Multipath Fading model

Multiple signals arriving at the receiver. If the mobile is fixed, doppler effect
due to relative motion between the reflector and the mobile.
 Small-scale Fading

❖ In urban areas, fading occurs because the height of the mobile antennas are well
below the height of surrounding structures, so there is no single LoS path to the BS.
❖ Even if LoS exists, multipath still occurs due to reflections from the ground and
surrounding structures.
❖ Incoming waves arrive from different directions with different propagation delays.
❖The signal received by the mobile at any point in space may consist of large number
of plane waves with randomly distributed A, ,  of arrival.
❖ These multipath components combine vectorially at the receiver antenna and can
cause the signal received by mobile to distort of fade.
❖Even if the mobile receiver is stationary, the received signal may fade due to
2
movement of surrounding objects in the radio channel.
 Small-scale Fading
❖If objects in the radio channel are static and motion is considered
to be only due to mobile, then fading is purely a spatial
phenomenon.
❖The constructive and destructive effects of multipath waves
summing at various points in space, a receiver moving at high
speed can pass through several fades in a small period of time.
❖More seriously, a receiver can stop at a particular location where
the received signal is in deep fade.
❖Maintaining good communication in that case becomes very
difficult, although passing vehicles or people walking in the vicinity
of the mobile can disturb the field pattern, thereby diminishing the
likelihood of the received signal being in deep null for a long period
of time.
❖Antenna diversity can prevent deep fading nulls.
3
 Factors influencing Small-scale Fading-Multipath
Propagation

• The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath

components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby
inducing small scale fading, signal distortion or both.
• Multipath propagation lengthens the time required for the
baseband portion signal to reach the receiver which can cause
signal smearing due to ISI.
4
 Factors influencing Fading – Speed of the mobile

• The relative motion between the BS & MS results in random FM due to

Doppler shifts on each multipath components.
• Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on whether the
mobile is moving toward or away from the BS.
 Factors influencing Fading – Speed of Surrounding
Objects

• If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce

a time-varying Doppler shift on multipath components.
 Doppler Shift Δl = d cos θ = vΔt cos θ
S
❑ The difference in path lengths
traveled by the wave from
source S to the mobile at X
and Y is Δl. l in terms of ?
Note: Assume SX, SY >>d Δl
such that angle of arrival is
nearly equal at X and Y θ θ
X d Y

Phase Difference due to v

variation in path lengths Doppler Shift is given by
1 Δφ v
fd = = cos θ
7
2π Δt λ
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off

environment surroundings
8
Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the

9
strength of each multi-path component varies
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the

10 strength of each multi-path component varies
 x(t ) y (t )

time
time
v
1

time N

… can be modeled as:

1
c1 (t )


y (t )
x(t ) 
c (t )
time time
N
cN ( t )
delays
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling

From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

12
S(t)= Transmitted Band-pass signal
Noiseless received band-pass signal without
considering the Gaussian noise at the receiver
Each path has a propagation delay 𝜏.
The signal received from the nth path, has a delay 𝜏n.
Cn is the amplitude coefficient (multiplicative gain) of the nth path
depends on the level of attenuation,diffraction, reflection and
scattering.
fc is the carrier frequency.
The received signal has the doppler shift fdn in the nth path.
❑ If the mobile has moved a distance, there is a change in path length in the nth path which
contributes to change in phase.
❑ A small change in the path length causes a huge change in phase. Consider fc=900 MHz and
∆𝜏𝑛 = 1 𝑛𝑠 is the propagation delay for nth path. This causes phase change of 2π
Complex envelope
of received signal
Complex envelope
of transmitted signal
h(t,𝜏) = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
Channel Impulse Response Linearly Time Varying filter
The received signal
has multipath
interference since
signals from
different delays get
added.
Let us assume that the delays are negligible
compared to the signal duration
τi − τj is very small
τ1= τ2= τ3 = ⋯
The transmitter and the receiver are at the focal points of an ellipse so
that all the path lengths are almost the same so that propagation
delays are similar but phase change is significant.

h(t)
Although the delays are same, filter coefficients are different.
Taking Fourier transform of the channel impulse response wrt 𝜏

