑐𝑜 𝐿𝑐𝑜 𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
=
𝐴𝑐𝑜 𝐸𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡
Substituting 𝜎 = 𝑃 𝐴, and since steel and concrete have the same
⁄
length, the compatibility equation reduces to
𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝜎𝑠𝑡
=
𝐸𝑐𝑜 𝐸𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝜎𝑠𝑡
=
14 200
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 0.07𝜎𝑠𝑡
Assuming that steel will reach its allowable stress of 120 MPa, the stress experience by the
concrete will be
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 0.07(120)
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 8.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 > 6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Since the stress in the concrete exceeds its allowable stress of 6 MPa, we can conclude that the
concrete will reach its allowable stress, while steel does not. It also means that concrete will
yield.
6 = 0.07𝜎𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 85.71 𝑀𝑃𝑎 < 120 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Summing up forces vertical:
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝑃𝑐𝑜 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 300 × 103 𝑁
𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑐𝑜 + 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 300 × 103 𝑁
𝜋
(6 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) [ (200 𝑚𝑚)2 − 𝐴𝑠𝑡 ] + (85.71 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 300 × 103 𝑁
4
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟖. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐
PROBLEM 10: The lower ends of the three bars in the figure are the same level before the
uniform rigid block weighing 40 kips is attached. Each steel bar has a length of 3 ft. and area of
1.0 in², and E = 29 × 106 psi. For the bronze bar, the area is 1.5 in² and E = 12 × 106 psi.
Determine (a) the length of the bronze bar so that the load on each steel bar is twice the load on
the bronze bar, and (b) the length of the bronze that will make the steel stress twice the bronze
stress.
Solution:
a. If 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑏𝑟 :
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
2𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
2(2𝑃𝑏𝑟 ) + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
5𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
𝑃𝑏𝑟 =8𝑘
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 16 𝑘
The deformations of both steel are bronze are equal:

𝛿𝑏𝑟 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑏𝑟 𝐿𝑏𝑟 𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
=
𝐴𝑏𝑟 𝐸𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡
(8 𝑘)𝐿𝑏𝑟 (16 𝑘)(3 𝑓𝑡)
=
(1.5 𝑖𝑛2 )(12 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖) (1.0 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖)
𝑳𝒃𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟐 𝒇𝒕
b. If 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑏𝑟 :
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
2𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
2(𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 ) + 𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
2(2𝜎𝑏𝑟 )𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
4𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑟 = 40 𝑘
4𝜎𝑏𝑟 (1.0 𝑖𝑛2 ) + 𝜎𝑏𝑟 (1.5 𝑖𝑛2 ) = 40 𝑘
𝜎𝑏𝑟 = 7.273 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑏𝑟 = 14.545 𝑘𝑠𝑖
The deformations of both steel are bronze are equal:

𝛿𝑏𝑟 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑏𝑟 𝐿𝑏𝑟 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
=
𝐸𝑏𝑟 𝐸𝑠𝑡
(7.273 𝑘𝑠𝑖)𝐿𝑏𝑟 (14.545 𝑘𝑠𝑖)(3 𝑓𝑡)
=
12 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 29 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑳𝒃𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝒇𝒕
PROBLEM 11: The assembly in the figure consists

of a light rigid bar AB pinned at O, that is attached
to the steel and aluminum rods. In the position
shown, bar AB is horizontal and there is a gap, ∆ =
5 mm, between the lower end of the steel rod and
its pin support at C. Compute the stress in the
aluminum rod when the lower end of the steel rod
is attached to its support.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (0.75 𝑚) = 𝑃𝑎𝑙 (1.5 𝑚)
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑎𝑙
Substitute 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴:
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 (250 𝑚𝑚2 ) = 2𝜎𝑎𝑙 (300 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 2.4𝜎𝑎𝑙
By ratio and proportion:

𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵
=
0.75 1.5
𝛿𝐴 = 0.5𝛿𝐵
Take note that 𝛿𝐴 and 𝛿𝐵 represents the “displacement” of points A and B, respectively, not the
deformation of the steel and aluminum rods, respectively. By compatibility condition, it follows
that
𝛿𝐵 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙
and
∆= 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝛿𝐴
Take note also that it you apply 𝑃𝑠𝑡 to the steel rod, then point A will be displaced downward,
then the steel deforms. Substituting:
5 𝑚𝑚 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 0.5𝛿𝐵
5 𝑚𝑚 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 0.5𝛿𝑎𝑙
Substitute 𝛿 = 𝜎𝐿⁄𝐸 and 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 2.4𝜎𝑎𝑙 :
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡 𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
5 𝑚𝑚 = + 0.5 ( )
𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑎𝑙
(2.4𝜎𝑎𝑙 )(2000 𝑚𝑚 − 5 𝑚𝑚) 0.5(𝜎𝑎𝑙 )(2000 𝑚𝑚)
5 𝑚𝑚 = +
200 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 70 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 12: The light rigid bar ABCD shown in the figure is pinned at B and connected to
two vertical rods stress-free, determine the stress in each rod after load after the load P = 20
kips is applied.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑃𝑎𝑙 (4) + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 (2) = (20 × 103 )(4)
2𝑃𝑎𝑙 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 40 × 103
Substitute 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴:
2𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑎𝑙 + 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 40 × 103

2𝜎𝑎𝑙 (0.75) + 𝜎𝑠𝑡 (0.5) = 40 × 103
1.5𝜎𝑎𝑙 + 0.5𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 40 × 103 → (1)
Compatibility condition:
𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐶
=
4 2
𝛿𝐴 = 2𝛿𝐶
From the figure, 𝛿𝐴 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 and 𝛿𝐶 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 :
𝛿𝑎𝑙 = 2𝛿𝑠𝑡
Substitute 𝛿 = 𝜎𝐿⁄𝐸 :
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
= 2( )
𝐸𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑎𝑙 (4) 𝜎𝑠𝑡 (3)
6
= 2[ ]
10 × 10 29 × 106
15
𝜎𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎 → (2)
29 𝑠𝑡
Solving the two equations simultaneously, the stresses are
𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝒔𝒊
THERMAL STRESSES
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount 𝛿𝑇 , is given by
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
Where 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meters, and 𝑇𝑖 and
𝑇𝑓 are the initial and final temperatures, respectively, in °C. For steel, 𝛼 = 11.25 × 10−6 /°𝐶.
PROBLEM 13: The rigid bar ABC in the figure is pinned at B and attached to the two vertical
rods. Initially, the bar is horizontal and the vertical rods are stress-free. Determine the stress in
the aluminum rod if the temperature of the steel rod is decreased by 40°C. Neglect the weight of
bar ABC.
Solution:
Solve for the contraction of steel, assuming complete freedom:
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = (11.7 × 10−6⁄°𝐶 )(900 𝑚𝑚)(40°𝐶)
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = 0.4212 𝑚𝑚

𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐶
=
0.6 1.2
𝛿𝐴 = 0.5𝛿𝐶
The steel rod cannot contract freely, because of the resistance of the aluminum rod. Thus, we
must take note that the displacement of A (𝛿𝐴 ) is not equal to the thermal deformation of steel
(𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) ). It depends on the change in temperature, as whether the steel rod will experience a
stress, either a compressive stress (decrease in temperature) or a tensile stress (increase in
temperature). We can also have a zero-stress steel rod; it will happen if 𝛿𝐴 = 𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡). in this case,
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = 𝛿𝐴 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡
or
𝛿𝐴 = 𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) − 𝛿𝑠𝑡
Also, 𝛿𝐶 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 . Substituting:
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) − 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.5𝛿𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡 𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
0.4212 𝑚𝑚 − = 0.5 ( )
𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 (900 𝑚𝑚) 𝜎𝑎𝑙 (1200 𝑚𝑚)
0.4212 𝑚𝑚 − = 0.5 [ ]
200 × 10 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
3 70 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
9 3
0.4212 − 𝜎 = 𝜎 → (1)
2000 𝑠𝑡 350 𝑎𝑙
By summation of moment about point B:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (0.6) = 𝑃𝑎𝑙 (1.2)
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑎𝑙
Substituting 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴:
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 (300 𝑚𝑚2 ) = 2𝜎𝑎𝑙 (1200 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 8𝜎𝑎𝑙 → (2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously, the stress in the aluminum rod is
𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 14: The composite bar shown in the figure

