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Biochem - Lec - Nucleic Acid
Biochem - Lec - Nucleic Acid
Biochem - Lec - Nucleic Acid
Nucleic Acids
Section 22.1
Types of Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide Formation
• Phosphate group is
added to a nucleoside
– attached to C5’
position through a
phosphoester
bond
– condensation
reaction (H2O
released)
– named by
appending 5’-
monophosphate to
nucleoside name
Nucleotide Nomenclature
Practice Exercise
5 ’ A–A–T–G–C–A–G–C–T 3 ’
Practice Exercise
5 ’ A–A–T–G–C–A–G–C–T 3 ’
Answer:
3 ’ T–T–A–C–G–T–C–G–A 5 ’
Denaturation of DNA
• The loss of helical structure due to disruption
of H–bonds is called denaturation or
melting, where the double strands separate
into single strands.
• This can be due to extremes of pH, heat, or
chemicals that disrupt H-bonds.
• DNAs which are G-C rich denature at a
higher temperature (Tm) than those which
are A-T rich.
Transcription
5' T G A C C T T C G A A C G G G A T G G A A A G G 3'
3' A C T G G A A G C T T G C C C T A C C T T T C C 5'
5' U G A C C U U C G A A C G G G A U G G A A A G G 3'
• Once the mRNA is formed and released from DNA, it moves into the cytoplasm
and combines with rRNA in ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs.
Practice Exercise
Sections A, C, and E of the following base sequence section of a
DNA template strand are exons, and sections B and D are
introns.
a. What is the structure of the hnRNA transcribed from this
template?
b. What is the structure of the mRNA obtained by splicing the
hnRNA?
Practice Exercise
Sections A, C, and E of the following base sequence section of a
DNA template strand are exons, and sections B and D are
introns.
a. What is the structure of the hnRNA transcribed from this
template?
b. What is the structure of the mRNA obtained by splicing the
hnRNA?
Answers:
a . 3 ’ GCG–GCA–UCA–ACC–GGG–CCU–CCU 5 ’
b . 3 ’ GCG–ACC–CCU–CCU 5 ’ or 5’ UCC-UCC-CCA-GCG
3’
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40
Section 22.10
The Genetic Code
Practice Exercise
The structure of an mRNA segment obtained from a DNA
template strand is
mRNA 3’ ACG-AGC-CCU-CUU 5’
Practice Exercise
The structure of an mRNA segment obtained from a DNA
template strand is
mRNA 3’ ACG-AGC-CCU-CUU 5’
Answer: Phe-Ser-Arg-Ala
Practice Exercise
Practice Exercise
Answer: Thr
• (3) Elongation occurs in three steps that are repeated until protein
synthesis is complete:
– (3a), the binding of the aminoacyl-tRNA to the empty A-site (amino acyl-
tRNA binding site)
– (3b), peptide bond formation occurs catalyzed by an enzyme peptidyl
transferase that is part of the ribosome. Now the peptide chain is shifted
to the tRNA that occupies the A site.
– (3c), the uncharged tRNA molecule left on the P site is discharged, and
the ribosome changes position so that the next codon on the mRNA
occupies the A-site. This movement is called translocation, which shifts
the new peptidyl-tRNA from the A-site to the P-site.
• The transfer of
an amino acid
(or growing
peptide chain)
from the P site
to the A site
during peptide
bond formation
is an example
of an acyl
transfer
reaction
Chloramphenicol Inhibits peptide bond formation and prevents the binding of tRNA’s
Erythromycin Inhibits peptide chain growth by preventing the translocation of the
ribosome along the mRNA
Puromycin Causes release of an incomplete protein by ending the growth of the
polypeptide early
Streptomycin Prevents the proper attachment of tRNA’s; mRNA misreading by binding
30S
Tetracycline Prevents the binding of tRNA’s by binding to 30S subunit
========================================================================
In an insertion or deletion
mutation, one or more
nucleotides are added to or
deleted from the DNA
sequence.
Mutagens
• Although a number of structural features of nucleic acids promote
stabilization of base sequences, reactivity with some physical and chemical
agents can alter the electronic characteristics of the bases and other
structural units.
• Consequently, nucleic acid functions would be affected
• A mutagen is a substance or agent that causes a change in the structure of
a gene:
– Physical agents : heat, Ultraviolet, ionizing radiation (X-ray, gamma
rays)
– Chemical agents :HNO2 can convert cytosine to uracil
• Nitrites, nitrates, and nitrosamines – can form nitrous acid in cells
• Under normal conditions mutations are repaired by repair enzymes
• ionizing radiation
– more often when a plant or animal is
irradiated most of the energy is deposited
in the aqueous phase. Less often will a
primary ionization occur in an organic
molecule
– a portion of damage to the living system
results from reactive particles that are
formed in the water phase and diffuse to
an organic molecule in the cell causing
secondary reactions (free radicals are
implicated in radiation damage)
DNA
Lesions repaired Cell death
GENETIC DISORDER
CANCER (can be transmitted from
BIRTH DEFECTS
one generation
to the next)
A) photoreactivation repair
uses an enzyme photolyase, which
binds the T-T cyclobutane dimer & in
the presence of visible light changes
the cyclobutane ring back into
individual pyrimidine bases
Viruses
• Viruses: Tiny disease causing agents with outer protein
envelope and inner nucleic acid core
• They can not reproduce outside their host cells (living
organisms)
• Invade their host cells to reproduce and in the process
disrupt the normal cell’s operation
• Virus invade bacteria, plants animals, and humans
– Many human diseases are of viral origin, e. g. Common cold,
smallpox, rabies, influenza, hepatitis, and AIDS
Virus Disease
RNA viruses
Human T-cell leukemia-lymphoma virus-1 Leukemia
Human immunodeficiency virus Acquired immune deficiency (AIDS)
DNA viruses
Epstein-Barr virus Burkitt’s lymphoma (cancer of wbc)
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Hodgkin’s disease
Hepatitis B virus Liver cancer
Herpes simplex virus Cervical and uterine cancer
Papilloma virus Cervical and colon cancer, genital warts
Benefits
• First genetically engineered organism are bacteria
(1973) and Mice (1974)
• Insulin producing bacteria - commercialized in 1982.
– Bacteria act as protein factories
• Many plants have now been genetically engineered and
numerous beneficial situations have been created.
– Disease resistance – increased crop yield
– Drought resistance – consumption of less water
– Predator resistance – less insecticide use
– Frost resistance – resist changes in temps below freezing.
– Deterioration resistance – long shelf-life.