The amplitude is
independent of frequency
but varies with time
This is frequency flat fading model. Across the bandwidth in the frequency
.
domain, no change in magnitude but it varies with time
h(t) has inphase and quadrature components hi(t) and hq(t).
❑ φn is uniformly distributed between 0 to 2П.
❑ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, Central limit theorem can be applied.
❑ hi and hq have a Gaussian distribution.
❑ h(t) is complex Gaussian random distributed. Channel
coefficients are random. h(t)=hi(t)+jhq(t)

Received power
E(r(t)2 )=b
y=hx+w
h=Channel coefficient
w=noise.
X=transmitted signal
Ideal case h=1
y=x+w
h coefficients have Gaussian distribution.
E(hi(t))=E(hq(t))=0
|h(t)|is Rayleigh
Distributed.
Rayleigh Distribution

The power is exponentially distributed.

The pdf of |h2(t)|= 1/2b0 e –x/2b0

 Rayleigh Distribution
• used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat
fading signal, or the envelope of an individual multipath component
• It is known that the envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signals
obey Rayleigh distribution
 Rayleigh pdf

• where σ is the rms value of the received voltage signal before

envelope detection
• σ2 is the time-average power of the received signal before envelope
detection
• Probability that the received signal envelope does not exceed a specified
value R, is given by CDF

• Mean value of Rayleigh distribution

• Variance

• Median
Ricean Distribution
• When there is a dominant stationary (nonfading)
signal component present, such as a LoS path, the
small-scale fading envelope distribution is Ricean.
• It degenerates to Rayleigh when the dominant
component fades away.
Ricean Distribution pdf

• The parameter A denotes the peak amplitude of the dominant

signal and I0(.) is modified Bessel function of the first kind and zero
order.
Ricean Distribution
• Ricean distribution is described in terms of a parameter K, which is
defined as the ratio between the deterministic signal power and the
variance of the multipath.

• Parameter K is known as the ‘Ricean factor’.

Ricean Distribution
LCR
• Level Crossing Rate (LCR) is defined as the expected rate at
which the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms
signal level, crosses a specified level in a positive-going direction.
• The no. of level crossings per second

Where r is the time derivative of r(t), p(R,r) is the joint density

function of r and at r=R, fm is the max. Doppler frequency and
=R/Rrms is the value of the specified level R, normalized to the
local rms amplitude of the fading envelope.
Average Fade Duration
• Is the period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.

• Where Pr[rR] is the probability that the received

signal r is less than R

• Where i is the duration of the fade and T is the

observation interval of the fading signal.
Average Fade Duration
• Average fade duration as a function of  and fm can be
expressed as

• Average duration of a signal fade helps determine the

most likely number of signalling bits that may be lost
during a fade.
NR= 18.44 crossings/ sec = 6.66 m/s = 24 km/hr
Rayleigh Distribution
• used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received
envelope of a flat fading signal, or the envelope of an individual
multipath component
• It is known that the envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian
noise signals obey Rayleigh distribution
 Rayleigh pdf

• where σ is the rms value of the received voltage signal before

envelope detection
• σ2 is the time-average power of the received signal before
envelope detection
• Probability that the received signal envelope does not exceed a specified value R, is given
by CDF

• Mean value of
Rayleigh distribution

• Variance

• Median
Level crossing rate and average duration of
fade
 Average fade duration
• Average period for which the signal goes below the threshold
 LCR
• Level Crossing Rate (LCR) is defined as the expected
rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized
to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified level in
a positive-going direction.
• The no. of level crossings per second

where r is the time derivative of r(t), p(R,r) is the joint

density function of r and at r=R, fm is the max. Doppler
frequency and =R/Rrms is the value of the specified level
R, normalized to the local rms amplitude of the fading
envelope.
Average Fade Duration
• Is the period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.

• Where Pr[rR] is the probability that the received

signal r is less than R

• Where i is the duration of the fade and T is the

observation interval of the fading signal.
Average Fade Duration
• Average fade duration as a function of  and fm can be
expressed as

• Average duration of a signal fade helps determine the most

likely number of signalling bits that may be lost during a fade.
 Factors influencing Fading –
Transmission BW of Signal
Signal BW > Channel BW

Signal BW < Channel BW

 Power Delay Profile
➢Many multipath channel parameters are derived from power delay
profile.
➢PDP is represented as a plot of relative received power as a function
of excess delay with reference to some fixed time delay.
➢PDPs are found by averaging instantaneous power delay profile
measurements over a local area in order to determine an average
small-scale PDP.
➢Samples are considered at spatial separations of 1/4th of wavelength
and receiver movements no greater than 6 m in outdoor and 2 m in
indoor channels in the 450 MHz – 6 GHz range.