is firmly attached to unyielding supports. An axial force
P = 50 kips is applied at 60°F. Compute the stress in
each material at 120°F. Assume 𝛼 = 6.5 × 10−6 𝑖𝑛/
(𝑖𝑛 ⋅ °𝐹) for steel and 12.8 × 10−6 𝑖𝑛/(𝑖𝑛 ⋅ °𝐹) for
aluminum.
Solution:
Compute the thermal deformation induced by the change in temperature:
Aluminum:
𝛿𝑇(𝑎𝑙) = 𝛼𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝛿𝑇(𝑎𝑙) = (12.8 × 10−6⁄°𝐹 )(15 𝑖𝑛)(120°𝐹 − 60°𝐹)
𝛿𝑇(𝑎𝑙) = 0.01152 𝑖𝑛
Steel:
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = 𝛼𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡 ∆𝑇
𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡) = (6.5 × 10−6⁄°𝐹 )(10 𝑖𝑛)(120°𝐹 − 60°𝐹)
𝛿𝑇(𝑎𝑙) = 0.0039 𝑖𝑛
𝛿𝑇(𝑎𝑙) − 𝛿𝑎𝑙 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 − 𝛿𝑇(𝑠𝑡)
𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
0.01152 − = − 0.0039
𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡
𝑅(15 𝑖𝑛) (𝑅 + 50000)(10 𝑖𝑛)
0.01152 𝑖𝑛 − = − 0.0039 𝑖𝑛
(2 𝑖𝑛 )(10 × 10 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛 ) (3 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 × 106 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 )
2 6 2
𝑅 = 11183.26 𝑙𝑏
Thus,
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅 = 11183.26 𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅 + 50000 = 61183.26 𝑙𝑏
Solving for the stress in each bar:
For aluminum:
𝑃𝑎𝑙 11183.26 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑎𝑙 = =
𝐴𝑎𝑙 2 𝑖𝑛2
𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟓𝟓𝟗𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊
For steel:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 61183.26 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = =
𝐴𝑠𝑡 3 𝑖𝑛2
𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟒. 𝟒𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊
PROBLEM 15: The rigid bar CDE is attached to a pin
support at E and rests on the 30-mm-diameter brass
cylinder BD. A 22-mm-diamete steel rod AC passes through
a hole in the bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly
fitted when the temperature of the entire assembly is 20°C.
The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised to 50°C
present before the temperature change; determine the
stress in the cylinder.
Rod AC: Steel Rod BD: Brass

Est = 200 GPa Ebrass = 105 GPa
αst = 11.7 × 10-6/°C αbrass = 20.9 × 10-6/°C
Solution:
Consider the free body diagram of the entire assembly, we
write
∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
𝑅𝐴 (0.75 𝑚) − 𝑅𝐵 (0.3 𝑚) = 0
𝑅𝐴 = 0.4𝑅𝐵 → (1)
𝛿𝐷 𝛿𝐶
=
0.3 0.75
𝛿𝐷 = 0.4𝛿𝐶 → (2)
By compatibility condition:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝐴 (900 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝐶 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = =𝜋 = 1.183797 × 10−5 𝑅𝐴
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑠𝑡 2 3
(22 𝑚𝑚) (200 × 10 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 )2
4
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇 = (20.9 × 10−6⁄°𝐶 )(300 𝑚𝑚)(30°𝐶) = 0.1881 𝑚𝑚
𝛿1 = 𝛿𝑇 = 0.1881 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝐵 (300 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = =𝜋 = 4.04203 × 10−6 𝑅𝐵
𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 (30 𝑚𝑚)2 (105 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
4
Also,
𝛿1 = 𝛿𝐷 + 𝛿𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
0.1881 𝑚𝑚 = 0.4𝛿𝐶 + 𝛿𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
0.1881 𝑚𝑚 = 0.4(1.183797 × 10−5 𝑅𝐴 ) + 4.04203 × 10−6 𝑅𝐵
Substitute Eq. (1):
0.1881 𝑚𝑚 = 0.4(1.183797 × 10−5 )(0.4𝑅𝐵 ) + 4.04203 × 10−6 𝑅𝐵

𝑅𝐵 = 31687.44 𝑁
Therefore, the stress in the brass cylinder is
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝐵
𝜎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜋
(30 𝑚𝑚)2
4
31687.44 𝑁
𝜎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜋
(30 𝑚𝑚)2
4
𝝈𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂
MODULE 3: TORSION
• Understand the effects of torsion in a circular element

• Evaluate the torsional shearing stress
• Evaluate the angle of twist
• Evaluate the power transmitted by a shaft
• Evaluate the capacity of a flanged bolted coupling assembly
• Evaluate the capacity of a thin-walled vessel subjected to torque
• Evaluate the capacity of helical springs
COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque or
twisting moment T equivalent to 𝐹 × 𝑑, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as
shown in the figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.
TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, 𝝉

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional shearing stress 𝜏
at a distance 𝜌 from the center of the shaft is
𝑇𝜌
𝜏=
𝐽
The maximum shearing stress is
𝑇𝑅
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and R is the outer radius.
For a solid circular shaft:

𝜋 4
𝐽= 𝐷
32
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
For a hollow cylindrical shaft:
𝜋
𝐽= (𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
32
16𝑇𝐷
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
16𝑇𝑑
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
ANGLE OF TWIST
The angle θ through which the bar of length L will twist is
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SHAFT

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity 𝜔 (in radians per second) is being acted by a
twisting moment T. The power transmitted by a shaft is
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
but
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
where f is the frequency in revolutions per second (rpm), and P is power in watts (W).
PROBLEM 1: What is the minimum diameter if a solid steel shaft that will not twist more than 3°
in a 6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12 kN⋅m? What is the maximum shearing stress
developed? Use G = 83 GPa.
Solution:
Minimum diameter:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
𝜋 (12 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)(6000 𝑚𝑚)
3° ( )= 𝜋 4
180° (83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
32 𝐷
𝐷 = 113.98 𝑚𝑚
𝑫 ≈ 𝟏𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝒎
Using D = 114 mm,
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
16(12 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋(114 𝑚𝑚)3
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 2: A hollow cylindrical steel shaft is 1.5 m long and has an inner and outer diameter,
respectively, equal to 40 mm and 60 mm. (a) What is the largest torque that can be applied to
the shaft if the shearing stress is not to exceed 120 MPa? (b) What is the corresponding
minimum value of the shearing stress in the shaft?
Solution:
Based on the maximum shearing stress:
16𝑇𝐷
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
16𝑇(60 𝑚𝑚)
120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋[(60 𝑚𝑚)4 − (40 𝑚𝑚)4 ]
6
𝑇 = 4.08 × 10 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
Minimum shearing stress developed:
16𝑇𝑑
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
16(4.08 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)(40 𝑚𝑚)
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜋[(60 𝑚𝑚)4 − (40 𝑚𝑚)4 ]
𝝉𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 3: An aluminum shaft with a constant diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques
applied to gears attached to it as shown in the figure. Using G = 28 GPa, determine the relative
angle of twist of gear D relative to gear A.
Solution:
Rotation of D relative to A:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 = ∑
𝐽𝐺
Since JG is constant, we can factor it out:
1
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 = ∑ 𝑇𝐿
𝐽𝐺
1
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 = [(800 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(2 𝑚) − (300 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(3 𝑚) + (600 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(2 𝑚)]
𝐽𝐺
1900 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 =
𝐽𝐺
2
103 𝑚𝑚
(1900 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2 ) ( )
1𝑚
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 = 𝜋
(50 𝑚𝑚) (28 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
4
32
180°
𝜃𝐷⁄𝐴 = (0.1106 𝑟𝑎𝑑) ( )
𝜋
𝜽𝑫⁄𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟒°
PROBLEM 4: A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using
G = 83 GPa, compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20 Hz?
Solution:
Based on angle of twist:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
𝜋 𝑇(5000 𝑚𝑚)
4° ( )= 𝜋
180° 4 (83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
32 𝐷
𝑇 = 0.11377𝐷4 → (1)
Based on maximum shearing stress:
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
16(0.11377𝐷4 )
80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋𝐷 3
83𝜋
80 = ( )𝐷
450
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎
Power transmitted:
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
𝑃 = 𝑇(2𝜋𝑓)
𝑃 = (0.11377)(138.06 𝑚𝑚)4 [(2𝜋)(20) 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠]
𝑃 = 5194.61 𝑘𝑊
𝑷 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟗 𝑴𝑾
PROBLEM 5: A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing

stress of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute the
proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.
Solution:
𝑃 4.5 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑇= =
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋(3) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠
𝑇 = 238732.4146 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:

16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
103 𝑚𝑚
16(238732.4146 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( )
1𝑚
50 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋𝐷 3
𝐷 = 289.71 𝑚𝑚
Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
103 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 (238732.4146 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(26𝐷) ( )
1𝑚
1° ( )= 𝜋 4
180° (83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
32 𝐷
𝐷 = 352.08 𝑚𝑚
Use the bigger diameter, D = 352 mm.
PROBLEM 6: Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel
shaft of 100-mm outside diameter and an 80-mm inside diameter without exceeding a shearing
stress of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5°/m. Use G = 83 GPa.
Solution:
Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:
16𝑇𝐷
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
16𝑇(100 𝑚𝑚)
60 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋[(100 𝑚𝑚)4 − (80 𝑚𝑚)4 ]
𝑇 = 6955486.135 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
𝑇 = 6955.49 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
𝜋
0.5° ( ) 𝑇
180° =
1000 𝑚𝑚 𝜋
[(100 𝑚𝑚)4 − (80 𝑚𝑚)4 ](83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
32
𝑇 = 4198282.972 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
𝑇 = 4198.28 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Use the smaller torque, T = 4198.28 N⋅m.
PROBLEM 7: The steel shaft shown in the figure rotates at 4 Hz with 35 kW taken off at A, 20
kW removed at B, and 55 kW applied at C. Using G = 83 GPa, find the maximum shearing
stress and the rotation of gear A relative to gear C.
Solution:
𝑃
𝑇=
2𝜋𝑓
−35 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑇𝐴 = = −1392.61 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
2𝜋(4) 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
−20 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑇𝐵 = = −795.77 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
+55 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑇𝐴 = = +2188.38 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
103 𝑚𝑚
16(1392.61 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( 1 𝑚 )
𝜏𝐴𝐵 = = 42.63 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋(55 𝑚𝑚)3
103 𝑚𝑚
16(2188.38 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( 1 𝑚 )
𝜏𝐵𝐶 = = 40.58 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋(65 𝑚𝑚)3
Therefore, the maximum shearing stress is 42.63 MPa.
For the angle of twist of A relative to C:
1 𝑇𝐿
𝜃𝐴⁄𝐶 = ∑
𝐺 𝐽
2
1 (1392.61 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(4 𝑚) (2188.38 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)(2 𝑚) 103 𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝐴⁄𝐶 = [ 𝜋 + 𝜋 ]( )
83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (55 𝑚𝑚)4 (65 𝑚𝑚)4 1𝑚
32 32
𝜃𝐴⁄𝐶 = 0.104797 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜽𝑨⁄𝑪 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎°
PROBLEM 8: The solid rod AB has a diameter 𝑑𝐴𝐵 = 60 𝑚𝑚. The pipe CD has an outer
diameter of 90 mm and a wall thickness of 6 mm. Knowing that both the rod and the pipe are
made of steel for which the allowable shearing stress is 75 MPa, determine the largest torque T
that can be applied at A.
Solution:
Based on rod AB:
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷 3
16𝑇
75 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋(60 𝑚𝑚)3
𝑇 = 3.18 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Based on pipe CD: (inner diameter d = 90 – 2(6) = 78 mm)

16𝑇𝐷
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
16𝑇(90 𝑚𝑚)
75 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋[(90 𝑚𝑚)4 − (78 𝑚𝑚)4 ]
𝑇 = 4.68 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Use the smaller value, T = 3.18 kN⋅m.

PROBLEM 9: The compound shaft shown in the figure is attached to rigid supports. For the
bronze segment AB, the diameter is 75 mm, 𝜏 ≤ 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, and G = 35 MPa. For the steel
segment BC, the diameter is 50 mm, 𝜏 ≤ 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎, and G = 83 MPa. If a = 2 m, and b = 1.5 m,
compute the maximum torque T that can be applied.
Solution:
Summation of moments:
∑𝑀 = 0
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑏𝑟 + 𝑇𝑠𝑡 → (1)
Since it is supported by fixed supports, no rotation at A and C, hence
𝜃𝑏𝑟 = 𝜃𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑏𝑟 𝐿𝑏𝑟 𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑠𝑡
=
𝐽𝑏𝑟 𝐺𝑏𝑟 𝐽𝑠𝑡 𝐺𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑏𝑟 (2) 𝑇𝑠𝑡 (1.5)
𝜋 = 𝜋
(75)4 (35) (50)4 (83)
32 32
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 1.60109𝑇𝑠𝑡 → (2)
Based on the allowable stress for the bronze (60 MPa):
16𝑇𝑏𝑟
60 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋(75 𝑚𝑚)3
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 4.970 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Substitute to (2):
4.97 = 1.60109𝑇𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 3.104 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Based on the allowable stress for steel (80 MPa):
16𝑇𝑠𝑡
80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋(50 𝑚𝑚)3
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 1.963 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Substitute to (2):
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 1.60109(1.963)
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 3.144 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Based on the values, steel will reach its allowable stress, while bronze does not. Therefore, use
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 1.963 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚 and 𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 3.144 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚. Substitute these values to (1):
𝑇 = 3.144 + 1.963
𝑻 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
PROBLEM 10: A shaft composed of segments AC, CD, and DB is fastened to rigid supports
and loaded as shown in the figure. For bronze, G = 35 GPa; aluminum, G = 28 GPa; and for
steel, G = 83 GPa. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed in each segment.
Solution:
Since it is supported by fixed supports, the rotation of B relative to A is equal to zero (or vice
versa). Hence
𝜃𝐴⁄𝐵 = 0
𝑇𝐿
∑ =0
𝐽𝐺
𝑇𝐴 (2) (𝑇𝐴 − 300)(2) (𝑇𝐴 − 1000)(2.5)
𝜋 + 𝜋 + 𝜋 =0
(25)4 (35) (50)4 (28) (25)4 (83)
32 32 32
2𝑇𝐴 (𝑇𝐴 − 300) (𝑇𝐴 − 1000)
+ + =0
13,671,875 87,500,000 12,968,750
𝑇𝐴 = 342.97 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Solving for the torque at each segment:
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 𝑇𝐴 = 342.97 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑙 = 342.97 − 300 = 42.97 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 342.97 − 1000 = −657.03 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Negative sign in the torque in steel indicates the incorrect assumption of direction.
The maximum shearing stress at each segment is:
103 𝑚𝑚
16(342.97 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( 1 𝑚 )
𝜏max(𝑏𝑟) = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝜋(25 𝑚𝑚)3
103 𝑚𝑚
16(42.97 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( 1 𝑚 )
𝜏max(𝑎𝑙) = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝜋(50 𝑚𝑚)3
103 𝑚𝑚
16(657.03 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚) ( )
1𝑚
𝜏max(𝑠𝑡) = = 𝟐𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝜋(25 𝑚𝑚)3
FLANGED BOLTED COUPLINGS
In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings, the torque is transmitted by the shearing force
P created in the bolts that is assumed to be uniformly distributed. For any number of bolts n, the
torque capacity of the coupling is
𝜋𝑑2
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 = 𝜏𝑅𝑛
4
If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque
capacity is
𝑇 = 𝑃1 𝑅1 𝑛1 + 𝑃2 𝑅2 𝑛2
where the subscript 1 refers to bolts on the outer circles and
subscript 2 refers on the inner circles.
For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial distances
from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are related by
𝛾1 𝛾2
=
𝑅1 𝑅2
Using Hooke’s law for shear, 𝐺 = 𝜏⁄𝛾, we have
𝜏1 𝜏2
=
𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺2 𝑅2
or
𝑃1 ⁄𝐴1 𝑃2 ⁄𝐴2
=
𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺2 𝑅2
if the two bolts on the two circles have the same area, 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 , and if the bolts are made of the
same material, 𝐺1 = 𝐺2 , the relation between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 reduces to
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑅1 𝑅2
PROBLEM 11: A flanged bolt coupling consists of two 20-mm diameter bolts spaced evenly
around a bolt circle 400 mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the
allowable shearing stress in the bolts is 40 MPa.
Solution:
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛
𝑇 = (𝜏𝐴)𝑅𝑛
𝜋
𝑇 = (40 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ( ) (20 𝑚𝑚)2 (200 𝑚𝑚)(10)
4
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
PROBLEM 12: The plate shown in the figure is

fastened to the fixed member by five 10-mm
diameter rivets. Compute the value of P so that the
average shearing stress in any rivet does not
exceed 70 MPa.
Solution:
Solve for the location of the centroid of the rivets:
𝐴𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑎𝑥
5𝐴0 𝑥̅ = 3𝐴0 (0) + 2𝐴0 (120 𝑚𝑚)
𝑥̅ = 48 𝑚𝑚
Solving for the distance of each rivet to the centroid:
𝑟1 = √482 + 802 = 93.295 𝑚𝑚

𝑟2 = √(120 − 48)2 + 402 = 82.365 𝑚𝑚
𝑟3 = 48 𝑚𝑚
The critical rivets are the farthest from the centroid. Now, get the polar moment of inertia:
𝜋
𝐽 = ∑ 𝐴𝜌2 = (10 𝑚𝑚)2 [2(93.295 𝑚𝑚)2 + 2(82.365 𝑚𝑚)2 + (48 𝑚𝑚)2 ]
4
𝐽 = 832000𝜋 𝑚𝑚4
The torque is equal to
𝑇 = 𝑃(120 + 100) = 220𝑃
Solving now for the value of P:
𝑇𝜌
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
(220𝑃)(93.295 𝑚𝑚)
70 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
832000𝜋 𝑚𝑚4
𝑃 = 8914.34 𝑁
𝑷 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝑵
TORSION ON THIN-WALLED TUBES
The torque applied to thin-walled tubes is expressed as
𝑇 = 2𝐴𝑞
where T is the torque (kN⋅m), A is the area enclosed by
the centerline of the tube (mm2), and q is the shear flow
(N/mm).
The average shearing stress across any thickness is
𝑞 𝑇
𝜏= =
𝑡 2𝐴𝑡
Thus, the torque can be also expressed as
𝑇 = 2𝐴𝜏𝑡
PROBLEM 13: A tube 2 mm thick has the shape shown in the
figure. Find the shearing stress caused by a torque of 600
N⋅m.
Solution:
𝑇
𝜏=
2𝐴𝑡
(600 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚)
𝜏=
2[(80 𝑚𝑚)(20 𝑚𝑚) + 𝜋(10 𝑚𝑚)2 ](2 𝑚𝑚)
𝝉 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟑𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 14: A hollow brass shaft has the cross

section shown. Knowing that the shearing stress
must not exceed 12 ksi and neglecting the effect of
stress concentrations, determine the largest torque
that can be applied to the shaft.
Solution:
𝜋
𝐴 = (4.8 𝑖𝑛)(5.5 𝑖𝑛) − 2 [ (1.6 𝑖𝑛)2 ] = 22.3788 𝑖𝑛2
4
Solving for T:
𝑇 = 2𝐴𝜏𝑡
𝑇 = 2(22.3788 𝑖𝑛2 )(12 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(0.2 𝑖𝑛)
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟒𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝒊𝒑 ⋅ 𝒊𝒏
HELICAL SPRINGS
When closed-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of
round rod of diameter d wound into a helix of mean radius R
with n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P
produces the following stress and elongation:
The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct
shearing stress 𝜏1 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 and the torsional shearing stress
𝜏2 = 𝑇𝑟⁄𝐽, with 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅.
𝑃 16𝑃𝑅
𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 𝜋 +
2 𝜋𝑑3
4𝑑
16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝜏= 3
(1 + )
𝜋𝑑 4𝑅
This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for light spring where the ratio d =
4R is small.
For heave springs and considering the curvature of the spring, a more precise formula is given
by: (A.M. Wahl Formula)
16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚 − 1 0.615
𝜏= ( + )
𝜋𝑑3 4𝑚 − 4 𝑚
where
2𝑅
𝑚=
𝑑
is the spring index and (4𝑚 − 1)⁄(4𝑚 − 4) is the Wahl factor.
The elongation of the bar is
64𝑃𝑅 3 𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑4
Notice that the deformation 𝛿 is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P to 𝛿 is
called the spring constant k and is equal to
𝑃 𝐺𝑑4
𝑘= =
𝛿 64𝑃𝑅 3 𝑛
Springs in Series
For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring constant k is given by
𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯=∑
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘1
𝑖=1
where k1, k2, … are the spring constants for different springs.
Springs in Parallel
In similar manner, the spring constant k for parallel springs is
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
PROBLEM 15: Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring
composed of 20 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean radius of 90 mm when the spring is
supporting a load of 1.5 kN. Use G = 83 GPa.
Solution:
16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚 − 1 0.615
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( + )
𝜋𝑑3 4𝑚 − 4 𝑚
Solving for m:
2𝑅 2(90 𝑚𝑚)
𝑚= = =9
𝑑 20 𝑚𝑚
Thus,
16(1500 𝑁)(90 𝑚𝑚) 4(9) − 1 0.615
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ + ]
𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚)3 4(9) − 4 9
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
The elongation is
64𝑃𝑅 3 𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑4
64(1500 𝑁)(90 𝑚𝑚)3 (20)
𝛿=
(83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(20 𝑚𝑚)4
𝜹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎
PROBLEM 16: Two steel springs arranged in series as
shown in the figure supports a load P. The upper sprig has
12 turns of 25-mm diameter wire on a mean radius of 100
mm. The lower spring consists of 10 turns of 20-mm
diameter wire on a mean radius of 75 mm. If the maximum
shearing stress in either spring must not exceed 200 MPa,
compute the maximum value of P and the total elongation
of the assembly. Use equation for heavy spring and G =
83 GPa. Compute the equivalent spring constant by
dividing the load by the total elongation.
Solution:
Based on allowable shearing stress:
Spring 1:
16𝑃𝑅1 4𝑚1 − 1 0.615
𝜏= ( + )
𝜋𝑑13 4𝑚1 − 4 𝑚1
16𝑃(100 𝑚𝑚) 4(8) − 1 0.615
200 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = [ + ]
𝜋(25 𝑚𝑚)3 4(8) − 4 8
𝑃 = 5182.29 𝑁
Spring 2:
16𝑃𝑅2 4𝑚2 − 1 0.615
𝜏= ( + )
𝜋𝑑23 4𝑚2 − 4 𝑚2
16𝑃(75 𝑚𝑚) 4(7.5) − 1 0.615
200 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = [ + ]
𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚)3 4(7.5) − 4 7.5
𝑃 = 3498.28 𝑁
Use the smaller value, P = 3498.28 N. The total elongation is

𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
64𝑃𝑅13 𝑛1 64𝑃𝑅23 𝑛2
𝛿= +
𝐺𝑑14 𝐺𝑑24
64(3498.28 𝑁)(100 𝑚𝑚)3 (12) 64(3498.28 𝑁)(75 𝑚𝑚)3 (10)
𝛿= +
(83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(25 𝑚𝑚)4 (83 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(20 𝑚𝑚)4
𝜹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟗𝟗 𝒎𝒎
The equivalent spring constant k is
𝑃
𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
𝛿
3498.28 𝑁
𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
153.99 𝑚𝑚
𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟐 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎
PROBLEM 17: As shown in the figure, a homogeneous 50-kg rigid block is suspended by the
three springs whose lower ends were originally at the same level. Each steel spring has 24
turns of 10-mm diameter on a mean diameter of 100 mm, and G = 83 GPa. The bronze spring
has 48 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean diameter of 150 mm, and G = 42 GPa.
Compute the maximum shearing stress in each spring using the equation for light spring.
Solution:
Summation of forces vertical:
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 490.50 → (1)
Summation of moments about point 1:
∑ 𝑀1 = 0
𝑃2 (1) + 𝑃3 (3) = 490.50(1.5)
𝑃2 + 3𝑃3 = 735.75 → (2)
𝛿2 − 𝛿1 𝛿3 − 𝛿1
=
1 3
2𝛿1 𝛿3
𝛿2 = +
3 3
64𝑃2 (50) (24) 2 64𝑃1 (50)3 (24)
3
1 64𝑃3 (75)3 (48)
= [ ]+ [ ]
(83000)(10)4 3 (83000)(10)4 3 (42000)(20)4
300 200 225
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃 → (3)
83 83 224 3
Solving the three equation simultaneously, we have
𝑃1 = 144.78 𝑘𝑁
𝑃2 = 150.71 𝑘𝑁
𝑃3 = 195.01 𝑘𝑁
The maximum shearing stress at each spring is
16𝑃1 𝑅1 𝑑1
𝜏max(1) = 3 (1 + 4𝑅 )
𝜋𝑑1 1
16(144.78 × 103 𝑁)(50 𝑚𝑚) 10 𝑚𝑚
𝜏max(1) = 3 [1 + ]
𝜋(10 𝑚𝑚) 4(50 𝑚𝑚)
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟏) = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
16𝑃2 𝑅2 𝑑2
𝜏max(2) = 3 (1 + 4𝑅 )
𝜋𝑑2 2
16(150.71 × 103 𝑁)(50 𝑚𝑚) 10 𝑚𝑚
𝜏max(2) = 3 [1 + ]
𝜋(10 𝑚𝑚) 4(50 𝑚𝑚)
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟐) = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
16𝑃3 𝑅3 𝑑3
𝜏max(3) = 3 (1 + 4𝑅 )
𝜋𝑑3 3
16(195.01 × 103 𝑁)(75 𝑚𝑚) 20 𝑚𝑚
𝜏max(3) = 3 [1 + ]
𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚) 4(75 𝑚𝑚)
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟑) = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟑𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
MODULE 4: SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS IN BEAMS
• Identify the effects of shear and moment in beams

• Formulate the shear and moment equations of a beam given any loading
• Identify the relationship between loads, shear, and moment
• Sketch shear and moment diagrams of beams at any given loads
• Identify the maximum shear and moment due to moving loads
COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
The term “beam” is used herein to refer to a long straight structure, which is supported and
loaded in such a way that all the external forces and couples (including reactions) acting on it lie
in a plane of symmetry of its cross-section, with all the forces perpendicular to its centroidal
axis. under the action of external loads, beams are subjected to bending moments and shear
forces (but no axial forces).
Fig. 1 Types of Beams

SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
The shear and bending-moment diagram will be obtained by determining the values of V and M
at selected points of the beam. These values will be found in the usual way, i.e., by passing a
section through the point where they are to be determined (Fig. 2a) and considering the
equilibrium of the portion of beam located on either side of the section (Fig. 2b). Since the shear
forces V and V’ have opposite senses, recording the shear at point C with an up or down arrow
would be meaningless, unless we indicated at the same time which of the free bodies AC and
CB we are considering. For this reason, the shear V will be recorded with a sign: a plus sign if
the shearing forces are directed as shown in Fig. 2b, and a minus sign otherwise. A similar
convention will apply for the bending moment M. it will be considered as positive if the bending
couples are directed as shown in Fig. 2b, and negative otherwise. Summarizing the sign
convention, we have presented, we state:
Fig. 2 Determination of V and M
The shear V and the bending moment M at a given point of a beam are said to be positive when
the internal forces and couples acting on each portion of the beam are directed as shown in
Fig.3a. These conventions can be more easily remembered if we note that
1. The shear at any given point of a beam is positive when the external forces (loads and
reactions) acting on the beam tend to shear off the beam at that point as indicated in Fig.
3b.
2. The bending moment at any given point of a beam is positive when the external forces
acting on the beam tend to bend the beam at that point as indicated in Fig. 3c.
Fig. 3 Sign convention for shear and bending moment