P( )  k | hb (t ; ) | 2

48
❑ The propagation delays are not the same
in all the paths of the concentric ellipses.
❑ Resolvable delays with groups of
multipaths at a particular delay.
❑ Echoes are obtained after different
delays.
❑Several multipaths at τ1 contributed by the reflectors located in ellipse 1.
❑ Time varying impulse response of channel as a FIR filter.
❑ Transfer function of the filter which is the fourier transform of impulse
response.
❑ Rms delay spread measures the average delay in time domain at a specific
location.
 Time Dispersion Parameters
Mean Excess Delay
P(τ)
 P(τ ) τ k k
τ= k

 P(τ )
k
k

RMS Delay Spread

()
2
στ = τ − τ 2

τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN τ
 P ( τk ) τ 2
k
τ2 = k

 P(τ )
k
k
Power Delay Profile

Note: These delays are measured relative to the first

detectable signal (multi-path component) arriving at
the receiver at τ0=0
51
 5.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
• Time dispersion parameters
– mean excess delay
– RMS delay spread
– excess delay spread
• Mean excess delay
a  2
k k  P( ) k k
 = k
= k

a k
2
k  P( ) k
k

• RMS delay spread  =  − ( )

2 2

a  2 2
k k  P( ) k
2
k
2 = k
= k
where
a k
2
k  P( )k
k
 • Depends only on the relative amplitude of the
multipath components.
• Typical RMS delay spreads
– Outdoor: on the order of microseconds
– Indoor: on the order of nanoseconds
• Maximum excess delay (X dB) is defined to be
the time delay during which multipath energy falls
to X dB below the maximum.
 X : maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
 0 : delay for the first arriving signal

excess delay =  X −  0
• Example of an indoor power delay profile; rms delay spread, mean
excess delay, maximum excess delay (10dB), and the threshold level
are shown
 Coherent Bandwidth
• Coherent bandwidth, Bc , is a statistic measure of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered to be “flat”.
• Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are affected
quite differently by the channel.
• If the coherent bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the
frequency correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherent
bandwidth is approximately 1
Bc 
50 
1
• If the frequency correlation function is above 0.5, Bc 
5 
5.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherent Time
• Doppler spread and coherent time are parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
• When a pure sinusoidal tone of f c is transmitted, the received signal spectrum,
called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range f c − f d
and f c + f d , where f d is the Doppler shift.

Channel

fc fc − fd fc fc + fd

• f d is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between the
direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves
• Coherent time is the time domain dual of Doppler spread.
• Coherent time is used to characterize the time varying nature of the
TC
frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain.

1
TC  f m : maximum Doppler shift given by f m = v / 
fm
v : speed of the mobile  : speed of the light
• Two signals arriving with a time separation greater than TC are affected
differently by the channel
• A statistic measure of the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially invariant.
• If the coherent time is defined as the time over which the time corrleation
function is above 0.5, then 9
TC 
16f m
 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

• Caused by time delayed multipath signals

• Has impact on burst error rate of channel
• Second multipath is delayed and is received during next
symbol
• For low bit-error-rate (BER) R 
1
2d
• R (digital transmission rate) limited by delay spread d.

60
 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Transmission signal
1 1
Time
0

Received signal
(short delay) Time

Propagation Delayed signals

time

Received signal Time

(long delay)
Inter-symbol Interference

• Slide from R. Struzak

62
 Coherence bandwidth

❑ As the delay spread increases, frequency selectivity increases and coherence

bandwidth decreases.

Gain (dB)

Frequency index
 Small scale fading: classification
• Flat Fading: the channel has a constant response for bandwidth greater
than the transmitted signal bandwidth
C(f)
BS  BC S(f) R(f)
 
TS   T
• Frequency Selective Fading

BS  BC S(f) C(f) R(f)

 

TS   T
Rule of thumb: frequency selective if
 T  0.1TS Needs channel equalization
64
 Small scale fading: classification
• Fast fading – channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
symbol duration T BS  BD
S
TS  TC
• Slow fading – channel impulse response changes at a rate much
slower than the transmitted symbol bandwidth
BS  BD
TS BS Freq. sel. Freq. sel.
TS  TC
Flat Flat
slow fast Fast slow

T Freq sel. Freq sel.