PROBLEMS: Draw the shear and moment diagram of the beams shown below, by writing the
shear and moment equations. Specify the values at all change of loading positions and at points
of zero shear.
1.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝑅𝐵 (5) = 30(6) + 50(2) 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐷 = 30 + 50
𝑅𝐵 = 56 𝑘𝑁 𝑅𝐷 = 24 𝑘𝑁
Segment AB (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑚):
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −30 𝑀 = −30𝑥
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑉 = −30 𝑀=0
At x = 1 m: At x = 1 m:
𝑉 = −30 𝑀 = −30(1) = −30
Segment BC (1 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 𝑚):
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = +26 𝑀 = +26𝑥 − 56
At x = 1 m: At x = 1 m:
𝑉 = +26 𝑀 = 26(1) − 56
𝑀 = −30
At x = 4 m: At x = 4 m:
𝑉 = +26 𝑀 = 26(4) − 56
𝑀 = +48
Segment CD (4 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6 𝑚):
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −24 𝑀 = −24𝑥 + 144
At x = 4 m: At x = 4 m:
𝑉 = −24 𝑀 = −24(4) + 144
𝑀 = +48
At x = 6 m: At x = 6 m:
𝑉 = −24 𝑀 = −24(6) + 144
𝑀=0
The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

2.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
1 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐷 = 30(2)
𝑅𝐴 (6) = 30(2) (1 + × 2)
2 𝑅𝐷 = 40 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐴 = 20 𝑘𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = +20 𝑀 = +20𝑥
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑉 = +20 𝑀=0
At x = 3 m: A x = 3 m:
𝑉 = +20 𝑀 = +20(3)
𝑀 = +60
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = +20 − 30(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 3)
𝑉 = −30𝑥 + 110 𝑀 = 20𝑥 − 30(𝑥 − 3)
2
𝑀 = −15𝑥 2 + 110𝑥 − 135
At x = 3 m: At x = 3m:
𝑉 = −30(3) + 110 𝑀 = −15(3)2 + 110(3) − 135
𝑉 = +20 𝑀 = +60
At x = 5 m: At x = 5 m:
𝑉 = −30(5) + 110 𝑀 = −15(5)2 + 110(5) − 135
𝑉 = −40 𝑀 = +40
When 𝑉 = 0 (point of zero shear): At x = 3.667 m (point of zero shear):
0 = −30𝑥 + 110 𝑀 = −15(3.667)2 + 110(3.667) − 135
𝑥 = 3.667 𝑚 𝑀 = +66.667
Segment CD (5 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6 𝑚):
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −40 𝑀 = 40(6 − 𝑥)
𝑀 = −40𝑥 + 240
At x = 5 m: At x = 5 m:
𝑉 = −40 𝑀 = −40(5) + 240
𝑀 = +40
At x = 6 m: At x = 6 m:
𝑉 = −40 𝑀 = −40(6) + 240
𝑀=0

3.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝐶 = 2(5) = (4 − 2)(3) 𝑀𝐶 = 2(5) ( × 5) + (4 − 2)(3) ( × 3)
2 2 2 3
𝑅𝐶 = 13 𝑘𝑁 𝑀𝐶 = 28 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −2𝑥 𝑥
𝑀 = −2𝑥 ( )
2
𝑀 = −𝑥 2
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑉=0 𝑀=0
At x = 2 m: At x = 2 m:
𝑉 = −2(2) 𝑀 = −(2)2
𝑉 = −4 𝑀 = −4
𝑦−2 4−2
=
𝑥−2 3
2
𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 − 2)
3
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
1 𝑥 1 𝑥−2
𝑉 = −2𝑥 − (𝑥 − 2)𝑦 𝑀 = −2𝑥 ( ) − (𝑥 − 2)𝑦
2 2 2 3
1 2 1 2 (𝑥 − 2)
𝑉 = −2𝑥 − (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2) 𝑀 = −𝑥 2 − (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2) =0
2 3 2 3 3
1 2 1
𝑉 = −2𝑥 − (𝑥 − 2) 𝑀 = −𝑥 2 − (𝑥 − 3)3
3 9
𝑥2 2 4 𝑥3 𝑥2 4 8
𝑉=− − 𝑥− 𝑀=− − − 𝑥+
3 3 3 9 3 3 9
At x = 2 m: At x = 2 m:
22 2 4 23 22 4 8
𝑉 = − − (2) − 𝑀=− − − (2) +
3 3 3 9 3 3 9
𝑉 = −4 𝑀 = −4
At x = 5 m: At x = 5 m:
52 2 4 53 52 4 8
𝑉 = − − (5) − 𝑀 = − − − (5) +
3 3 3 9 3 3 9
𝑉 = −13 𝑀 = −28

4.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
1 𝐿 1
𝑅1 𝐿 = 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 ( ) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑤𝑜 𝐿
2 3 2
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 𝐿
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
6 3
Segment AB (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿):
𝑦 𝑤𝑜
=
𝑥 𝐿
𝑤𝑜
𝑦= 𝑥
𝐿
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 1 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 1 𝑥
𝑉= − 𝑥𝑦 𝑀= 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 ( )
6 2 6 2 3
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 1 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 1 2 𝑤𝑜
𝑉= − 𝑥 ( 𝑥) 𝑀= 𝑥 − 𝑥 ( 𝑥)
6 2 𝐿 6 6 𝐿
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 2 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 3
𝑉= − 𝑥 𝑀= 𝑥− 𝑥
6 2𝐿 6 6𝐿
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜
𝑉= − (0)2 𝑀= (0) − (0)3
6 2𝐿 6 6𝐿
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑀=0
𝑉=
6
At x = L: At x = L:
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜
𝑉= − (𝐿)2 𝑀= (𝐿) − (𝐿)3
6 2𝐿 6 6𝐿
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑀=0
𝑉=−
3
When 𝑉 = 0 (point of zero shear): At x = (√3/3)L:
𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝑤𝑜 2 3
0= − 𝑥 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 √3 𝑤𝑜 √3
6 2𝐿 𝑀= ( 𝐿) − ( 𝐿)
𝐿2 6 3 6𝐿 3
𝑥2 = √3
3 𝑀= 𝑤 𝐿2
√3 27 𝑜
𝑥= 𝐿 ≈ 0.57735𝐿 𝑀 ≈ 0.06415𝑤𝑜 𝐿2
3
5.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑅𝐶 = 20 𝑘𝑁 𝑀𝐶 = 20(6) − 80
𝑀𝐶 = 40 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20𝑥
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20(0)
𝑀=0
At x = 4 m: At x = 4 m:
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20(4)
𝑀 = −80
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20𝑥 + 80
At x = 4 m: At x = 4 m:
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20(4) + 80
𝑀=0
At x = 6 m: At x = 6 m:
𝑉 = −20 𝑀 = −20(6) + 80
𝑀 = −40
6.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝐵 = (6 + 18)(6) 𝑀𝐵 = 6(6) ( × 6) + (18 − 6)(6) ( × 6)
2 2 2 3
𝑅𝐵 = 72 𝑘𝑁 𝑀𝐶 = 180 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
𝑦 − 6 18 − 6
=
𝑥 6
𝑦 − 6 = 2𝑥
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0
1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑉 = −6𝑥 − 𝑥(𝑦 − 6) 𝑀 = −6𝑥 ( ) − 𝑥(𝑦 − 6) ( )
2 2 2 3
1 𝑥 2
𝑉 = −6𝑥 − 𝑥(2𝑥) 𝑀 = −3𝑥 2 − (2𝑥)
2 6
𝑉 = −6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑥3
2
𝑀 = −3𝑥 −
3
At x = 0: At x = 0:
𝑉 = −6(0) − 02 03
𝑉=0 𝑀 = −3(0)2 −
3
𝑀=0
At x = 6 m: At x = 6 m:
𝑉 = −6(6) − 62 63
𝑉 = −72 𝑀 = −3(6)2 −
3
𝑀 = −180

RELATIONS AMONG LOAD, SHEAR, AND MOMENT
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a distributed load w per unit length and let
C and C’ be two points of the beam at a distance ∆x from each other. The shear and bending
moment at C will be denoted by V and M, respectively, and will be assumed positive; the shear
and bending moment at C’ will be denoted by 𝑉 + ∆𝑉 and 𝑀 + ∆𝑀.
We now detach the portion of beam CC’ and draw its free-body diagram. The forces exerted on
the free body include a load of magnitude 𝑤∆𝑥 and internal forces and couples at C and C’.
Since shear and bending moment have been assumed positive, the forces and couples will be
directed as shown in the figure.
Fig. 4 Simply supported beam subjected to a distributed load