BC
Flat Flat
slow fast
Fast Slow

TC TS BD BS
65
 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
❑Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the time
varying nature of the channel.
❑Doppler spread BD is a measure of spectral broadening due to the Doppler shift
associated with mobile motion.
❑Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the
channel impulse response is essentially invariant.
Coherence Time over which the
Coherence Time is inversely time correlation function is 0.5
proportional to Doppler spread

1 9
TC  TC 
fm 16πf m

67 where fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm=v/λ

Mitigate Doppler Effect
• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater
than the maximum Doppler shift, then the effects of
Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver.
• To minimize the effect of Doppler, we should use as
wide a baseband signal as feasible [e.g. spread
spectrum]
Doppler Shift

fc Fc + F Frequency (Hz)
Types of Small-scale fading
 Parameters of Mobile Multi-Path Channels

• The power delay profile is used to derive some parameters that can
help characterize the effect of the wireless channel on signal
communication
• We will discuss the following:
• Time dispersion parameters
• Coherence bandwidth
• Doppler spread and coherence time

70
Time Dispersion Parameters
• Mean excess delay Quantify the time dispersive
• first moment of the PDP properties of wide band
• RMS delay spread multipath channels.
• Square-root of the second central moment of PDP
• Excess delay spread
 5.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
• Time dispersion parameters
– mean excess delay
– RMS delay spread
– excess delay spread
• Mean excess delay
a  2
k k  P( ) k k
 = k
= k

a k
2
k  P( ) k
k

• RMS delay spread  =  − ( )

2 2

a  2 2
k k  P( ) k
2
k
2 = k
= k
where
a k
2
k  P( )k
k
• Depends only on the relative amplitude of the
multipath components.
• Typical RMS delay spreads
– Outdoor: on the order of microseconds
– Indoor: on the order of nanoseconds
• Maximum excess delay (X dB) is defined to be
the time delay during which multipath energy falls
to X dB below the maximum.
 X : maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
 0 : delay for the first arriving signal

excess delay =  X −  0
• Example of an indoor power delay profile; rms delay spread, mean
excess delay, maximum excess delay (10dB), and the threshold level
are shown
Time Dispersion Parameters
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB) or Excess Delay
Spread (X dB):
• Time delay during which multi-path energy falls to X dB
below the maximum (Note that the strongest component
does not necessarily arrive at τ0)
• Max.excess delaty is defined as 𝜏𝑥 − 𝜏0 , where τ0 is the
first arriving signal & 𝜏𝑥 is the maximum delay at which a
multipath component is within X dB of the strongest
arriving multipath signal.
 It can be shown that the E-field can be expressed as the in-
phase and quadrature form (Doppler shift very small compared
to the carrier frequency – narrow band process):
E (t ) = Tc (t ) cos(2f c t ) − TS (t )sin( 2f c t )
N
Tc (t ) = E0  Cn cos(2f nt + n )
n =1 Gaussian r.v.
N 
Ts (t ) = E0  Cn sin( 2f nt + n ) r (t ) = Tc (t ) + TS (t ) - Rayleigh
n =1
Cn does not change significantly over small spatial distances, so fading is
primarily due to phase variations caused by the Doppler shift.
Using Clarke’s model (waves arrive with equal probability from all directions),
the spectrum of the signal can be determined to be

1
SE ( f ) =
1.5  , 0    2
2 when p( ) =  2
 f − fc  0, ow
 fm 1 −  
 fm   / 4, vertical antenna
 • Therefore, the power spectral density of the received signal can be
represented as in the following figure:

SE

f
fc − fm fc fc + fm

Doppler spread – leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading

The small scale fading considered up to now, assumes that all the frequencies in
the transmitted signal are affected similarly by the channel (flat fading).

However, there is another phenomenon related to the multipath propagation,

which introduces time dispersion and frequency selective fading:
multipath delay spread
77
 Multipath delay spread

• Multiple copies of the signal arrive with different delays

• May cause signal smearing, inter-symbol interference (ISI)
• The power delay profile gives the average power (spatial average over
a local area) at the channel output as a function of the time delay.

Power Power
 ( ) P( k )

Delay ( ) Delay ( k )
Average delay RMS delay spread RMS delay spread
Average delay
 

 ( −  )  ( )d
T =  −  2
() 2

 ( )d
2

 = 0 T = 0  P( ) k k
 P( )
2
  = k k k

  ( )d   ( )d  P( )

k
k 2 = k

 P( )
0 k
0
k
78
• Interpreting the delay spread in the frequency domain
• While the delay spread is a natural phenomenon, we can define the coherence
bandwidth as a measure derived from the RMS delay spread
• Coherence bandwidth Bc = statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered to be flat (i.e., the channel passes all the
spectral components with approx. equal gain and phase)
1
Bc 
T
• T and Bc describe the nature of the channel in a local area; they offer no
information about the relative motion of the transmitting and the receiving
mobile terminals.

• Doppler effect interpretation

• Spectral broadening BD is a measure for the rate of changes of the mobile

radio channel due to Doppler effects
• If the bandwidth of the baseband signal is much greater than BD, the effect of
doppler shift is negligible
1
• TC  is the time duration over which the channel impulse response is
BD
essentially invariant

79
 Coherence Bandwidth
A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which
the channel is can be considered to be “flat” (i.e., a channel
which passes all spectral components with approximately equal
gain and linear phase)

Coherence Bandwidth over Coherence Bandwidth over

which the frequency which the frequency
correlation function is 0.9 correlation function is 0.5

1 1
BC = BC =
50σ τ 5σ τ

80
Frequency selective fading channel characteristic
 5.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler
Spread
• Fast Fading: The channel impulse response changes
rapidly within the symbol duration.
– The coherent time of the channel is smaller then the
symbol period of the transmitted signal.
– Cause frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading.
• A signal undergoes fast fading if
TS  TC
and BS  BD
• Slow Fading: The channel impulse response
changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted
baseband signal s(t).
– The Doppler spread of the channel is much less
then the bandwidth of the baseband signal.
• A signal undergoes slow fading if

TS  TC
and
BS  BD
Types of Small-Scale Fading

84
 Types of Small-Scale Fading

85
Frequency Selective Fading

Channel has Constant gain, linear phase response, BW< Signal BW

 Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading

Flat Fading

BS  BC TS  σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb:
TS>10σt ➔ Flat fading
1 frequency
Coherence Bandwidth Bc =
5   RMS

1 0 1 + Minimal ISI
Wireless
Channel
+

τ0 τN
τa
88
Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading
Frequency P(τ)
Power Delay Profile
Selective Fading
BS  BC TS  σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN τ
TS<10σt ➔ Frequency Selective Fading
Symbol Time (Digital Communication) TS

1 0 1 + Significant ISI
Wireless
Channel
+

τ0 τa τN

89
 Doppler Shift
• Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are moving towards
each other, the frequency of the received signal will not be the same as the
source.
• When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of the received signal
is higher than the source.
• When they are opposing each other, the frequency decreases.
Thus, the frequency of the received signal is
f R = fC − f D
where fC is the frequency of source carrier,
fD is the Doppler frequency. Moving
MS
• Doppler Shift in frequency: speed v
v
fD = cos

Signal
where v is the moving speed,
 is the wavelength of carrier.
90
 Delay Spread

• When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

receiver, signal suffers one or more reflections.
• This forces signal to follow different paths.
• Each path has different path length, so the time of
arrival for each path is different.
• This effect which spreads out the signal is called
“Delay Spread”.

91
Moving Speed Effect

V1 V2 V3 V4

Signal strength

Time
92
Delay Spread

The signals from

close by reflectors

Signal Strength
The signals from
intermediate reflectors

The signals from

far away reflectors

Delay

93
 Coherence Bandwidth

Coherence bandwidth Bc
❑Represents correlation between 2 fading signal envelopes at
frequencies f1 and f2.
❑Is a function of delay spread.
❑Two frequencies that are larger than coherence bandwidth fade
independently.
❑Concept useful in diversity reception
❑Multiple copies of same message are sent using different
frequencies.
94
Basic Definitions
• Coherence Bandwidth
• Range of frequency over which channel is “flat”
• Relation to delay spread
• Doppler spread
B = 1 50
C RMS
• Measure spectral broadening caused by motion of the
mobile
• Coherence Time
• Time duration over which channel impulse response is
invariant
95