Relations between Load and Shear: Writing the sum of the vertical components of the forces
acting on the free body CC’ is zero, we have
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝑉 − (𝑉 + ∆𝑉) − 𝑤∆𝑥 = 0
∆𝑉 = −𝑤∆𝑥
Dividing both members of the equation by ∆𝑥 and then letting ∆𝑥 approach zero, we obtain
𝑑𝑉
= −𝑤
𝑑𝑥
This equation indicated that, for a beam loaded as shown in Fig. 4(a), the slope 𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝑥 of the
shear curve is negative; the numerical value of the slope at any point is equal to the load per
unit length at that point. Integrating this equation between points C and D, we write
𝑥𝐷
𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = − ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝐶
this means that the difference in shear values at point C and D is the area under the load curve
between C and D.
Relation between Shear and Bending Moment: Returning to the free-body diagram of Fig.
4(b), and writing now that the sum of the moments about C’ is zero, we have
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
∆𝑥
(𝑀 + ∆𝑀) − 𝑀 − 𝑉∆𝑥 + 𝑤∆𝑥 =0
2
1
∆𝑀 = 𝑉∆𝑥 − 𝑤(∆𝑥)2
2
Dividing both members of the equation by ∆𝑥 and then letting ∆𝑥 approach zero, we obtain
𝑑𝑀
=𝑉
𝑑𝑥
Now, this equation indicated that the slope 𝑑𝑀⁄𝑑𝑥 of the bending-moment curve is equal to the
value of the shear. This is true at any point where the shear has a well-defined value, i.e., at any
point where no concentrated load is applied. This also shows that 𝑉 = 0 at point where M is
maximum. This property facilitates the determination of the points where the beam is likely to fail
under bending. Integrating this equation between points C and D, we write
𝑥𝐷
𝑀𝐷 − 𝑀𝐶 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝐶
this means that the difference in moment values at point C and D is the area under the shear
curve between C and D.
PROBLEMS: Draw the shear and moment diagram of the beam shown below by the
relationships of load, shear, and moment. Specify the values at all change of loading positions
and at point of zero shear.
7.
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
1 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐵 = 2 + 3(4)
𝑅𝐶 (4) = 2(5) + 3(4) ( × 4)
2 𝑅𝐵 = 5.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐶 = 8.5 𝑘𝑁
For the shear diagram:
VA = 0 – 2 = -2
VC(LEFT) = -2
VC(RIGHT) = -2 + 8.5 = +6.5
VB(LEFT) = +6.5 – (3) (4) = -5.5
VB(RIGHT) = -5.5 + 5.5 = 0
Location of point of zero shear:

𝑥 4−𝑥
=
6.5 5.5
𝑥 = 2.167 𝑚
or by the definition of slope:
6.5 = 3𝑥
𝑥 = 2.167 𝑚
For the moment diagram:

MA = 0
MC(LEFT) = 0 + (-2) (1) = -2
MC(RIGHT) = -2 + 0 = -2
Mmax = -2 +1/2 (2.167) (6.5) = +5.04167
MB = +5.0417 – 1/2 (4 – 2.167) (5.5) = 0
8.
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
1
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑤𝑜 𝐿
2
For the shear diagram:

VA = 0
VC(LEFT) = 0 – 1/2 (2wo/3) (2L/3) = -2woL/9
VC(RIGHT) = -2woL/9 + 1/2 woL/2 = +5woL/18
VB = +5woL/18 – 1/2 (2wo/3 + wo) (L/3) = 0
For the moment diagram:
MA = 0
MC(LEFT) = 0 + 1/3 (-2woL/9) (2L/3) = -4woL2/81
MC(RIGHT) = -4woL2/81 + 0 = -4woL2/81
MB = -4woL2/81 + [2/3 (woL/2) (L) – 2/3 (2wo/9) (2L/3) – (5woL/18) (2L/3)]= 0
PROBLEMS 9-14: Solve Problems 1 to 6 using the relationships between loads, shear, and
moment.
MOVING LOADS
From the previous section, we see that the maximum moment occurs at a point of zero shears.
For beams loaded with concentrated loads, the point of zero shears usually occurs under a
concentrated load and so the maximum moment.
In general, the bending moment under a particular load is a maximum when the center of the
beam is midway between that load and the resultant of all the loads then on the span. With this
rule, we compute the maximum moment under each load, and use the biggest of the moments
for the design. Usually, the biggest of these moments occurs under the biggest load.
The maximum shear occurs at the reaction where the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it
happens if the biggest load is over that support and as many as possible of the remaining loads
are still on the span. In determining the largest moment and shear, it is sometimes necessary to
check the condition when the bigger loads are on the span and the rest of the smaller loads are
outside.
PROBLEM 15: A truck with axle loads of 40 kN

and 60 kN on a wheelbase of 5 m rolls across
a 10-m span. Compute the maximum bending
moment and the maximum shearing force.
Solution:
Resultant:
𝑅 = 40 + 60
𝑅 = 100 𝑘𝑁
Location of resultant:
100𝑥̅ = 40(0) + 60(5)
𝑥̅ = 3 𝑚
For the maximum moment when the 40-kN
wheel and the resultant is placed equidistant
from the center of the beam:
∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
10𝑅1 = 100(3.5)
𝑅1 = 35 𝑘𝑁
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (35 𝑘𝑁)(3.5 𝑚)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 122.5 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
For the maximum moment when the 60-kN wheel

and the resultant is placed equidistant from the
center of the beam:
∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0
10𝑅2 = 100(4)
𝑅1 = 40 𝑘𝑁
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (40 𝑘𝑁)(4 𝑚)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 160 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Therefore, the maximum moment is 160 kN⋅m.
For the maximum shear, it will occur when the

60-kN load is directly over a support:
∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0
10𝑅2 = 100(8)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵
PROBLEM 16: A truck and trailer combination crossing a 12-m span has axle loads of 10 kN,
20 kN, and 30 kN, separated respectively by distance of 3 m and 5 m. Compute the maximum
support and maximum shear developed in the span.
Solution:
Resultant:
𝑅 = 10 + 20 + 30
𝑅 = 60 𝑘𝑁
Location of resultant:
60𝑥̅ = 10(0) + 20(3) + 30(8)
𝑥̅ = 5 𝑚
For the maximum moment when the 10-kN
wheel and the resultant is placed equidistant
from the center of the beam:
∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝑅1 (12) = 60(3.5)
𝑅1 = 17.5 𝑘𝑁
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 17.5(6.5) − 10(3)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 83.75 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
For the maximum moment when the 20-kN wheel

and the resultant is placed equidistant from the
center of the beam:
∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝑅1 (12) = 60(5)
𝑅1 = 25 𝑘𝑁
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 25(5) − 10(3)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 95 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
For the maximum moment when the 30-kN wheel and the resultant is placed equidistant from
the center of the beam, take note that the 10-kN wheel comes off the span:
New resultant:
𝑅 = 20 + 30 = 50 𝑘𝑁
Location of new resultant:
50𝑥̅ = 20(0) + 30(5)
𝑥̅ = 3 𝑚
∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0
𝑅2 (12) = 50(5)
𝑅2 = 20.833 𝑘𝑁
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (20.833 𝑘𝑁)(5 𝑚)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 104.167 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
For the maximum shear, it will occur when the
30-kN load is directly over a support:
∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0
12𝑅2 = 60(9)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑵
MODULE 5: STRESSES IN BEAMS
• Interpret the forces that causes stresses in beams

• Evaluate the radius of curvature of the beam at any given point
• Interpret the use of section modulus
• Evaluate flexural stress (or bending stress)
• Evaluate horizontal shearing stress
COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses
on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act on it, the bending is said
to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is called ordinary bending.
FLEXURAL STRESS
In the derivation of the flexure formula, the following assumptions are made:
1. Plane sections of the beam, originally plane, remain plane.
2. The material in the beam is homogeneous and obeys Hooke’s law.
3. The moduli of elasticity for tension and compression are equal.
4. The beam is initially straight and of constant cross section.
5. The plane of loading must contain a principal axis of the beam cross section and the
loads must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Flexure Formula
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known as flexural or bending stresses. Consider a
beam to be loaded as shown:
Consider a fiber at a distance y from the neutral axis, because of the beam’s curvature, as the
effect of bending moment, the fiber is stretched by an amount of cd. Since the curvature of the
beam is very small, bcd and Oba are considered as similar triangles.
The strain on this fiber is
𝑐𝑑 𝑦
𝜀= =
𝑎𝑏 𝜌
By Hooke’s law, 𝜀 = 𝜎⁄𝐸, then
𝜎 𝑦
=
𝐸 𝜌
Hence,
𝑦
𝜎= 𝐸
𝜌
which means that the stress is proportional to the distance y from the neutral axis.
For this module, the notation 𝑓𝑏 will be used instead of 𝜎 , to denote the flexural stress.
Considering a differential area 𝑑𝐴 at a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis, the force acting over the
area is
𝑦 𝐸
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝜌 𝜌
The resultant of all the elemental moment about the neutral axis must be equal to the bending
moment on the section, which is M.
𝐸
𝑀 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝜌
𝐸
𝑀= ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝜌
From Statics of Rigid Bodies, we know that 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴, then

𝐸𝐼
𝑀=
𝜌
or
𝐸𝐼
𝜌=
𝑀
Substituting 𝜌 = 𝐸𝑦⁄𝑓𝑏 :
𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝐼
=
𝑓𝑏 𝑀
Then
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑏 =
𝐼
and
𝑀𝑐
𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
where:
𝑓𝑏 = flexural or bending stress
𝑀 = bending moment
𝑦 = distance from the neutral axis to the element being considered
𝑐 = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of the section
𝐼 = moment of intertia about the neutral axis
In this formula, the ratio 𝐼 ⁄𝑐 is called the section modulus and is usually denoted by 𝑆 with
units of 𝑚𝑚3 (or 𝑖𝑛3 ). The maximum bending stress may then be written as
𝑀
𝑆
PROBLEM 1: A 3-m simply supported beam 150 mm wide x 250 mm deep supports a 6-kN/m
uniform load throughout its length and a 15-kN concentrated load applied at 2 m from the left
end. Determine the maximum flexural stress.
Solution:
Let us derive first the formula for the maximum flexural stress for a rectangular cross-section.
𝑀𝑐
𝐼
ℎ
𝑀 (2)
𝑏ℎ3
( 12 )
𝟔𝑴
𝒇𝒃 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒃𝒉𝟐
We can use this formula to solve this problem.
From the moment diagram, the maximum moment is 𝑀 = 16 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚. Therefore,
6(16 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)
(150 𝑚𝑚)(250 𝑚𝑚)2
𝒇𝒃 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 2: A cantilever beam 50 mm wide by 150 mm high and 6 m long carries a load that
varies uniformly from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall (a) Compute the magnitude
and location of the maximum flexural stress. (b) Determine the magnitude of the stress in a fiber
20 mm from the top of the beam at a section 2 m from the free end.
Solution:
a. Magnitude of maximum flexural stress:
From the moment diagram, maximum moment is at the fixed support with a magnitude
of 6,000 N⋅mm. Substituting:
6𝑀
𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
𝑏ℎ
6(6000 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)
(50 𝑚𝑚)(150 𝑚𝑚)2
𝒇𝒃 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
b. Magnitude of flexural stress in a fiber 20 mm from the top of the beam at a section 2 m
from the free end:
From the moment diagram, 𝑀 = 222.222 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚. The fiber is 55 mm from the neutral
axis:
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑏 =
𝐼
(222.222 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)(55 𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑏 =
1
(50 𝑚𝑚)(150 𝑚𝑚)3
12
𝑓𝑏 = 0.86914 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝒇𝒃 = 𝟖𝟔𝟗. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 3: A rectangular steel bar, 15 mm wide by 30 mm high and 6 m long is simply

supported at its ends. If the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3, determine the maximum bending
stress caused by the weight of the bar.
Solution:
Solve for the uniformly distributed load due to the weight of the bar:
𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴
𝑤 = (7850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(0.015 𝑚)(0.030 𝑚)
𝑤 = 34.653825 𝑁⁄𝑚
Maximum moment:
𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8
(34.653825 𝑁⁄𝑚)(6 𝑚)2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 155.9422 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
The maximum bending stress caused by the weight of the bar is

6𝑀
𝑏ℎ2
6(155.9422 × 103 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚)
(15 𝑚𝑚)(30 𝑚𝑚)2
𝒇𝒃 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
PROBLEM 4: A 10-m beam simply supported at the ends carries a uniformly distributed load of
16 kN/m over its entire length. What is the lightest W-shape beam that will not exceed a flexural
stress of 120 MPa? What is the actual maximum stress in the beam selected?
Solution:
Calculate the required section modulus based on the live load:
𝑀max(𝐿𝐿)
𝑆
200 × 106 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
120 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 =
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1666.667 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
From the ASEP Steel Handbook, select the first section to exceed the required section modulus
at each wide flanged section. Then select the lightest among them:
Section Modulus, 𝑆 Weight, 𝑤

Designation
(× 103 𝑚𝑚3 ) (𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚)
W 24 × 55 1877.1 82.2
W 21 × 57 1820.9 84.7
W 18 × 60 1768.1 89.3
W 16 × 67 1914.6 100.0
W 14 × 68 1687.8 101.5
W 12 × 79 1752.3 117.7
W 10 × 100 1839.7 149.2
The total load that the beam will carry will be

𝑤 = 𝑤𝐷𝐿 + 𝑤𝐿𝐿
1 𝑘𝑁
𝑤 = [(82.2 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚)(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) ( )] + 16 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
103 𝑁
𝑤 = 16.806382 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Solve for the actual stress:
𝑀
𝑓𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝑆
1
[8 (16.806382 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚)(10 𝑚)2 ] 103 𝑁 103 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = ( )( )
1877.1 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
𝒇𝒃 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂 ≤ 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Since the actual stress does not exceed the allowable flexural stress, the chosen section is
sufficient to resist the combined dead load and live load. Answer: W 24 × 55.
PROBLEM 5: The inverted T section of a 4-m simply supported

beam has the properties as shown below. The beam carries a
uniformly distributed load of intensity 𝑤𝑜 over its entire length.
Determine 𝑤𝑜 if 𝑓𝑏𝑡 ≤ 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝑓𝑏𝑐 ≤ 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Solution:
Solve for the maximum moment permissible for tension and
compression. Since it is a simply supported beam, compression
is at the top, while tension is at the bottom.
For tension:
𝑓𝑏𝑡 𝐼
𝑀𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
(40 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(30 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )
𝑀𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
80 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 15 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
For compression:
𝑓𝑏𝑐 𝐼
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
(80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(30 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
200 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 12 𝑘𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚
Since the section is stronger in tension and weaker in compression, the compression governs in
selecting the maximum moment. The maximum moment in terms of 𝑤𝑜 is
𝑤𝑜 (4 𝑚)2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2𝑤𝑜
8
The value of 𝑤𝑜 is
2𝑤𝑜 = 12
𝒘 = 𝟔 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎
PROBLEM 6: A beam with cross-section as

shown is loaded in such a way that the maximum
moments are +1.0P lb-ft and -1.5P lb-ft, where P
is the applied load in pounds. Determine the
maximum safe value of P if the working stresses
are 4 ksi in tension and 10 ksi in compression.
Solution:
At 𝑀 = +1.0𝑃, the upper fiber is in compression
while the lower fiber is in tension.
For compression fibers:
𝑓𝑏𝑐 𝐼
𝑀=
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
(10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(192 𝑖𝑛4 )
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 =
2.5 𝑖𝑛
1000 𝑙𝑏 1 𝑓𝑡
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = (768 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛) ( )( )
1 𝑘𝑖𝑝 12 𝑖𝑛
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = 64000 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 64000 𝑙𝑏
For tension fibers:
𝑓𝑏𝑡 𝐼
𝑀=
(4 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(192 𝑖𝑛4 )
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 =
4.0 𝑖𝑛
1000 𝑙𝑏 1 𝑓𝑡
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = (192 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛) ( )( )
1.0𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = 16000 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 16000 𝑙𝑏
At 𝑀 = −1.5𝑃, the upper fiber is in tension while the lower fiber is in compression.
For compression fibers:
𝑓𝑏𝑐 𝐼
𝑀=
(10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(192 𝑖𝑛4 )
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 =
4.0 𝑖𝑛
1000 𝑙𝑏 1 𝑓𝑡
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = (480 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛) ( )( )
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = 40000 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 26666.667 𝑙𝑏
For tension fibers:

𝑓𝑏𝑡 𝐼
𝑀=
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
(4 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠⁄𝑖𝑛2 )(192 𝑖𝑛4 )
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 =
2.5 𝑖𝑛
1000 𝑙𝑏 1 𝑓𝑡
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = (307.2 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛) ( )( )
1.5𝑃 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 = 25600 𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 17066.667 𝑙𝑏
Therefore, the safe load P is 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 or 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔.

HORIZONTAL SHEARING STRESS
Let us consider a differential length 𝑑𝑥 of the beam shown:
In this module, 𝑓𝑣 will be used for shearing stress instead of the standard symbol 𝜏. For the
upper shaded portion of the beam, the forces acting are the total normal forces 𝐹𝑅 and 𝐹𝐿 due to
the bending stresses to the left and to the right of the beam. These forces will be resisted by the
shearing force 𝑓𝑣 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 acting the boundary surface between the shaded and unshaded portions.
Summation of forces gives
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐹𝑅 − 𝐹𝐿
Where
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
𝑀𝑦
𝐹𝐿 = ∫ 𝑓𝑏1 𝑑𝐴 = ∫
𝐼
(𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀)𝑦
𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑓𝑏2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫
𝐼
Substituting these values:

(𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀)𝑦 𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑣 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 − ∫ 𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝐼
𝑀𝑦 𝑑𝑀 𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑣 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 − ∫ 𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝑑𝑀
𝑓𝑣 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝐼
𝑑𝑀 1
𝑓𝑣 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑥 𝐼𝑏
From Module 4, we recall that 𝑑𝑀⁄𝑑𝑥 = 𝑉, which is the vertical shear; so we obtain
𝑉
𝑓𝑣 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝐼𝑏
Where ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴′𝑦̅ which is the first moment of area of the shaded section about the neutral
axis. A variation of the product 𝐴′𝑦̅ is denoted by 𝑄, which frequently used to represent the static
moment of area. Therefore, the horizontal shearing stress is represented as follows:
𝑉𝑄
𝑓𝑣 =
𝐼𝑏
where:
𝑓𝑣 = horizontal shearing stress
𝑉 = vertical shear at the section considered
𝑄 = static moment area of 𝐴′ about the neutral axis
𝐴′ = partial area of the section shown above (or below) a line drawn through the point at which
the shearing stress is desired
𝑦̅ = the moment arm of the area 𝐴′ with respect to the neutral axis
𝐼 = moment of inertia about the neutral axis
𝑏 = width of the beam at the level the shearing stress is desired
PROBLEM 7: A simply supported beam 120 mm wide, 180 mm deep and 6 m long carries a
uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m. (a) Compute the shearing stress at 30 mm from top for a
section 1.0 m from the left end. (b) Compute the maximum shearing stress developed in the
beam.
Solution:
Compute the moment of inertia:
1
𝐼= (120 𝑚𝑚)(180 𝑚𝑚)3 = 58.32 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
a. Shearing stress at 30 mm from top at

section 1.0 m from the left end:
Shear at the section:
𝑉 = 12 − 4(1) = 8 𝑘𝑁
The fiber is 30 mm from the top; it means

that the fiber is 60 mm from the neutral
axis. Solving for the static moment of
area of the shaded region:
30 𝑚𝑚
𝑄 = (120 𝑚𝑚)(30 𝑚𝑚) (60 𝑚𝑚 + ) = 270 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
2
The shearing stress is

𝑉𝑄
𝑓𝑣 =
𝐼𝑏
(8 × 103 𝑁)(270 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 )
𝑓𝑣 =
(58.32 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )(120 𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑣 = 0.30864 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝒇𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖. 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
b. In most cases, the maximum shearing stress occurs at the section where the maximum
shear is located, and where the static moment of area is maximum. For rectangular
cross-section, maximum static moment of area can be computed by considering the
entire area above (or below) the neutral axis. For a simply supported beam loaded with a
uniformly distributed load over its entire length, the maximum shear is at the support,
that is
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12 𝑘𝑁
90 𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (120 𝑚𝑚)(90 𝑚𝑚) ( ) = 486 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
2
Substituting,
(12 × 103 𝑁)(486 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 )
𝑓𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(58.32 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )(120 𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.83333 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝒇𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟖𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂
It can be shown here that, for a rectangular cross-section, the maximum shearing stress
is
𝑉𝑄
𝐼𝑏
ℎ ℎ
𝑉 [𝑏 (2) (4)]
1
[12 𝑏ℎ3 ] (𝑏)
3𝑉
2𝑏ℎ
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝑨
PROBLEM 8: A uniformly distributed load of 200 lb/ft is carried

on a simply supported span. If the cross section is as shown,
determine the maximum length of the beam if the shearing
stress is limited to 80 psi. Assume the load acts over the entire
length of the beam.
Solution:
Maximum shear:
𝑤𝐿
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
Moment of inertia:
1 1
𝐼= (8 𝑖𝑛)(10 𝑖𝑛)3 − (6 𝑖𝑛)(8 𝑖𝑛)3 = 410.667 𝑖𝑛4
12 12
Maximum static moment of area:
5 𝑖𝑛 4 𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (8 𝑖𝑛)(5 𝑖𝑛) ( ) − (6 𝑖𝑛)(4 𝑖𝑛) ( ) = 52 𝑖𝑛3
2 2
Solving for the value of 𝑉:
𝑉(52 𝑖𝑛3 )
80 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 =
(410.667 𝑖𝑛4 )(2 𝑖𝑛)
𝑉 = 1263.59 𝑙𝑏
Equating to 𝑉 = 𝑤𝐿⁄2:
(200 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡)𝐿
1263.59 𝑙𝑏 =
2
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕
PROBLEM 9: A wide-flanged beam has the section below. At a
cross section where the vertical shear is 𝑉 = 100 𝑘𝑁, compute (a)
the maximum shearing stress and (b) the shearing stress at the
junction of the flange and the web.
Solution:
Compute the moment of inertia:
1
𝐼= [(120 𝑚𝑚)(200 𝑚𝑚)3 − (100 𝑚𝑚)(160 𝑚𝑚)3 ]
12
𝐼 = 45.867 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
a. The maximum shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis:
Compute the maximum static moment of area:
80 𝑚𝑚 20 𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (20 𝑚𝑚)(80 𝑚𝑚) ( ) + (120 𝑚𝑚)(20 𝑚𝑚) (80 𝑚𝑚 + )
2 2
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 280000 𝑚𝑚3
Solving now for the maximum shearing stress:

𝑉𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑏
(100 × 103 𝑁)(280000 𝑚𝑚3 )
(45.867 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )(20 𝑚𝑚)
𝒇𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂
b. Shearing stress at the junction:

Since there are two widths involved at the
junction (i.e. web thickness = 20 mm and flange
width = 120 mm), we will also get two shearing
stresses:
20 𝑚𝑚
𝑄 = (120 𝑚𝑚)(20 𝑚𝑚) (80 𝑚𝑚 + )
2
𝑄 = 216000 𝑚𝑚3
Solving the two stresses:

𝑉𝑄
𝑓𝑣1 =
𝐼𝑏1
(100 × 103 𝑁)(216000 𝑚𝑚3 )
𝑓𝑣1 =
(45.867 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )(20 𝑚𝑚)
𝒇𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝟒𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
and
𝑉𝑄
𝑓𝑣2 =
𝐼𝑏2
(100 × 103 𝑁)(216000 𝑚𝑚3 )
𝑓𝑣2 =
(45.867 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 )(120 𝑚𝑚)
𝒇𝒗𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂
As we can see at the accompanying figure, there is a stress jump at the junction, which
is cause by the sudden change in the width.
PROBLEM 10: A plywood beam is built up of ¼-in strips separated by blocks as shown. What
shearing force 𝑉 will cause a maximum stress of 200 psi?
Solution:
Moment of inertia:
1
𝐼= [(4.75 𝑖𝑛)(12 𝑖𝑛)3 − 2(2 𝑖𝑛)(10 𝑖𝑛)3 ]
12
𝐼 = 350.667 𝑖𝑛4
Maximum static moment of area:
6 𝑖𝑛 5 𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (4.75 𝑖𝑛)(6 𝑖𝑛) ( ) − 2(2 𝑖𝑛)(5 𝑖𝑛) ( )
2 2
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 35.5 𝑖𝑛3
Since 𝑓𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 𝑝𝑠𝑖,
𝑉𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑏
𝑉(35.5 𝑖𝑛3 )
200 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 =
(350.667 𝑖𝑛4 )[3(0.25 𝑖𝑛)]
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒍𝒃

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

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ENSC 20084

ENGR. MELVIN G. SINGAYAN

• Interpret the different types of stress

PROBLEM 5. Determine the largest weight W

PROBLEM 6. Find the stresses in members BC,

THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

• Interpret the relationship of stress and strain

Stress-strain diagrams of various materials vary widely, and different

PROBLEM 2: A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2

Based on allowable deformation:

Based on allowable stresses:

Therefore, the tangential stress is

b. Force exerted on upper plate:

The force exerted on the upper plate is thus

The deformations of both steel are bronze are equal:

The deformations of both steel are bronze are equal:

PROBLEM 11: The assembly in the figure consists

By ratio and proportion:

2𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑎𝑙 + 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 40 × 103

By ratio and proportion:

PROBLEM 14: The composite bar shown in the figure

Rod AC: Steel Rod BD: Brass

0.1881 𝑚𝑚 = 0.4(1.183797 × 10−5 )(0.4𝑅𝐵 ) + 4.04203 × 10−6 𝑅𝐵

• Understand the effects of torsion in a circular element

TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, 𝝉

For a solid circular shaft:

POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SHAFT

PROBLEM 5: A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing

Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:

Based on pipe CD: (inner diameter d = 90 – 2(6) = 78 mm)

Use the smaller value, T = 3.18 kN⋅m.

PROBLEM 12: The plate shown in the figure is

𝑟1 = √482 + 802 = 93.295 𝑚𝑚

PROBLEM 14: A hollow brass shaft has the cross

Use the smaller value, P = 3498.28 N. The total elongation is

• Identify the effects of shear and moment in beams

Fig. 1 Types of Beams

Fig. 2 Determination of V and M

Fig. 3 Sign convention for shear and bending moment

The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

Fig. 4 Simply supported beam subjected to a distributed load

Location of point of zero shear:

For the moment diagram:

For the shear diagram:

The shear and moment diagram are as follows:

PROBLEM 15: A truck with axle loads of 40 kN

For the maximum moment when the 60-kN wheel

Therefore, the maximum moment is 160 kN⋅m.

For the maximum shear, it will occur when the

For the maximum moment when the 20-kN wheel

• Interpret the forces that causes stresses in beams

From Statics of Rigid Bodies, we know that 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴, then

PROBLEM 3: A rectangular steel bar, 15 mm wide by 30 mm high and 6 m long is simply

The maximum bending stress caused by the weight of the bar is

Section Modulus, 𝑆 Weight, 𝑤

The total load that the beam will carry will be

PROBLEM 5: The inverted T section of a 4-m simply supported

PROBLEM 6: A beam with cross-section as

For tension fibers:

Therefore, the safe load P is 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 or 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔.

Substituting these values: